DOCSLIB.ORG

Fabrication of Ic's

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Fabrication of Ic's FABRICATION OF IC’S FABRICATION OF IC’S INTRODUCTION: The Manufacturing of IC’s (integrated circuit) is the process which need very accuracy and also need very precision instruments. It is the process which consists of many simple and sophisticated steps. Mainly it needs the very expensive labs and computer technology. Semiconductor device fabrication is the process used to create the integrated circuits (silicon chips) that are present in everyday electrical and electronic devices. It is a multiple-step sequence of photographic and chemical processing steps during which electronic circuits are gradually created on a wafer made of pure semiconducting material. Silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor material today, along with various compound semiconductors. The entire manufacturing process, from start to packaged chips ready for shipment, takes six to eight weeks and is performed in highly specialized facilities referred to as fabs. SOME HISTORY: When feature widths were far greater than about 10 micrometres, purity was not the issue that it is today in device manufacturing. As devices became more integrated, cleanrooms became even cleaner. Today, the fabs are pressurized with filtered air to remove even the smallest particles, which could come to rest on the wafers and contribute to defects. The workers in a SYED AZEEM AHMED [email protected] 1 | P a g e FABRICATION OF IC’S semiconductor fabrication facility are required to wear cleanroom suits to protect the devices from human contamination. In an effort to increase profits, semiconductor device manufacturing has spread from Texas and California in the 1960s to the rest of the world, such as Europe, Israel, and Asia. It is a global business today. SOME SEMICONDUCTORS MANUFACTURERS: The leading semiconductor manufacturers typically have facilities all over the world. Intel, the world's largest manufacturer, has facilities in Europe and Asia as well as the U.S. Other top manufacturers include STMicroelectronics (Europe), Analog Devices (US), Integrated Device Technology (US), Atmel (US/Europe), Freescale Semiconductor (US), Samsung (Korea), Texas Instruments (US), GlobalFoundries (Germany, Singapore, future New York fab in construction), Toshiba (Japan), NEC Electronics (Japan), Infineon (Europe), Renesas (Japan), Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (Taiwan), Fujitsu (Japan/US), NXP Semiconductors (Europe), Micron Technology (US), Hynix (Korea) and SMIC (China). The Detail Description of Semiconductor IC’s Fabrication consists of the following steps: 1-WAFER PREPERATION: A wafer is a thin slice of semiconductor material, such as a silicon crystal, used in the fabrication of integrated circuits and other microdevices. The wafer serves as the substrate for microelectronic devices built in and over the wafer and undergoes many microfabrication process steps such as doping or ion implantation, etching, deposition of various materials, and photolithographic patterning. SYED AZEEM AHMED [email protected] 2 | P a g e FABRICATION OF IC’S Wafers are formed of highly pure (99.9999% purity),[1] nearly defect-free single crystalline material.[2] One process for forming crystalline wafers is known as Czochralski growth invented by the Polish chemist Jan Czochralski. In this process, a cylindrical ingot of high purity monocrystalline silicon is formed by pulling a seed crystal from a 'melt'.[3][4] Dopant impurity atoms such as boron or phosphorus can be added to the molten intrinsic silicon in precise amounts in order to dope the silicon, thus changing it into n-type or p-type extrinsic silicon. The ingot is then sliced with a wafer saw (wire saw) and polished to form wafers.[5] The size of wafers for photovoltaics is 100 – 200 mm square and the thickness is 200 - 300 μm. In the future, 160 μm will be the standard.[6] Electronics use wafer sizes from 100 - 300mm diameter. (The largest wafer made has a diameter of 450mm but isn't in production yet). SIX LAYERS OF INTERCONNECTION SYED AZEEM AHMED [email protected] 3 | P a g e FABRICATION OF IC’S FIGURE: Wafers are cleaned with weak acids to remove unwanted particles, or repair damage caused during the sawing process. When used for solar cells, the wafers are textured to create a rough surface to increase their efficiency. The generated PSG (phosphosilicate glass) is removed from the edge of the wafer in the etching. SYED AZEEM AHMED [email protected] 4 | P a g e FABRICATION OF IC’S Wafers are prepared using “Czochralski Process”. The “Czochralski Process” can be divided into following further steps: 1. Czochralski growth 2. Shaping 3. Slicing 4. Lapping and chemical