December, 2010 Volume I Number 1
African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
Published by African members of the International Association for Mission Studies (Iams-Afric)
Editor-in-Chief: Rose Uchem (Nigeria)
Co-Editors: Felix Enegho (Nigeria) Joy Kirenga (Uganda) Munetsi Ruzivo (Zimbabwe)
Review Editor: Cephas Omenyo (Ghana)
2 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
African Journal for Mission in Context (AMC) is an online journal of the African members of the International Association for Mission Studies. AMC is a peer reviewed academic journal produced twice a year to promote research and dissemination of insights into the context, concept and practice of mission in Africa.
Views expressed in this journal do not necessarily represent the opinion of the editors or the African members of the International Association for Mission Studies.
For guidelines on the preparation and submission of manuscripts please see notes for contributors at the back of this journal.
Manuscripts and correspondence are to be sent by e-mail attachment addressed to:
The Editor Attn: Sr. Dr. Rose Uchem African Journal for Mission in Context c/o Department of Religion and Cultural Studies University of Nigeria Nsukka
Email: [email protected]
Books for review are to be sent to: Book reviews editor: Attn: Prof. Cephas N. Omenyo African Journal for Mission in Context Department for the Study of Religions University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 66, Legon, Ghana 3 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
CONTENTS
Contributors 5
Introduction 6
Editorial 11
Articles
Jesus and Harmony of Opposites via the Lens of an African Christian Augustine C. Obi 12
Mission Towards A Partnership Of Equals In Christian Communities Rose Uchem 23
Biblical Love of the Enemy: God-Model-Manifesto for Christian Action and Celebration in a Violent Nigerian Scenario Cosmos B. Wule 39
The Roman Catholic Church And Inculturation Within the Nigerian Cultural Setting Felix Ehimare Enegho 54
Assessing The Position Of The Anglican Church In Nigeria To Same Sex Marriage Wilson E. Ehianu 67
Notes for contributors 84
4 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
CONTRIBUTORS
Augustine C. Obi, Ph.D Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Kogi State University, Anyigba, Nigeria
Rose Uchem, MSHR, Ph.D., Department of Arts Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
Cosmos B. Wule, Ph.D., Department of Religious Studies University of Jos, Jos, Nigeria
Felix Ehimare Enegho, Ph.D Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Kogi State University, Anyigba, Nigeria
Wilson E. Ehianu,Ph.D, Department of Philosophy and Religion, Faculty of Arts, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria
5 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS OF MISSION IN AFRICA TODAY: AN INTRODUCTION
Rose Uchem, MSHR, Ph.D.
Welcome to the maiden edition of the African Journal for Mission in Context (AMC)! This journal is a project of members of the African Region of the International Association for Mission Studies (Iams-Afric). The idea of this journal was conceived at a regional meeting of Iams-Afric during the last IAMS general conference in Balaton, Hungary, in 2008. This is in recognition that missiological documentation is flourishing in some parts of Africa, southern Africa, for instance, but not equally the case in other parts of the continent. The purpose of the AMC, therefore, is to stimulate further documentation on the academic thinking and praxis on mission in Africa as well as among Africans both in the continent and in the Diaspora. It is hoped that this effort will promote specifically missiological research, documentation and dissemination of insights into the concept and practice of mission in the African context. By context of mission here is understood all the situations, processes, dispositions and activities that characterize the unique locations in which mission goes on. Context connotes not only geographical and historical considerations but also other factors such as the: political, economic, cultural, social and religious ambience of church and society. It also includes models of the world, church, and human person operative in a locality. To a great extent, the African context also reflects the global context, the world of the 21″ century, which on the one hand, is characterized by a growing culture of terrorism; threats to life and the accompanying sense of insecurity; the power driven culture of war with the resultant mass displacement of peoples; the 6 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 environmental crisis; the HIV/AIDS pandemic; globalization and its ambiguities, producing intractable levels of poverty even in mega-cities; human mobility and migration together with its interface with mission; unjust economic systems as part of the shadow sides of globalization taking their toll on the poorest of the poor on the face of the earth; the resurgence of slavery and slave trade. On the other hand, there are increasing levels of participation of women in governance and public life in various countries; a growing awareness of the need for gender justice; a call for transformation of prevailing notions of masculinities. The concrete life situation in Africa is marked by lights and shadows. On the brighter side, Africans have a sense of solidarity, family and community; respect for life and a quest for children, not minding the fact that sometimes one finds that these values have been corrupted or abandoned. Africans have a strong sense of the Sacred, the Creator, and of the spiritual world. They live in a cultural milieu in which the sense of the numinous is palpable and the human hunger and thirst for God knows no bounds. These positive cultural values could otherwise be harnessed to enrich the global church and society as a whole and also to reverse the abject condition with which Africa is often associated. The emergence of several Africans as world icons is a source of hope for the next generation in the continent. Nelson Mandela remains an inspirational icon for peace-building. Barak Obama as the first African president of the United States of America has turned a new page for the world as did Ellen Johnson- Sirleaf as Liberia‟s first constitutionally elected female president; unleashing the power of precedence in our world! Dr. Ngozi Okonjo-Iwuala, an Igbo/Nigerian woman renowned for her high level of integrity, was up till recently the managing director of World Bank. Rwanda‟s parliament has the highest percentage of women in the world (56%). [However, statistics relative to life as we know it can sometimes raise other questions such as: What kind of women sometimes get elected or appointed into positions of governance in certain societies? What is their level of critical 7 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 awareness and ability to challenge the status quo of unjust situations? Could it be that their election or selection is based on dubious criteria such as: those that are not likely to rock the boat; puppets that represent an extension of the power and influence of the dominant group?] The African context is sometimes characterized as a collective fact of misery, resulting from historical and current injustices; inequality; a general sense of insecurity and risks of possibilities of meeting violence any moment; the increasing poverty of many coupled with the insensitivity of many of the rich and privileged; political tensions and struggles for power without service; wars in some parts and absence of war in other parts, mistaken for peace but is graveyard-peace; ethnic divisions and rivalries for supremacy, sometimes manifesting in „God‟s own household on earth.‟ Related to people‟s quest for God are the proliferation and commercialization of church sects; fundamentalist spiritualities some of which pre-date the Council of Trent and Vatican I; untouched by the Vatican Council II renewal, resistant to change and transformation. In some African countries, Nigeria, for instance, the churches are experienced as “riddled with many paradoxes and contradictions.” On one hand, the churches are vibrant and flourishing numerically and from all appearances, have a very lively and nourishing public worship. On the other hand, there is a crop of highly educated laity and religious whose leadership gifts are not called into the service of their Church communities at whatever level – parish, diocesan or national – not in terms of house-keeping or fund-raising roles but real pastoral engagements. Only a tiny few have been called into Church leadership positions. This state of affairs has been described as becoming more and more a Church in which only the clergy matters. As many African countries gained independence Africans gradually assumed leadership positions in both civil and ecclesiastical offices. At the same time the number of expatriates in 8 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 church leadership positions has progressively dwindled until the present. Consequently, most church and mission organizational personnel in many African countries today are mostly Africans. In face of these changing realities in Africa, questions arise: What does „mission‟ mean for the average African Christian, and for African theologians who focus on mission theory and practice? What theories of mission guide leaders and members of Churches and mission societies or missionary congregations as they send out their members whether on a short-term or long-term basis and what are the implications for their self-understanding? Furthermore, in Redemptoris Missio (RM), Pope John Paul II (1995) spoke about 'the new frontiers of mission' and referred to the new worlds of mission and new social phenomenon (RM. nos. 30, 32, 37). “There must be no lessening of the impetus to preach the gospel and to establish new churches among peoples and communities where they do not yet exist” (RM. no. 34). However, in light of stringent government policies in some African countries regarding visas and employment opportunities for non-nationals, is geographical boundary-crossing still a necessity for realizing missio ad gentes today? What challenges confront Christian mission in Africa today and how can these be redressed? What is the place of the gospel in the lives of Christians in the continent? What are the goals and outcomes of missionary activities in Africa today? Why does it appear that the more the number of churches there are, the higher the crime rate and the less concerned people are with the welfare of their brothers and sisters in Christ? Why does it sometimes appear as if some missiologists and theologians are more concerned with producing paper theology rather than one that impacts people‟s lives and sets them free from all kinds of bondage? Why is it necessary to dedicate a separate journal to the African context? Subsequent editions of this journal will be expected to publish scholarly articles on Christian witness in Africa related to but not limited to the above questions or the following sub-themes: 1.The environmental crisis in Africa 9 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