etching 5. Polishing Crystal Growth: The two most important semiconductors for discrete devices and integrated circuits are silicon and gallium arsenide. Silicon Crystal Growth from the Melt. For Silicon Crystal growth the technique is called Czochralski technique. Process Flow • Starting Material: The staring material for silicon is a relative pure form of sand (SiO2) called quartzite. This is placed in a furnace with various forms of carbons (Coal, coke and wood chips) at 1200C. The overall reaction is SiC(solid) + SiO2 -> Si(Solid) + SiO(gas) + CO(gas) This process produces silicon with a purity of 98%. Now it react with HCl at 300C forming liquid cholride (SiHCl3) of Silicon. From this trichlorosilane (SiHCl3) is produced, it is liquid at room temperature. Fractional Distillation of this one removes the impurities. SYED AZEEM AHMED [email protected] 5 | P a g e FABRICATION OF IC’S Then from a reduction reaction a electronic-grade silicon (EGS) is produce, EGS a polycrystalline material of high purity, is the raw material used to prepare device quality, single crystal silicon.Pure EGS generally has impurity concentrations in the parts-per-billion range. Now after the preparation of the EGS, the pure polycrystalline Silicon is placed and heated above the melting temperature of the Silicon, then the suitable seed crystal is suspended on the polycrystalline solid then this seed is inserted in to the melt silicon. It is then slowly pull upward and the melting silicon is then converting in to the solid crystal. Two important parameters are Rotational speed and pull rate. Diameter of the ingot is a function of pull rate. 2- Wafer Shaping: In this step the ingot is grind to a uniform diameter using a lathe-type surface grinder.After the crystal grown, the first shaping operation is to remove the seed and the other end of the ingot, which is last to solidify. The next operation is to grind the surface so that the diameter of the material is defined. After that one or more flat regions are ground along the length of the ingot. These regions, or flats, mark the specific crystal orientation of the ingot and conductivity type of the material. Two types of flats are Primary Flats and Secondary Flats. SYED AZEEM AHMED [email protected] 6 | P a g e FABRICATION OF IC’S 3- Slicing: Ingot is sliced into wafers. The ingots are then ready to be sliced by diamond saw into wafers. 4- Chemical Etching & lapping: Is used to produce clean wafers of desired thickness..After slicing, both sides of the wafer are lapped to produce typical flatness uniformity within 2um. But it usually leaves the surface and edges of the wafer damaged and contaminated. This can be removed by chemical etching. 5- Polishing : Is used to provide a smooth surface to the wafers. In the last polishing is done to provide a smooth, specular surface where device feature can be defined by photolithographic processes. 6-Crystal Defects: A real crystal (such as silicon wafer) differs from the ideal crystal in important way, It is finite; thus surface atoms are incompletely bounded. Furthermore it has defects, which strongly influence the electrical, mechanical and optical properties of the semiconductor. There are four categories of defects * Point * Line * Area * Volume SYED AZEEM AHMED [email protected] 7 | P a g e FABRICATION OF IC’S 7- MASK Making: A glass plate with a pattern of transparent and opaque areas used to photo lithographically creates patterns on wafers. A mask is commonly used to refer to a plate that has a pattern large enough to pattern a whole wafer at one time. Purpose is to control adding and removal of material only at specified places. This pattern is transferred through the process of lithography. Types of mask are Full Wafer Mask and single Die mask. 8- PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY: Photolithography is the process of transferring patterns of geometric shapes on a mask to a thin layer of photosensitive material (called Photoresist) covering the surface of a semiconductor wafer. These patterns define the various regions in an IC, such as the implantation regions, the contact windows and the bonding pad areas. The resist patterns defined by the lithographic process are not permanent elements of the final device, but only replicas of circuit features. These patterns define the various regions in an IC, such as the implantation regions, the contact windows and the bonding pad areas. The resist patterns defined by the lithographic process are not permanent elements of the final device, but only replicas of circuit features. Optical Lithography: The vast majority of lithographic equipment for IC fabrication is optical equipment using ultraviolet light. SYED AZEEM AHMED [email protected] 8 | P a g e FABRICATION OF IC’S THE HOUSE WHERE IC’S ARE ABLE TO FABRICATE CLEAN ROOM: Lithography area in clean room The ultra-clean environment where microprocessors are made is called a clean room. Class one clean rooms are the cleanest of all, with no more than one speck SYED AZEEM AHMED [email protected] 9 | P a g e FABRICATION OF IC’S of dust per cubic foot. Imagine a boulder large enough to cause traffic jams all over a big city. If one fell on Times Square in New York, it could stop traffic on many streets around it, and eventually stop traffic on adjacent streets through a ripple effect.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Life Cycle Analysis of High-Performance Monocrystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Systems: Energy Payback Times and Net Energy Production Value
    27th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS OF HIGH-PERFORMANCE MONOCRYSTALLINE SILICON PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS: ENERGY PAYBACK TIMES AND NET ENERGY PRODUCTION VALUE Vasilis Fthenakis1,2, Rick Betita2, Mark Shields3, Rob Vinje3, Julie Blunden3 1 Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, USA, tel. 631-344-2830, fax. 631-344-3957, [email protected] 2Center for Life Cycle Analysis, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA 3SunPower Corporation, San Jose, CA, USA ABSTRACT: This paper summarizes a comprehensive life cycle analysis based on actual process data from the manufacturing of Sunpower 20.1% efficient modules in the Philippines and other countries. Higher efficiencies are produced by innovative cell designs and material and energy inventories that are different from those in the production of average crystalline silicon panels. On the other hand, higher efficiencies result to lower system environmental footprints as the system area on a kW basis is smaller. It was found that high efficiencies result to a net gain in environmental metrics (i.e., Energy Payback Times, GHG emissions) in comparison to average efficiency c-Si modules. The EPBT for the Sunpower modules produced in the Philippines and installed in average US or South European insolation is only 1.4 years, whereas the lowest EPBT from average efficiency c-Si systems is ~1.7 yrs. To capture the advantage of high performance systems beyond their Energy Payback Times, we introduced the metric of Net Energy Production Value (NEPV), which shows the solar electricity production after the system has “paid-off” the energy used in its life-cycle. The SunPower modules are shown to produce 45% more electricity than average efficiency (i.e., 14%) c-Si PV modules.
    [Show full text]
  • New Challenges and Possibilities for Silicon Based Solar Cells
    1 New challenges and possibilities for silicon based solar cells Marisa Di Sabatino Dept of Materials Science and Engineering NTNU 2 Outline -What is a solar cell? -How does it work? -Silicon based solar cells manufacturing -Challenges and Possibilities -Concluding remarks 3 What is a solar cell? • It is a device that converts the energy of the sunlight directly into electricity. CB PHOTON Eph=hc/λ VB Electron-hole pair 4 How does a solar cell work? 5 How does a solar cell work? Current Semiconductor Eg + - P-n junction Metallic contacts Turid Worren Reenaas 6 How does a solar cell work? - Charge generation (electron-hole pairs) - Charge separation (electric field) - Charge transport 7 - Charge generation (electron-hole pairs) - Charge separation (electric field) - Charge transport Eph>>Eg Eph<<Eg Eph>Eg Eg CB Eph VB 8 - Charge generation (electron-hole pairs) - Charge separation (electric field) - Charge transport p-type C - - - - Fermi level - + + + + + n-type n-p junction v + - Electric field 9 - Charge generation (electron-hole pairs) - Charge separation (electric field) - Charge transport Back and front side of a silicon solar cell 10 Semiconductors Materials for solar cells 11 Why Silicon? Silicon: abundant, cheap, well-known technology 12 Silicon solar cell value chain 13 Silicon solar cells value chain From sand to solar cells… Raw Materials Efficiency Crystallization Isc, Voc, FF Feedstock Solar cell process Photo: Melinda Gaal 14 Multicrystalline silicon solar cells Directional solidification 15 Monocrystalline silicon solar cells Czochralski process 16 Crystallization methods for PV silicon • Multicrystalline silicon ingots: – Lower cost than monocrystalline – More defects (dislocations and impurities) • Monocrystalline silicon ingots: – Higher cost and lower yield – Oxygen related defects – Structure loss 17 Czochralski PV single crystal growth • Dominating process for single crystals • Both p (B-doped) and n (P-doped) type crystals • Growth rate 60 mm/h Challenges: •Productivity low due to slow growth, long cycle time..