2.The HIV/AIDS pandemic in Africa 3.Globalization and Christian Mission in Africa 4. Poverty alleviation in Africa 5. Migration and its consequences in Africa 6. The proliferation and commercialization of churches in Africa 7. Corruption and its effect in Africa 8. Leadership problem in Africa: A Christian approach 9. The challenges confronting Christian Mission in Africa 10. The history of Christianity in Africa 11. Gender and mission in Africa 12. Problem of biblical interpretation in Africa 13. The mass media as agents of change in Africa 14. Inculturation and Christianity in Africa
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EDITORIAL
For many people the terms „mission‟ and „missionary‟ are more often associated with Europeans and Americans than with Africans. The reason is probably because their primary evangelizers came from the north-Atlantic regions of the world. The expatriate missionaries, however, did not work alone. Some African missionaries worked with the expatriates as teacher- catechists and catechists‟ wives. On the west coast of Africa for example, Nigeria, the first lay missionaries and interpreters who worked with expatriate missionaries came from Freetown, Sierra Leone. The catechists and the other early African lay missionaries were part of the reason for the expatriate missionaries‟ success as these were closer to the people. This is in agreement with a comment of John Paul II (1995) to the effect that “missionary activity is a matter for all christians” (Redemptoris Missio, 2, 119). The launch of the African Journal for Mission in Context represents an effort to begin to respond to some of the above concerns and questions. Hopefully, as time goes on more and more people would take on the challenge of setting out clearly what mission means to them as Africans; that is their concept, theory and practice of mission in their particular African context. In this maiden issue of the journal, Augustine C. Obi writes on Jesus and Harmony of Opposites via the Lens of an African Christian. Rose Uchem documents women‟s experiences of participative mission and ministry titled, „Mission Towards A Partnership Of Equals In Christian Communities.‟ Cosmos B. Wule writes on „Biblical Love of the Enemy: God-Model-Manifesto for Christian Action and Celebration in a Violent Nigerian Scenario.‟ Felix Ehimare Enegho tackles the subject of „Inculturation: The Roman Catholic Church And Inculturation Within The Nigerian Cultural Setting.‟ Wilson E. Ehianu takes on the thorny issue „Assessing The Position Of The Anglican Church In Nigeria To Same Sex Marriage,‟ which is tearing the Anglican Church communities apart. 11 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
JESUS AND HARMONY OF OPPOSITES VIA THE LENS OF AN AFRICAN CHRISTIAN
Augustine C. Obi, Ph.D
Introduction In revealed religions, the reconciliation of opposites especially in the context of the relationship between the human and the divine is an issue scarcely discussed. This is so because God and humans are taken to belong to different levels of being and from that standpoint see things differently. Heraclitus, a pre- Socratic philosopher, was the first to articulate the harmony of opposites within the context of the finitude of the human person and the infinity of God. According to him, “To God all things are beautiful, good and just; but humans have assumed some things to be unjust, others just” (Fragment 102). Another philosopher, Xenophanes in agreement with Heraclitus states as follows: “God sees as a whole, thinks as a whole and hears as a whole” (Fragment 24). It is probably this feature of God that is recorded as the concluding part of the biblical account of creation: “God saw everything that was made, and indeed it was very good” (Gen.1:30). An attempt of Heraclitus to establish a necessary relation between the holistic perspective of God in contradistinction to human partiality made him arrive at the position that God is harmony of opposites: “God is day and night, winter and summer, war and peace, satiety and famine” (Fragment 67). In other words, what humans take to be opposites are reconciled in God. But it must be noted that Heraclitus‟ harmony of opposites is derived from the same Egyptian prototype from which Pythagoras took his doctrine of opposites (Allen 1988,21). Paraphrasing the contents of these texts Onyewuenyi states that “the Egyptian prototype of 12 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
Pythagorean opposites is found in both the Hermopolitan and Heliopolitan systems which had opposites as partners in the creation process. The pair of pre-creation deities of the Hermopolitan Ogdoad balanced its male and female principles in Nun and Naunet, Huh and Hauhet, Kuk and Kauket, Amun and Amaunet. Such was also the case with the creation gods , the Ennead of the Heliopolitan system: Shu and Tefnut, Geb and Nut, Osiris and Isis, Seth and Nephthys. Opposites are also manifested in the characteristics of the creating gods Shu and Tefnut. Shu is characterized as male. Tefnut is characterized as female. The one is dynamic, the other is static” (1993,211). Since harmony of opposites appears to be a feature of divinity, an attempt will be made to determine whether the same theory can be established in Christianity. In other words, scriptural citations that imply harmony of opposites with regard to the person and teachings of Jesus will be examined.
Prophecy of Simoen At the conclusion of the prayer of Simeon, Luke records as follows: “And the child‟s father and mother were amazed at what was being said about him. Then Simeon blessed them and said to his mother Mary, This child is destined for the falling and rising of many in Israel, and to be a sign that will be contradicted so that the inner thoughts of many will be revealed – and a sword will pierce your own soul too” (Lk.2:33-36). From the prophecy of Simeon, the child Jesus is set to bring about different and opposing fortunes to the people of Israel. In other words, the rise and fall of members of the Israelite community depends on this one individual and all he stands for. Jesus unites in himself the concepts of “falling and rising”. This expression which is applied to the consequences of his mission to Israel is metaphorical rendition for his acceptance and rejection. By depicting Jesus as a “sign to be contradicted” through which “the inner thoughts of many will be revealed”, Simeon forecasts the high level of antagonism against Jesus borne out mainly by 13 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
conspiracy and intrigue in the high places. Even though the reference to Jesus as “a sign to be contradicted” obviously depicts his rejection by the majority of religious and political leaders, he can also be depicted as “a sign to be accepted” because he still had his followers – the apostles, disciples and the crowds that flock around him throughout his years of ministry. The notion of rejection necessarily implies acceptance. Both terms belong together as one cannot be isolated from the other.
The Rich Ruler “A certain ruler asked him, Good Teacher, what must I do to inherit eternal life? Jesus said to him, Why do you call me good? No one is good but God alone” (Lk.18:18-19). “Then someone came to him and said, Teacher, what good deed must I do to have eternal life? And he said to him, why do you ask me about what is good? There is only one who is good” (Mt.19:16-17). Rebuttal to the Jews “Which of you convicts me of sin?” (Jn.8:46). Jesus appears to adopt two positions with regard to himself on different occasions. One possible stand that can be taken in order to reconcile the two positions is to suggest that Jesus wishes to portray himself as human. By declining the title of goodness and equally holding that he has not deviated from the message of God (which is the context of his argument with the Jews) who alone is good, Jesus defines his humanity and by implication the human person. In achieving this objective, he adopts the harmony of opposites. By defining himself in terms of harmony of opposites, Jesus is able to resolve the inner conflict of every person already articulated by Plato (Hamilton 1961, 493); Lucretius (1977,81) and Seneca (1932,60). Paul points to the same fundamental conflict in the context of creation and in his own experience. With regard to creation, he says: “We know that the whole creation has been groaning in labour pains until now; and not only creation but we ourselves who have the first fruits of the Spirit, groan inwardly while we wait for adoption, the redemption of our bodies” 14 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
(Rom.8:22-23). In respect to himself, Paul continues: “So I find it to be a law that when I want to do what is good, evil lies close at hand. For I delight in the law of God in my inmost self, but I see in my members another law at war with the law of my mind, making me a captive to the law of sin that dwells in my members. Wretched man that I am! Who can rescue me from this body of death? Thanks be to God through Jesus Christ our Lord. So then with my mind I am a slave to the law of God, but with my flesh I am a slave to the law of sin” (Rom.7:21-25).