    [Show full text]
  • 15Th Workshop on Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells and Modules: Materials and Processes
    A national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy National Renewable Energy Laboratory Innovation for Our Energy Future th Proceedings 15 Workshop on Crystalline NREL/BK-520-38573 Silicon Solar Cells and Modules: November 2005 Materials and Processes Extended Abstracts and Papers Workshop Chairman/Editor: B.L. Sopori Program Committee: M. Al-Jassim, J. Kalejs, J. Rand, T. Saitoh, R. Sinton, M. Stavola, R. Swanson, T. Tan, E. Weber, J. Werner, and B. Sopori Vail Cascade Resort Vail, Colorado August 7–10, 2005 NREL is operated by Midwest Research Institute ● Battelle Contract No. DE-AC36-99-GO10337 th Proceedings 15 Workshop on Crystalline NREL/BK-520-38573 Silicon Solar Cells and Modules: November 2005 Materials and Processes Extended Abstracts and Papers Workshop Chairman/Editor: B.L. Sopori Program Committee: M. Al-Jassim, J. Kalejs, J. Rand, T. Saitoh, R. Sinton, M. Stavola, R. Swanson, T. Tan, E. Weber, J. Werner, and B. Sopori Vail Cascade Resort Vail, Colorado August 7–10, 2005 Prepared under Task No. WO97G400 National Renewable Energy Laboratory 1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden, Colorado 80401-3393 303-275-3000 • www.nrel.gov Operated for the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy by Midwest Research Institute • Battelle Contract No. DE-AC36-99-GO10337 NOTICE This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States government. Neither the United States government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or `process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights.
    [Show full text]
  • Research Into Fabrication and Popularization of Organic Thin Film Solar Cells, Chemical Engineering Transactions, 55, 25-30 DOI:10.3303/CET1655005 26
    25 A publication of CHEMICAL ENGINEERING TRANSACTIONS VOL. 55, 2016 The Italian Association of Chemical Engineering Online at www.aidic.it/cet Guest Editors: Tichun Wang, Hongyang Zhang, Lei Tian Copyright © 2016, AIDIC Servizi S.r.l., ISBN 978-88-95608-46-4; ISSN 2283-9216 DOI: 10.3303/CET1655005 Research into Fabrication and Popularization of Organic Thin Film Solar Cells Bin Zhang*a, Yan Lia, Shanlin Qiaob, Le Lic, Zhanwen Wanga a Hebei Chemical & Pharmaceutical College, No. 88 Fangxing Road, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China; b Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 189 Songling Road, Qingdao, Shandong Province, China c Shijiazhuang Naienph Chemical Technology Co., Ltd, No. 12 Shifang Road, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China. [email protected] An analysis was conducted herein on the research status of several popular solar cells at the present stage, including silicon solar cell, thin film photovoltaic cell, and dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC). In doing so, we concluded that the current situations provide a favorable objective environment for the popularization of organic thin film solar cells. Finally, we reviewed the merits and demerits of the organic thin film solar cell together with the major research focus on and progress of it, and summarized obstacles to and development trails of the popularization of organic thin film solar cells. 1. Introduction As the energy crisis further deepens in the 21st century, the existing development level for solar cells has already failed to satisfy increasing social demands for energy. This phenomenon is mainly reflected in the costly high-purity silicon solar panels, in the defects at new amorphous silicon (a-Si) during energy conversion, and in the limited theoretical energy conversion efficiency (around 25%) of silicon solar panels as well.
    [Show full text]
  • SUMCO Products That Support Our Lives
    SUMCO Products that Support Our Lives SUMCO manufactures silicon wafers, a key material in semiconductor devices. Semiconductor devices that use SUMCO’s silicon Trains, Bullet Trains Devices called power semiconductors are Medical Equipments In the medical field, medical equipment has wafers support our lives in a variety of ways, from electronic devices around us such as mobile phones, computers, smartphones used to control electric power. These devices continued to evolve, with the advent of high- and digital appliances to automobiles, medical equipment, industrial machinery control units, as well as the control of public are technically complex and require reliable precision diagnostic imaging equipment and transportation and infrastructure. control of large amounts of power and power surgery robots capable of precise control. saving performance, making this a specialized A large number of silicon wafers are used field. in these medical devices, and the silicon Power supply control for heavy electric wafers that serve as their substrates require machinery, in particular, such as electric trains high reliability, especially as human lives are that use power of over 1000V, requires special involved. SUMCO’s silicon wafers contribute to know-how for the silicon wafers, as well. the advance of medicine. Automobiles Numerous semiconductor devices Data Centers With smartphones and computers are at work inside motor vehicles. An (Server Rooms) becoming increasingly sophisticated, extremely high level of quality and vast quantities of data in the form of Power Generation reliability is required for silicon wafers high-quality photographs and vid- Smart Card Devices Facilities and Public to be used for motor control in electric eos are being processed in the cloud vehicles (EV) and hybrid vehicles (HV/ and stored in data centers.
    [Show full text]
  • Channel Structures Formed in Copper Ingots Upon Melting and Evaporation by a High-Power Electron Beam
    Metals 2015, 5, 428-438; doi:10.3390/met5010428 OPEN ACCESS metals ISSN 2075-4701 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals/ Communication Channel Structures Formed in Copper Ingots upon Melting and Evaporation by a High-Power Electron Beam Sergey Bardakhanov 1,2,5, Andrey Nomoev 2,3,*, Makoto Schreiber 2, Alexander Radnaev 2, Rustam Salimov 4, Konstantin Zobov 1,5, Alexey Zavjalov 1,5 and Erzhena Khartaeva 2,3 1 Khristianovich Institute of Applied and Theoretical Mechanics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Institutskaya str., 4/1, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia; E-Mails: [email protected] (S.B.); [email protected] (K.Z.); [email protected] (A.Z.) 2 Department of Physics and Engineering, Buryat State University, Smolina str., 24a, Ulan-Ude 670000, Russia; E-Mails: [email protected] (M.S.); [email protected] (A.R.); [email protected] (E.K.) 3 Institute of Physical Materials, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Sakhyanovoy str., 6, Ulan-Ude 670047, Russia 4 Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Lavrenteva str., 11, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia; E-Mail: [email protected] 5 Department of Physics, Novosibirsk State University, Pirogova str., 20, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: [email protected]; Tel.: +8-902-564-24-62. Academic Editor: Hugo F. Lopez Received: 5 November 2014 / Accepted: 5 March 2015 / Published: 12 March 2015 Abstract: A new phenomenon is described in this paper: the formation of macroscopic channel structures on the bottom of copper ingots which were used as the target for the synthesis of copper nanoparticles by high-power electron beam evaporation and condensation.
    [Show full text]
  • A New Slicing Method of Monocrystalline Silicon Ingot by Wire EDM
    cf~ Paper International Journal of Electrical Machining, No. 8, January 2003 A New Slicing Method of Monocrystalline Silicon Ingot by Wire EDM Akira OKADA *, Yoshiyuki UNO *, Yasuhiro OKAMOTO*, Hisashi ITOH* and Tameyoshi HlRANO** (Received May 28, 2002) * Department of Mechanical Engineering, Okayama University, Okayama 700-8530, Japan ** Toyo Advanced Technologies Co., Ltd., Hiroshima 734-8501, Japan Abstract Monocrystalline silicon is one of the most important materials in the semiconductor industry because of its many excellent properties as a semiconductor. In the manufacturing process of silicon wafers, inner diameter(lD) blade and multi wire saw have conventionally been used for slicing silicon ingots. However, some problems in efficiency, accuracy, slurry treatment and contamination are experienced when applying this method to large­ scale wafers of 12 or 16 inch diameter expected to be used in the near future. Thus, the improvement of conventional methods or a new slicing method is strongly required. In this study, the possibility of slicing a silicon ingot by wire EDM was discussed and the machining properties were experimentally investigated. A silicon wafer used as substrate for epitaxial film growth has low resistivity in the order of 0.01 g .cm, which makes it possible to cut silicon ingots by wire EDM. It was clarified that the new wire EDM has potential for application as a new slicing method, and that the surface roughness using this method is as small as that using the conventional multi wire saw method. Moreover, it was pointed out that the contamination due to the adhesion and diffusion of wire electrode material into the machined surface can be reduced by wire EDM under the condition of low current and long discharge duration.