Righteousness through Faith Paul discussing the righteousness that comes through faith says, “Moses writes concerning the righteousness that comes from the law that „the person who does these things will live by them‟. But the righteousness that comes through faith says, „Do not say in your heart, who will ascend into heaven? (That is to bring Christ down) or who will descend into the abyss? (That is to bring Christ up from the dead)” (Rom.10:6-7).
Unity in the Body of Christ The bond in the body of Christ is laid out as follows: “But each of us was given grace according to the measure of Christ‟s gift. Therefore it is said, When he ascended on high he made captivity itself a captive; he gave gifts to his people. When it says, He ascended, what does it mean but that he had also descended into the lower parts of the earth? He who descended is the same one who ascended far above all the heavens, so that he might fill all things” (Eph.4:7-10). These two citations are taken together because both appear to relate to the totality of Christ‟s redemption. In the Letter to the Romans, the height of heaven is contrasted with the depths of the abyss and Christ is depicted as the unifying factor. In the Letter to the Ephesians, Christ is the one who ascended to heaven and the one who also descended below the earth so that “he might fill all things”. Christ can be said to “fill all things” in the sense that he 15 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 brings everything whether in heaven, on earth or under the earth into some kind of harmony with himself. The use Paul makes of the terms “ascension” and “descent” which are opposites in relation to Christ who harmonizes them is interesting. From his educational but particularly juridical background, Paul appears to utilize the philosophy of Heraclitus who happens to be a native of Ephesus, a community which Paul was addressing. Paul‟s application of opposing terms “ascension” and “descent” with regard to the person of Jesus relates to harmony of opposites, a theory propounded by Heraclitus. An instance of this theory which is pertinent in this context is as follows: “The way up and the way down are one and the same” (Fragment 60).
Oneness of all peoples “For there is no distinction between Jew and Greek; the same Lord is Lord of all and he is generous to all who call upon him” (Rom.10:12). “In that renewal, there is no longer Greek and Jew, circumcised or uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave or free, but Christ is all and in all” (Col.3:11). The abolition of social and cultural distinctions between one individual and another which invariably involve the use of opposing terms (such as circumcised or uncircumcised, slave or free, Greek or Jew, barbarian or Scythian) in the Christian fold rests on the fact that they all belong to “the same Lord who is Lord of all”. Christ as the dynamic personality that informs the identity of the individual Christian subsumes and resolves these distinctions in himself. Christ is able to achieve this objective because “all things came into being though him and without him not one thing came into being. What has come into being in him was life, and the life was the light of all people” (Jn.1:2-4).
Generosity of Christ “The Lord Jesus though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor so that by his poverty you might become rich” (2Cor.8:9).Jesus definitely had a special relationship with God. At 16 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 his baptism, he was acknowledged by God as “my beloved son in whom I am well pleased”. On account of his unique relation with God, Jesus definitely can be said to be infinitely rich. He apparently abandoned his status of richness for poverty in order to assume the condition of those he was to save. Through his task of redemption he was able to enrich those whom he has redeemed by restoring them to the exalted status of children of God. Through his salvific ministry, riches and poverty switched places but yet remain united in the person of Jesus.
Christ as End of Creation “He chose us in Christ before the foundation of the world…according to his good pleasure that he set forth in Christ, as a plan for the fullness of time, to gather all things in him, things in heaven and things on earth” (Eph.1:3-10).Christ appears to be the end point toward which everything in the created order is headed as ordained by God. He is the “blueprint” of the divine plan that establishes the destiny of the cosmic order. His presence before the world began makes him privy to the purpose God established for the world. This standpoint makes him eligible to be the one “to gather all things in himself, things in heaven and things on earth”. In Christ, the harmony between heaven and earth is achieved.
Oneness in Christ “But now in Christ you who were once far off have been brought near by the blood of Christ. For he is our peace; in his flesh he has made both groups into one and has broken down the dividing wall, that is, the hostility between us. He has abolished the law with its commandments and ordinances, that he might create in himself one new humanity in place of the two, thus making peace, and might reconcile both groups to God in one body through the cross, thus putting to death that hostility through it. So he came to proclaim peace to you who were far off and peace to those who were near; for through him both of us have access in one Spirit to the Father” (Eph.2:13-18). 17 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
Jesus appears as the peace maker where humanity is involved in strife that has succeeded in separating one from another. The magnitude of the crisis is stressed by the “hostility” which created the “dividing wall” that kept individuals and communities permanently apart. Christ achieves peace not through dialogue but through vicarious suffering and death. He creates “in himself one new humanity in place of the two” and thus was able to “reconcile both groups to God in one body through the cross”. Christ effectively subsumes the two opposing forces and transforms their hostility into friendship in himself who is peace.
The Mission of the Twelve Apostles While commissioning the twelve apostles, Jesus among other things states as follows, “Take no gold, or silver, or copper in your belts, no bag for your journey or two tunics or sandals, or a staff for labourers deserve their keep” (Lk.9:3-4). But later on when the apostles came back from their ministry, “He said to them, „When I sent you out without a purse, bag or sandals, did you lack anything‟? They said, „Not a thing‟. He said to them, „But now, one who has a purse must take it, and likewise a bag. And the one who has no sword must sell his cloak and buy one” (Lk.22:35-36). From the two apparently contradictory injunctions, there appears to be harmony. Jesus appears to demonstrate knowledge of the dynamics of ministry. The adoption of the two different approaches suggests that Jesus wishes to educate the apostles that different situations in their ministry may require different methods or changes in strategy. The first approach seems to apply when the going is good but when the going gets tough the second necessarily applies. But more importantly, Jesus seeks to demonstrate that what appears to be opposing methods can serve one and the same objective and different paths can lead to the same destination.
Jesus as author of peace “Peace I leave with you. My peace I give to you. I do not give to you as the world gives. Do not let your hearts be troubled 18 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 and do not let them be afraid” (Jn.14:27). “I have said this to you so that in me you may have peace” (Jn.16:33). “Jesus came and stood among them and said, Peace be with you” (Jn.20:19). “Jesus said to them again, Peace be with you” (Jn.20:21).
Jesus as source of division “I came to bring fire on the earth, and how I wish it were already kindled! I have a baptism with which I am to be baptized, and what stress I am under until it is completed! Do you think I have come to bring peace to the earth? No. I tell you, but rather division! From now on five in one household will be divided, three against two and two against three” (Lk.12:49-52). “For I have come to set a man against his father and a daughter against her mother and a daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law and one‟s enemies will be members of his own household” (Mt.10:35-36). Peace and division as used in the teachings of Jesus or as referring to his person should not be a source of consternation. There were widely acknowledged locations in Jewish society that displayed literary wealth of knowledge from both West and East during the “hidden” years of Jesus (Foakes-Jackson 1891, 12). Apart from these, Jesus from his special relationship with God appears to have learnt to see things in wholes and not in parts. From his perspective, the terms “peace” and “division” should not be taken as opposing concepts but rather as “aspects of one and the same thing”. This necessary relation between peace and war is confirmed by a saying in classical antiquity: “If you want peace, prepare for war” (Si vis pacem, bellum para). There is the possibility that Jesus in achieving harmony between the opposing concepts of war and peace is offering a new and alternative position to “the powerful influence of the Persian prophet and philosopher Zarathustra which is evident in the dualism of the conflict depicted in the Essene library book, The
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War of the Sons of Light with the Sons of Darkness” (Porter 1962, 27).
Admonitions 1. “For those who want to save their life will lose it; and those who lose their life will find it” (Mt.16:25).
2. “Whoever wants to be first among you must be the last of all and the servant of all” (Mk.9:35).
3. “All who exalt themselves will be humbled and all who humble themselves will be exalted” (Mt.23:12).