    [Show full text]
  • Conventional Steel Making Vs Powder Metallurgy
    Conventional Steelmaking vs. Powder Metallurgy Steelmaking Conventional steelmaking begins by melting steel in a large electric arc furnace. The initial melting of the steel is usually followed by a secondary ladle refining process such as Argon Oxygen Decarburization (AOD) or Vacuum Oxygen Decarburization (VOD). After refining, the molten metal is cast into ingots. Ladle Refining Cast Ingots Conventional Steelmaking - Ingot Structure Cast steel is very homogeneous in the molten state but as it slowly solidifies in the ingot molds, the alloying elements segregate producing a non-uniform as-cast structure. In high speed steels and high alloy steels, carbides precipitate and form coarse networks that must be broken up by hot working of the ingots. The hot processing will improve the structure but the segregation effects are never fully eliminated. Cast Ingot And Internal Structure Powder Metallurgy Steelmaking using Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) Making tool steels using Hot Isostatic Pressing begins with an initial melt furnace similar to a conventional melting process but on a much smaller scale. Instead of pouring and casting the melt, the molten metal is poured through a small nozzle where high pressure gas atomizes the liquid stream. The droplets fall and rapidly solidify into powder which is collected in the atomization chamber. Each powder particle is essentially a micro ingot with minimal segregation and fine carbides. The fine carbide size is retained through the mill processing. After atomization the powder is collected, screened to specific mesh requirements, and blended. The powder is loaded into steel containers, evacuated of air, then sealed. The steel containers full of powder are then loaded into an autoclave and Hot Isostatically Pressed at pressures and temperatures approximately the same as used for forging.
    [Show full text]
  • A Study on the Countermeasures and Suggestions of Technology
    4th International Education, Economics, Social Science, Arts, Sports and Management Engineering Conference (IEESASM 2016) A Study on the Countermeasures and Suggestions of Technology Transfer in the Solar Cells Industry in China Lvcheng Lia, Guoping Chengb School of Management, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China [email protected], [email protected] Keywords: solar cells; technology transfer; countermeasures and suggestions Abstract. This paper analyzes the development and industrialization of solar cells of three generations: mono-crystalline silicon and polycrystalline silicon solar cell, thin-film solar cell and nanocrystalline solar cell. It is believed that technology transfer and university-industry collaboration play important roles in the solar cells industry; and put forward reasonable suggestions for improvements from the aspects of financial subsidies, intellectual property, risk compensation system, technology transfer intermediary and cultivation of talents. 1. Introduction New energy technology is one of the most important topics for human's development in the 21st century. The traditional energy sources such as oil and natural gas, have some serious problems like pollution and storage, which cannot satisfy the requirements of human beings and conflict with the sustainable development. As an important component of new energy, solar energy exhibits the advantages of low carbon emission, clean production, flexibility and renewability, which is ideal to be applied as a new alternative energy and has become the focus of the scientific community and industry. Presently, the solar cells have already been used in national defense, communications, computers, transportation and many other fields. Due to China's unique geographical advantages, to develop the solar energy is the trend of the time.
    [Show full text]
  • Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Module Manufacturing
    Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Module Manufacturing Costs and Sustainable Pricing: 1H 2018 Benchmark and Cost Reduction Road Map Michael Woodhouse, Brittany Smith, Ashwin Ramdas, and Robert Margolis National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL is a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy Technical Report Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy NREL/TP-6A20-72134 Operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC Revised February 2020 This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications. Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308 Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Module Manufacturing Costs and Sustainable Pricing: 1H 2018 Benchmark and Cost Reduction Road Map Michael Woodhouse, Brittany Smith, Ashwin Ramdas, and Robert Margolis National Renewable Energy Laboratory Suggested Citation Woodhouse, Michael. Brittany Smith, Ashwin Ramdas, and Robert Margolis. 2019. Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Module Manufacturing Costs and Sustainable Pricing: 1H 2018 Benchmark and Cost Reduction Roadmap. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy19osti/72134.pdf. NREL is a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy Technical Report Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy NREL/TP-6A20-72134 Operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC Revised February 2020 This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy National Renewable Energy Laboratory Laboratory (NREL) at www.nrel.gov/publications. 15013 Denver West Parkway Golden, CO 80401 Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308 303-275-3000 • www.nrel.gov NOTICE This work was authored by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, operated by Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC, for the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) under Contract No.
    [Show full text]
  • Thin Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells Based on Epitaxial Films Grown at 165 °C by RF-PECVD Romain Cariou, Martin Labrune, Pere Roca I Cabarrocas
    Thin crystalline silicon solar cells based on epitaxial films grown at 165 °C by RF-PECVD Romain Cariou, Martin Labrune, Pere Roca I Cabarrocas To cite this version: Romain Cariou, Martin Labrune, Pere Roca I Cabarrocas. Thin crystalline silicon solar cells based on epitaxial films grown at 165 °C by RF-PECVD. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, Elsevier, 2011, 95 (8), pp.2260-2263. 10.1016/j.solmat.2011.03.038. hal-00749873v3 HAL Id: hal-00749873 https://hal-polytechnique.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00749873v3 Submitted on 14 May 2013 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. Thin crystalline silicon solar cells based on epitaxial films grown at 165°C by RF-PECVD Romain Carioua),*, Martin Labrunea),b), P. Roca i Cabarrocasa) aLPICM-CNRS, Ecole Polytechnique, 91128 Palaiseau, France bTOTAL S.A., Gas & Power, R&D Division, Tour La Fayette, 2 Place des Vosges, La Défense 6, 92 400 Courbevoie, France Keywords Low temperature, Epitaxy; PECVD; Si thin film; Solar cell Abstract We report on heterojunction solar cells whose thin intrinsic crystalline absorber layer has been obtained by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition at 165°C on highly doped p-type (100) crystalline silicon substrates.
    [Show full text]
  • Copper Oxhide Ingot Marks
    COPPER OXHIDE INGOT MARKS: A DATABASE AND COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Archaeology by Alaina M. Kaiser May 2013 © 2013 Alaina M. Kaiser All Rights Reserved. ABSTRACT COPPER OXHIDE INGOT MARKS: A CATALOGUE AND COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS Alaina Kaiser, M.A. Cornell University, 2013 Many objects of international trade from the Late Bronze Age eastern Mediterranean are marked with symbols of undetermined meaning. Of these, copper oxhide ingots have been of particular interest to archaeologists for decades. As the meaning of these marks is currently unknown, my work attempts to analyze patterns of them that are distinguishable through a study of the marked ingots’ contextual and geographic distribution. My research resulted in a database composed of all retrievable information regarding the discovery, contextual information, and physical characteristics of all copper oxhide ingot remains and marks. The purpose of this database and distribution analysis is to contribute to the ongoing efforts to understand these artifacts so ubiquitous in Late Bronze Age settlements in the eastern Mediterranean. ii BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Alaina Kaiser was graduated from Boston University in 2009 with a Bachelors of Arts degree in Archaeology and a minor in Classical Civilizations. After obtaining her degree, Ms. Kaiser held a research assistant position at the Massachusetts Board of Underwater Archaeological Resources and worked as a field technician in CRM at Public Archaeology Laboratory. While interning with the National Park Service at the Historic Kingsley Plantation in 2010, Ms. Kaiser volunteered with the University of Florida’s archaeological field school led by Dr.
    [Show full text]