4. “You clean the outside of cup and of the plate, but inside they are full of greed and self indulgence. First, clean the inside of the cup and the outside may also become clean” (Mt.23:25-26).
5. “Put your sword back into its place for all who live by the sword will perish by the sword” (Mt.26:52).
6. “Give and gifts will be yours; full measure shaken together and running over will be poured in to your lap; for the measure you give is the measure you get back” (Lk.6:38).
7. “Blessed are the merciful, for they will receive mercy” (Mt.5:7).
8. “You have heard it was said, „An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth‟. Do not resist the evil doer. But if anyone strikes you on the right cheek, turn the other also; and if anyone wants to sue you and take your coat, give your cloak as well” (Mt.5:38-40).
9. “You have heard that it was said, „you shall love your neighbour and hate your enemy‟. But I say to you, Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you so that you may be children of your Father in heaven; for he makes his sun rise on the evil 20 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
and the good, and sends his rain on the righteous and on the unrighteous” (Mt.5:43-45).
10. “Very truly, I tell you, unless a grain of wheat falls into the earth and dies, it remains just a single grain: but if it dies, it bears much fruit” (Jn.12:24).
These admonitions of Jesus appear to have one feature in common. They contain opposites which possess a unity among themselves. In other words, opposites found therein imply one another, namely, saving and losing; first and last; exalt and humble; inside and outside; giving and receiving; life and death, love and hate. Each pair of opposites belongs together in a common ground. The common ground in these opposites is the harmony between them.
Conclusion There is no doubt that there are instances in the scriptures that appear to portray divergent views on the person and teachings of Jesus. But in order to produce an integral picture of Jesus and his ministry, the principle of harmony of opposites is employed to reconcile those apparently opposing viewpoints. That Jesus adopted the harmony of opposites appears to confirm the possibility that he must have come into contact at some point in his life with renowned teachers and philosophers of antiquity (Hurst 1928, 13).
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References
Allen, James P. 1988 Genesis in Egypt: The Philosophy of Ancient Creation Accounts NewHaven: Yale University Press Foakes-Jackson, F. 1891 History of the Christian Church to AD 461 London: Oxford University Press Freeman, K. 1983 Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers Cambridge: Harvard University Press Hamilton, E. (ed) 1961 The Collected Dialogues of Plato Princeton: Princeton University Press Hurst, G. 1928 The Literary Background to the New Testament London: MacMillan Press Lucretius (1977) The Origin of Things New York: W.W. Norton and Company Onyewuenyi, I. 1993 The African Origin of Greek Philosophy Nsukka: University of Nigeria Press Porter, C. 1962 The Lost Years of Jesus Revealed. Connecticut: Fawcett Publications Inc. Seneca, 1932 On Tranquility of Mind Moral Essays London: Loeb Classical Library
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MISSION TOWARDS A PARTNERSHIP OF EQUALS IN CHRISTIAN COMMUNITIES
Rose Uchem, MSHR, Ph.D
Introduction One of the ways women are actively contributing towards bringing about a new world order is through fostering inclusive communities. The outcome of one of such projects shows that people respond enthusiastically to inclusiveness and participation as desirable paradigms for life in Christian communities. People feel inspired and challenged to grow by a leadership style that is not dominating nor self-serving, but rather facilitative, animating, unifying, community-oriented and inclusive. The following is an account of one of such instances of women‟s pastoral leadership in a Catholic community in Nigeria. It features women‟s creative use of the scriptures in fostering communities that are inclusive with reference to gender, ethnicity and laity participation in a way that has a great gospel witness value. Also included in this account are two stories of other experiences of a changing gender consciousness in some people. One is in the context of a Christian faith community, and the other around a very powerful cultural symbol of inclusion among some traditional Igbo people with implications for mission today. In this narrative, the actual initials of the people involved in this mission experience are used purposely.
Creating and fostering an inclusive community In the early nineteen eighties, a very famous man, a second- generation active member of the Catholic Church, the late Chief G. C. M. O., approached some of the pioneer Nigerian members of the congregation of the Missionary Sisters of the Holy Rosary 23 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
(MSHR), and appealed to them: “Please help us to restore our Christian values and enable us to pass them on to our children.” Consequently, a commitment developed among the sisters to inaugurate a Holy Rosary Associateship (Uchem, 2001: 232). It is a group of lay men and women affiliated to some of the MSHR communities in Nigeria. The associateship aims primarily, at: deepening member‟s spirituality through their association with the sisters, and secondly, exercising their own missionary calling by participating in the congregation‟s mission through their prayers, moral support and financial contribution, where possible. One such group, in which the author took a leading part in founding and fostering, was administered from the erstwhile Candidates‟ House of Formation in Rigasa, Kaduna. It had functioned actively from October 1993 until February 2000 when the Muslim attacks on Christians forced the sisters to leave Rigasa. However, the spirit and content of the erstwhile Kaduna Holy Rosary Associates are significant pointers for creating and fostering inclusive Christian communities anywhere else. In a talk to the newly inaugurated Associate group in Kaduna, during one of the early meetings, Sister E. D. explained to them the original inspiration in terms of helping the laity to preserve their Christian values as well as providing necessary support in their ongoing Christian formation and that of their children. The members resonated very much with these sentiments. As parents, some of them had been alarmed at how their children were growing up without their kind of religious commitment and values. Subsequently, these concerns were very much reflected when the goals and expectations of the group were being articulated. On their part, the sisters offered the associates an opportunity to participate with them in the church‟s mission in the spirit of Vatican II: “Even when occupied by temporal affairs, the laity can and must do valuable work for the evangelization of the world” (Lumen Gentium. no 35). Moreover, the sisters shared with 24 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 the potential members some their human and spiritual resources which were otherwise not open to the laity. In appreciation, the associates could not be outdone in generosity in supporting the congregation‟s projects in Kaduna. A spirit similar to that of the Basic Christian Communitiess pervaded the meetings. The major difference was that the associates came not from the same neighborhood but from different parishes, different ethnic groups and different educational and socio-economic backgrounds. The group was governed initially by the sisters and the entire community was involved. The sisters shared and alternated the leadership roles and later on handed over the governance of the meetings to an executive committee of the group. Recruitment of new associates was, by choice, through person-to-person contact. Since the aim and focus of the associateship was not membership of the MSHR congregation, they were not required to make any promises or commitments, nor to go through any formal induction programme. The aim, as already stated, was the spiritual and human up-building of the associates and their families, and their participation in the congregation‟s missionary ventures. Six meetings were held in the year. In order to maintain a sense of continuity and commitment, the whole year was planned, tentatively, during the first meeting of the year. In addition, two days were set aside as special. One was a whole day of prayer, usually, a suitable Saturday in Lent. The other was October 7th, feast of Our Lady of the Holy Rosary. A simple evaluation was done after every major activity and at the last meeting of the year. This made it possible to spot whatever was helpful, to reinforce it; or what was not helpful and to adjust accordingly, as the group went along. As a group, different branches of associates took on different achievable projects, yearly. They raised funds for such projects through voluntary contributions (sometimes done privately so as not to embarrass people of lesser means) and through organizing various fund-raising events.
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The meetings were usually in two parts. The first part lasted about one hour, devoted to spiritual nourishment and featuring gospel sharing based on the seven-step method (of the Lumko Institute in South Africa). It was used with necessary variations to suit the group. The second part of the meeting was the business meeting, consisting of the reading of minutes, discussion of practical matters, planning, evaluation or reports on projects. The spiritual aspect of each meeting varied according to the occasion and the liturgical season. For example, sometimes we had Holy Mass. At other times, we had some other devotion. In the month of May, we had the recitation of the rosary. During Lent, we had the Stations of the Cross, but most times, we had gospel-sharing. However, whatever we did, whichever traditional devotion we decided to do, we tried to make it creative and nourishing, keeping in mind Mr. G. O.‟s initial advice, “make it juicy”. The results were fantastic. It was a deeply satisfying experience for the people. As Mrs. E. A. once expressed: “it is the same devotions we do in our own parishes; and yet when we come to the sisters‟ house, it is different and special.” For one thing, we maintained a participative spirit in whatever we did; that is, involving as many different people as possible in leadership roles and responsibilities. For „Stations of the Cross,‟ for example, at the beginning, we asked for volunteers irrespective of gender, to take their numbers up to fourteen. People took turns to lead the group in prayer, or to carry the picture for each station. We did it outdoors around the compound. The spirit of participation prevailed throughout, and there were built-in periods of silent reflection. That was followed by a vocal prayer and a different lenten song. The recitation of the rosary was similarly participative, and we read from a relevant portion of the bible, for each mystery of the rosary. Periodically, we had a whole day of prayer including a penitential service and opportunities for a choice of priests for confession. Flexibility, creativity, and openness to inspiration characterized our style. As a community we often prayed for this 26 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 inspiration, and our prayers were answered in marvelous ways. We prayed for light to know the next step, what was best, and what the group needed most; and we moved with our hearts. We were unencumbered by fixed positions about how things were always done „as in the beginning and ever shall be.‟ We let the Spirit move us in the here and now. In other words, we took seriously what we Christians have always believed: that the Spirit, the Counselor, lives indeed in our hearts. We did not let any sense of personal limitations undermine our confidence in the reality of this gift. It was God‟s own work happening in us. Knowing that an exclusively rational approach to sharing God‟s word in the liturgy, which has long been the favored model in the church, is inadequate for mature adult Christian formation, we explored an alternative symbolic approach. As a purely analytical approach is insufficient to bring about the kind of transformation required by a new evangelization in Africa, we adopted an approach that is more open to working with the images and symbols in the biblical texts we used for gospel-sharing.
Creative use of the scriptures After a bible story had been read, people would be invited to pick out and say aloud, a phrase or a word they found touching, encouraging or challenging; and to repeat it slowly, prayerfully, aloud, several times like a mantra, with silence in between. It was alright to repeat a phrase previously called out by someone else. This was followed by a period of silent reflection during which each one repeated his/her mantra within. Then followed an open forum for self-expression in which people were encouraged to speak their own reality, as evoked by the reading. „Sermonizing,‟ that is preaching at others, was discouraged. Our assumption was that if each one just shared about his/her own reality, to the extent she/he was comfortable, it did the group a service, as one person‟s story at a deep personal level touches into other people‟s experiences.
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We sometimes incorporated gospel sharing into the Mass. Apart from the liturgy of the word, everything else happened as usual for Mass. A sister usually directed the liturgy of the word. After all the readings, everybody sat down and shared what they found to be inspiring. First, people would be invited to say something that made a deep impression on them from the readings; usually a short phrase in the exact words of the text or in their own paraphrase. Then they could say how that particular word or phrase inspired them, and how they felt drawn to respond to it. This would be followed by intercessory prayers reflecting global concerns.
Praying with symbols and scriptures
Several times, participants incorporated the use of symbols into the gospel-sharing. This was done by laying out objects, which symbolized or captured the theme of a celebration or a piece of reading. The symbols were placed on a centerpiece on the floor or on a low table. After the prayer session had been opened, people would be invited to look at the symbol, to notice as much as possible about it and to say what they saw, in terms of: the shape, color, texture, size, uses, or anything else. Next, they were encouraged to connect with it; to let it speak to them and remind them of something in their experience; and to share if something came to them and they felt comfortable to share it. They were also reassured that there were no wrong or right answers about it. The important thing was that they should feel free to express what they genuinely saw, thought and felt inside. Often, the sharing was amazing. On one of the occasions participants had planned for Mass but the priest did not show up. So they decided to do gospel- sharing using symbol meditation. The reading that day was about the seed a farmer had planted. “Night and day, while he sleeps, when he is awake, the seed is sprouting and growing; how, he does not know. Of its own accord the land produces first the shoot, then 28 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 the ear, then the full grain in the ear. And when the crop is ready, he loses no time: he starts to reap because the harvest has come” (Mark 4: 26-29). To explore the images in this story contemplatively, variety of seeds were laid on a tray with several compartments. These included maize, beans, rice, green (amaranthus) seeds, wheat, peanuts and guinea-corn. These were grains grown in the area, and so, familiar from every day use. People connected very easily with them and shared extensively. Many people did not advert to the fact that we did not have Mass that day. We shared; broke for each other the bread of the word, the word of God, the liturgy of the Word. For this author who was one of the participants, it was most significant that, for a long time afterwards, people referred to something out of that experience of praying with the seed. Interacting with the symbolism of the seeds on the plate, Simulating the seed from the scriptures, While playing with the seed of the word, Already planted in the rich soil of the subconscious.
The outcome of an inclusive approach to ministry The gospel sharing was highly popular among the Associates. People looked forward to coming to the convent, as it gave them an opportunity to express their faith, their feelings, their struggles and puzzles; an opportunity for active participation in spiritual leadership, which they did not get anywhere else. People felt they belonged. They were Church! This was particularly so for people who wanted to and needed to pray with the bible, but were put off by the gimmicks of the Catholic Charismatic Renewal groups to which they had access. Some members appreciated the gospel-sharing experiences so much that they took it home, and integrated it into their family prayers. Some also introduced it into the parish group to which they belonged. This authorwas once invited to one such group in the parish of Our Lady‟s, Independence Way, Kaduna, Nigeria for a workshop on gospel- sharing. It gave the entire group an opportunity, as they put it, “to 29 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 hear from the horse‟s mouth.” In January 2004 when this author visited Kaduna, she attended Sunday Mass in that parish. She met that group still functioning and they invited her to discuss some of the points she had made in her books (Uchem, 2001, 2002), which some had read about the need to move towards a partnership of equals in our gender relationships. They had so much to say on either side of the issues. Apart from the quality programs put on for the associates, which were very central, the most decisive helpful factor, however, was the attitude of the sisters; the personal way in which they connected with them. The warmth and the sense of belonging, which the sisters radiated to them, helped very much to make that ministry what it was. Different associates had different experiences; but there was a recurrent theme in all their feedback. They felt enriched and nourished, spiritually and otherwise. As one woman, A. K. puts it, “each time we come, we go away with something.” Another member, Dr V. C. O., a man who had been one of the pioneer members, had this to say: “We realized that you people meant business. You meant what you said to us from the beginning and were serious about it. Whenever we come, we receive something that brings us nearer to God … Otherwise, we would have stopped coming a long time ago.” The aforementioned statement of Dr. V.C.O from the point of view of this author was quite revealing. Indeed, what kept the group going was that it was mutually beneficial. The people benefited immensely and the sisters found it very fulfilling to be actively engaged in ministering to people in a way that made such a difference for them. It sent out ripples holding potentials for remodeling and transforming people‟s psyche in the secular and ecclesiastical arenas towards more inclusiveness with regard to gender, ethnicity and class in Nigeria.
A changing consciousness of gender roles We had been inviting different priests each time. After certain experiences, a member brought a suggestion that they 30 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 should ask the bishop for a permanent chaplain so that getting Mass for their meetings would be easier for them. This author knew that getting a permanent chaplain might bring in some unnecessary complications. For example, if things did not work out between the chaplain and the group, the group would be stuck with him, and not easily get a replacement. This author was still considering how to put across her thoughts without giving offense when a young gentleman who had only joined the group newly spoke up. “We don‟t want any chaplain,” he said. “When they come now, they will take over everything. We are happy to relate with the Sisters as we are doing.” Well, that said a lot! Nobody added anything and nobody subtracted; and that settled it. The point is that when people have experienced women‟s ministry as facilitating a sense of Church as a communion of God‟s people, understood as women as well as men, they know the difference. People long for more of it. To a similar effect, Susan Ross (1993) has aptly observed: Many Catholics who have experienced the ministry of women in various capacities such as counseling and preaching are beginning to question the wisdom of an all male priesthood and the deprivation of the wider community of the full exercise of women‟s gifts (p.202).
This is certainly true in this author‟s experience and those of many other women pastoral associates around the world. People are increasingly seeing no convincing reason for excluding women from priestly ordination. It gets very ludicrous in those mission situations where, evidently, there are some people behind the scenes, providing all the dynamism in a parish; while there are some others whose simple role is that of extending their hands in blessing for anything to happen at all. This undermines the very essence of a sacramental spirituality. Therefore, Susan Ross (1993) is right when she says that this is “a powerful reminder of the injustice of women‟s exclusion from sacramental ministry … An
31 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 all-male priesthood reinforces the common [erroneous] assumption that grace is always mediated by men ...” (p.202). However, the fact remains that women have truly been mediating God‟s grace, in sacramental ministries in the Church; only that it has never been publicly and officially recognized. On a hopeful note, Ross (1993), believes that “the more recent emphasis on the servant nature of the priesthood and the priest‟s relation to the community have begun to transform the self-concept of the priesthood” (p.203). Well, this may be true for some priests and this author is aware of some of them; but very sadly, it has not yet entered the imagination of some others she has encountered, not only in Nigeria and Europe, but also in the United States. Part of the explanation might be that these gentlemen have had no experience of an inclusive model of human relations and leadership, since their seminary formation is based on a hierarchical model and oriented toward „being in charge‟ rather than being „in a team.‟ Secondly, and even more fundamentally, male domination is pervasive and deeply rooted in the collective human psyche (Uchem, 2001: 160). It is in turn, propagated through the process of socialization. Both men and women are socialized into male-dominated cultures, creating the illusion that maleness is the norm of humanity and femaleness is outside the norm. In that case, anything or anybody different from this “norm” is inferior, evil, to be feared, pitied and dominated. However, giving God‟s people a chance to experience women‟s sacramental leadership has been known to produce major shifts in consciousness away from such negative belief systems and towards greater inclusion and appreciation of women‟s ministry.
The ministry of the word in southern Kaduna There are some indications on the local level that one day things will change at the higher levels in keeping with the pattern historical changes have taken in the Church (Uchem, 2001: 237). An encouraging sign of this snail-pace journey towards change happened for this author at the funeral of M. L, a girl my 32 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 community had ministered to in the course of her illness. She was the daughter of Mr P. L., one of our Associates from Rigasa. We had supported the family with visits, prayers and other things. She had a rare kind of disease. The family had been worn out watching her die gradually from not responding to any kind of medication. This author knew about M.L‟s predicament the day she was expected to die. This author met the girl‟s father coming out from the rectory in her parish after calling for the last sacraments for her after not seeing him for several days. With eyes full of tears, he told her: “My daughter is dying”. This author was deeply touched and promised to visit them right away. She notified the sisters in her community and they had a quick lunch so as to be prepared for whatever they might meet, thinking they would meet a funeral. Two of the sisters had been in the healing ministry of the Catholic Charismatic Renewal Movement before they joined the Holy Rosary Sisters. It was these two the author invited to accompany her. One was a certified nurse as well. All the family was already weeping when they arrived at the house. This author and her group prayed the rosary with M. and her family, and rubbed her all over with olive oil. They spent a long time with them and tried to console them. The last sacraments Mr. P. L. had requested for the girl never came. This author and her group left and M. did not die that day, and did not die for several months afterwards. The sisters took turns to visit her and to support the family. Meanwhile, through one of this author‟s associates in the person of Dr V.C.O., she got in touch with the Justic and Peace Commission in the parish of St. J. T.B.W of which he was chair, and which was better off materially than this authors‟s parish. Consequently, three doctors volunteered to investigate M.‟s sickness and to treat her. Following the prognosis, they prescribed a drug that could correct the imbalance in her metabolism; and it was only available in Germany. The very next day after the order had been sent out, M. died. Every one concerned accepted the news with resignation, knowing that the family and the larger Christian 33 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 community had done everything possible to save M.‟s life. The family was particularly consoled by all the care and concern they had received. Having journeyed together with the L. family, this author felt greatly touched and enriched by their faith. During the burial of M, one of the leaders of the community approached this author and asked her if she would address the gathering. This author had previously preached in their church on a few occasions. The people had been experiencing the sisters‟ ministry as life-giving and made no hiding of it. Yet, some of the leaders of the community were very ambivalent towards the sisters. Their non-verbal cues often betrayed and belied their attempts at being nice to them. Apparently, their reservations about women‟s leadership came from the triple effects of their surrounding Muslim influence, coupled with their own traditional ethnocentric attitudes, reinforced by the „Christian tradition‟ of subordinating women on the basis of a literal reading of the bible. These men had such a hard time figuring out „these women who did not seem to know that their place was with the pots and pans in the kitchen, not in public ministerial roles.‟ It was one of those men who came to this author and asked her to preach at the graveside; and so, she spoke to the people from her heart. What was gratifying and very significant for her was that they should ask a person from another ethnic group, a woman from the south, to preach. Evidently, something had shifted in them; and whatever it was, it certainly was a major shift in consciousness!
A sacramental moment among some traditional Igbo people Occasionally, one finds cracks in the walls of the „male system‟ that tends to exclude women. If it happens to be one of those moments when one is sufficiently Atuned to a sacramental mode of being, one moves in, and takes hold of the creative moment. This author have had several experiences of sacramental ministry within the framework of both the Igbo culture and the Catholic Church (Uchem, 2001: 239). One such occasion was when she escorted a young sister to visit her ancestral home for the first 34 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 time. She had been born and brought up in a neighboring country to Nigeria, and had joined the Holy Rosary Sisters‟s community from there. With some vital information from her, the set out from Enugu, to trace her family home in Imo State. Upon arrival in the compound, those at home welcomed them; and to dispel undue strain, the sisters quickly said who they were and what had brought them. The young woman with this author had no word of Igbo language. So, this author was the translator. When the family learned that this was their daughter, N; so and so‟s child, they made quite a scene. Their joy was so great that they practically forgot themselves. They presented the visitors with kolanuts and asked this author to bless and break it. “The kolanut … is about the size of a chestnut and grows in a pod on the trees of Cola acuminata and Cola ntiga. … It is presented to visitors as a symbol of welcome, hospitality, friendship, peace and unity.” (Okorie, 1995, p. 9). Inside her, she could not believe it as she recalled that women were not allowed to bless the kolanut, just like the Christian Eucharist! (Uchem, 2001: 60-61). She knew this was a sacred moment and a significant one. “How should she respond?” she wondered inside her. Well, this author moved with it, thanked them and ceremoniously lifted the plate of kolanuts and stretched herself to full stature; and all in the room rose with her. She prayed fervently from her heart, blessing God and invoking God‟s blessing on the household and all gathered there in the joy of seeing their daughter who was in the process of formation as a missionary sister. In return for their courtesy, after she had done the blessing, she passed the plate back to the family head to break the kolanuts. Perhaps, she needed further reflection on what she was doing and what was happening there for her. However, one could ask: “What was happening there for the people and what made them forget themselves and their tradition in the joy of that sacred moment?” Someone might say: “She is a reverend sister;” and of course, they are not regarded like other women; meaning by that, they have no gender. Again, others might say: “Perhaps, the people were 35 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 confused, thinking she was the same as the „reverend fathers”. Whatever they might have thought, the important thing to note is that the people did what was not usually done. They transcended their own culture; and that was not all! They were invited to three other households within the premises to bless kolanuts and to bless their houses with their presence. They had to find a way to bring all that to some closure, because they had some distance to travel that evening to return to Enugu, and it was getting very late. What this author really felt in that place was a sacramental moment, the kind that Leonardo Boff (1987) would depict as having “provoked them to transcend their immediate position, evoked and made present a high reality and convoked their sacramental encounter with God” (p.5). Such moments invite us to take more seriously in practice what we profess conceptually that we are Christ-bearers. Quite ironically, women who are said to be incapable of symbolizing Christ because Jesus was male were actually experienced as mirroring and mediating Christ! Theory is very different from reality. The truth is that, for no special merit on our part, we humans, women and men alike, are vehicles of divine grace. Where opportunities have allowed, people have experienced this truth for themselves as they found women‟s pastoral leadership as sacramental, and women as representing Christ.
Conclusion
The Holy Rosary Associateship is one of the avenues through which some sisters have tried to implement participative ministry and leadership. It was, primarily, about spirituality, mission and ministry. On the whole, the experience of the Holy Rosary Associateship and the other ministries of the sisters of the Holy Rosary in Kaduna were a great witness. Considering that the human psyche is influenced more by symbols and precedents than by words alone, one may never tell the ultimate outcome of the various experiences that characterized the associates‟ and other people‟s interactions with the sisters and with each other – that 36 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 counter-cultural witness and experience of belonging together and relating -- across lines of gender, socio-economic class and ethnic boundaries. One may never know the full extent these ripples of participation have gone in gradually leading to the ultimate transformation of the church and the wider society towards a partnership of equals in Christian communities.
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References Boff, L. (1987). Sacraments of life and life of the sacraments: Story theology. Pastoral Press.
Okorie, J., B., C. (1995). Oji Igbo: The Igbo Kolanut. Uzo esi asu n’ agozi oji n’ala Igbo. Presenting and blessing of Kolanut in Igboland. Milipitas, CA 95035.
Ross, S., A. (1993). God‟s Embodiment and Women: Sacraments. In C., M., LaCugna (Ed.) Freeing Theology: The Essentials of Theology in Feminist Perspective. California: Harper San Francisco.
Uchem, R., N. (2002). Beyond Veiling: A Response to the issues in women’s experiences of subjugation in African Christian cultures. Enugu: SNAAP Press.
______(2001). Overcoming women’s subordination: An Igbo African and Christian Perspective: Envisioning an inclusive theology with reference to women. Florida: Dissertion.com; and Enugu: SNAAP Press.
Vatican II: (1992). The concilliar and post-concilliar Documents. Volume I. Austin Flannery. (Ed.), Dublin: Dominican Publications.
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BIBLICAL LOVE OF THE ENEMY: GOD-MODEL- MANIFESTO FOR CHRISTIAN ACTION AND CELEBRATION IN A VIOLENT NIGERIAN SCENARIO
Cosmos B. Wule, Ph.D., Department of Religious Studies University of Jos, Jos, Nigeria
Introduction Love embraces a number of issues. Its scope involves a wide variety of human activities that form the pedestal and elements of personality traits like justice, kindness, charity, compassion, blessing, joy, pleasure, mercy, justice, freedom, courage, peace and grace. First and foremost, love is an attribute of a good, compassionate and just God who made all things and sustains everything that is transmitted to nature. It is therefore inseparable with God revealed in the nature and works of Jesus Christ. Consequently, the love of God comes to us via Christ in the cast of his life, ministry, passion and glorification. Accordingly, Steele (1984, 13) presumes that the history of God‟s intercourse with men is the chronicle of his love. What is required of man is the act of authentication and conformity with God‟s Love symbolized in Christ. It is thus difficult for any society to grasp the significance and parameters of love unless it is properly understood from the perspective of the Supreme Good which is God in His innermost Holiness. However, our understanding of love cannot be achieved without a fairly good perception of its opposing principle hatred or evil which represent all the structures of violence and anarchy in the society. Love, either in magnitude or degree, is measured by its privation as well as its accessibility even though in our limited knowledge we cannot fully comprehend it in its complex nature since it is shrouded in some form of mystery. The 39 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 question therefore is, what is the nature of love and how does it influence us as people made in the image and likeness of God? How do we respond to the imperatives of love in a violent socio- political situation like Nigeria? Could anyone really love an enemy? How do we catch love, release love and receive back love? What is the miracle of love? This paper would attempt a fair assessment of these questions. However, a good understanding of the biblical context of the love of a friend and of an enemy depends to a great extent on our knowledge of the love-motif and principle of Jesus in the general and specific sense.
Love: Meaning and Connotation
Love has a variety of expressions and means many things to different peoples at different times. Thus what expressed in English as love is differentiated in Greek by a variety of idiomatic turn of phrases. The Greek has three major verbs for love with their concomitant noun forms: agapaō (avgapa,w -verb) with the noun being agapē (avga,ph); phileō (file,w -verb), philia and philos (fili,a & fi,loj-noun forms); eraō (evraw/ -verb), erōs (evrw/j - noun). We shall now examine these words to determine what they really mean.
Agapaō (avgapa,w)
The verb occurs 142 times in the New Testament, while its related noun agapē (avga,ph) is found 116 times. It is translated love 86 times and charity 27 times (Earle 1991, 237). In the Bible, the verb agapaō appears frequently as an alternative or a synonym with eraō and phileō (i.e. to be fond of, treat respectfully, be pleased with, to welcome), and refers to someone favored by a god/God. However, unlike eraō, it is not a man‟s longing for possession, but a generous move by one for the sake of the other. This is expressed in the way agapētos (avgaphto,j) is used of a 40 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 child, particularly of an only child to whom all the love of his parents is given. The related noun agapē finds its origin in standing for the Hebrew áhabâh which denotes first men‟s relationship with each other, and secondly God‟s relationship with man. In the New Testament the verb agapaō and the cognate noun agapē have taken particular significance in that they are used to speak of the love of God, or the way of life based on it (Brown 1986, 538, 539). Consequently, the word agapē has come to be recognized as the highest word for “love” in the New Testament (Earle 1991, 237).
Phileō (file,w)
The verb phileō has as its infinitive philein (file,in), and occurs 25 times. It is translated love 22 times and kiss 3 times; to mean reference to the love of affections. The noun philia (fili,a) however is found only once in James 4:4 and is translated friendship therefore affectionate friendship (Earle 1991, 238). Accordingly, phileō is the most commonly used, indicating general attraction towards a person or thing. In the foreground it stands for the meaning of love for one‟s relatives or friends, but the whole area of fondness is also included with God or gods, men and things. The correlated noun philia do not just denote friendship but also love, devotion and favor; while the cognate noun philos [male] or philē [female](fi,loj , ou m and fi,lh , hj f) means a relative or a friend (Brown 1986, 538). eraō (evraw/) The Greek verb eraō and its cognate noun erōs on the other hand according to Brown (1986, 539) signify the love between a man and a woman, which embrace desire, craving or sexual lust. There was however a more physical understanding of the noun erōs in which the Greek sought to reach or go beyond normal human limitations in order to attend perfection. Apart from the fertility
41 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 cults, there were the mystery religions/cults whose rites were intended to unite the participant with the godhead. Here spiritual and physical unity with the god came into the foreground, with more erotic pictures and symbols used. Thus erōs for Plato was the striving for righteousness, self-possession and wisdom as an embodiment of the good and the way to attend immortality. While in Aristotle (Met. 12,7p, 1072a, 27f), the concept was further developed in the same direction and in Plotinus (A.D. 205-c 269) the mystical inspiration toward spiritual union with the transcendental dominates (Enneads 5, 5, 8; 6, 8, 15). Thus in Stauffer‟s analyses, eran (infinitive; the verb being eraō) is „passionate love which desires the other for itself‟ (TDNT, 1:35). From the Greek word erōs we get the English word erotic with all its sensual connotations. Therefore erōs and eran are not found in the New Testament (Earle 1991, 238).
Stergō (stergw) The three already mentioned are prominent in Greek thought and philosophy.However, the other word that is not in common usage is the verb stergō (stergw) which means to love or feel affection for; especially of mutual love of parent and children. It can also be used of the love of a people for their ruler, the love of a tutelary god for the people and even of dogs for their master. It is therefore less common for the love of a husband and a wife and does not occur at all in the New Testament, apart from the compounds astorgos [a;storgoj –: lacking normal human affection, inhuman= Rom. 1:31; 2 Tim. 3:3], and philostorgos [filo,storgoj -: loving, devoted- Rom. 12:10] (Brown 1986, 539). The above expressions of love determine the type of action required of a Christian to adopt as a principle and norm of action in the world with respect to human and environmental relations within concrete socio-political settings. However, it is necessary to expound the works of God in history and what is expected of men who are made in his likeness, especially as it relates to the love ideals. 42 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
The functions of love and christian socio-religious activism in Nigeria If love is a substance that is alive and functional in a systematic and pragmatic world, it essentially must perform practical roles that are tangible and relevant to real life-situation. It is therefore not an abstract element of being and thus commands the power of objective application. We are not left in doubt as to its use and function in time and space as evident in the activities of persons, ages and civilizations.
Love as agapē (avga,ph) and Divine Mystery For God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believes in him should not perish, but have everlasting life (Jn.3:16). The starting point of the exposition of love is God, since He Himself is Love personified. This passage in John carries the highest or heaviest weight and significance of what love represents in terms of both human and divine relations. It goes further to reveal that the love of God is supreme and mysterious, because it involves the supreme form of sacrifice expressed in truth and in holiness. According to O‟ Donovan (1996, 60), real love is seen much more by action than by words. This fact has been exhibited in God‟s singular act of compassion in which He gave his son as ransom for all men under sin and death that forgiveness, reconciliation and deliverance unto life might be accomplished and increased. The word agapē which is the unconditional love of God for humanity and His created order is typical of the love that knows no bounds. In Brown‟s view, the word love in Hebrew thought is used less commonly and with greater caution for describing the relationship between God and man. In the OT man can never 43 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 ascend to God, but in Greek philosophy of erōs man can rise to God through a process of perfection. Based on the Hebrew reflection, all human feelings, actions, ideas, and worship are a response to a previous scheme by God, which the LXX refers to as agapē (cf. Ex. 24). The great deeds of Yahweh in history are his gracious initiations expressed in righteous love for which his people reply with jubilation, praises and obedience. God loves his people through every distress they meet in life. The proof of His love is in the Torah through which the believer reciprocates by obeying God‟s commandments and by remaining true and faithful to Him even at the point of martyrdom [4 Macc. 13:24; 15:3]. In John, God‟s nature and activity are illustrated with particular clarity by the use of agapē. Here, parallel ideas used include dikaiosynē [righteousness], charis [grace] and eleos [mercy] (Jn. 3:35; 10:17; 15:9; 17:23ff). In Johannine tradition, mutual love is grounded in the love of God (Jn. 13:34; 1 Jn. 4:21) and it is a sign and proof of faith (1 Jn.3:10). Consequently, love of one‟s brother derive from the love of God, and without love for one‟s brother, there can be no relationship with God (1986, 540, 542, 546). It is important to realize also that the believer is foremost a sinner, yet he is loved by God. This idea captures the real meaning of agapē. However, man enters the sphere of God‟s love only when he realizes his shortcomings and imperfection. He himself becomes loving, kind and compassionate, thus imitating God‟s love through the love of one‟s neighbor derived from this same love of God [Rom. 5:5; 15:30; Gal. 4:1] (Brown 1986, 545). It is in this sense that we must understand God‟s love as fundamental and ultimate for human action in history. Thus Hargreaves posits that we very often forget that if God is our Father, all other people created in his image and likeness are his sons and therefore our brothers (cf. Rom. 12:15) so that if we do not love in this way, we miss the full mark and meaning of love (1979, 53).
Love as symbol of Christian Marriage
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Love is God‟s nature, but it is symbolic of a marriage relationship, especially Christian marriage. This entails that those who enter into marriage relationship share in God‟s own nature, which is love. For Ray (1992, 59) therefore, the Holy Spirit which unites us in love leads us to share in the love of God that is revealed in his son Jesus Christ (Rom. 5:5). To walk in the Spirit is to share and serve one another in love (Gal. 5:13-16), which to me is evidence of mutual respect, love and trust symbolized in marriage relations. It is against this background that Gbuji (2006, 29) has argued that marriage is a covenant of love, and it is intended to reveal the richness of God‟s love. Unfortunately, and very often people identify love with sexual pleasure, satisfaction, or lust and in some cases infatuation or naked passion. But we must realize that love which comes from God‟s nature is a reality which involves faithfulness, forgiveness, peace, trust, generosity, integrity, harmony, self-sacrifice, loyalty, respect and honor. This brand of love is demonstrated by God in the imagery of His love for His people Israel; the Church being the New Israel whom He has chosen out of many as exemplified in the marriage covenant. Yahweh (God) is seen as the faithful loving husband, while Israel is considered often as the unfaithful and erring bride (Ezek. 16; Hos. 1: 1, 3; Jer. 3: 6). Consequently, people who enter into marriage are invited to share in God‟s mystery of love from which flows many blessings and responsibilities. Jesus has shown this degree of love by laying down his life for his friends and his bride the Church, for which there is no greater love than this (Jn. 15:13). Christian couples are invited and expected to imitate this love (cf. no. 49 – Gaudium et spes.). In the Old Testament love means a powerful perception expressed in the attitude of marital love as an enriching gift derived from the creation stories (cf. Gen. 2:18ff). This form of love also includes blood relationship with father and mother and the child as well as the spiritual bond between friends. In the Hebrew sense, agapaō, phileō and eraō cannot be clearly distinguished. Therefore, 45 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 the love which existed between Jonathan and David is spoken of and expressed in terms of communal fellowship deeper than love for a woman [1 Sam. 18:1,3; 20:17; 2 Sam. 1:26] (Brown 1986, 540). Love is therefore all-embracing and portrays a close intercourse and deep relationship as signified in marriage bond between husband and wife. But to what extend can people really democratize love and even extend the same to an enemy, real or imaginary?
Biblical love of the enemy as vital bond of peace and unity in violent socio-political scenarios in Nigeria Love and hate represent for the Eastern sensitivity two of the basic polarized attitudes to life (Brown 1986, 540). These also hold same for African pattern of life in which either one cherishes loves or chooses to hate, thus determining relationship and practical human actions. In this great antithesis of hate as adversary to love, so many things emerge in the social setting, the grave indexes in consequence of which include among others: Intolerance Corruption Self-centeredness Anger Poverty Illiteracy and ignorance Lack of transparency and accountability Deception and falsehood Treachery Bondage and enslavement Greed and covetousness Fear, suspicion and uncertainty Destruction Violence and anarchy
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It is against this background that Christ has commanded his followers to live such extraordinarily exemplar life style expressed in these passages: Then Jesus said to his disciples, "If anyone would come after me, he must deny himself and take up his cross and follow me (Matt. 16:24); 'So always treat others as you would like them to treat you; that is the Law and the Prophets (Matt. 7:12). The must significant of the antithesis of love and hate is the broad scale of Jesus‟ challenge concerning the unconditional love of an enemy, which safeguards the charter of all moral powers to maximize peace and reconciliation in an unfriendly and violent world. This is because love is the light of true civilization and true practical living. When this happens, unbelievable things occur. The picture turns out to be that of gentleness, kindness, confidence, patience, forgiveness, temperance, humility, self-control, empathy, understanding and righteousness. And because love changes human thinking and attitude, Jesus reflects deeply on its secret substance and summoned humanity to action, saying: You have heard that it was said, `An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth.' But I say this to you: offer no resistance to the wicked. On the contrary, if anyone hits you on the right cheek, offer him the other as well… "You have heard that it was said, `You shall love your neighbor and hate your enemy.' But I say to you, Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you; so that you may be sons of your Father who is in heaven; for he makes his sun rise on the evil andon the good, and sends rain on the just and on the unjust (Matt. 5:38, 39, 43, 44, 45).
This kind of love and affection which demands sacrifice, forgiveness and reciprocity is an entreaty to every one who knows God, because “Whoever lives in love lives in God, and God in 47 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 him” (1 Jn. 4:8, 16 - o` mh. avgapw/n ouvk e;gnw to.n qeo,n( o[ti o` qeo.j avga,ph evsti,n; ~O qeo.j avga,ph evsti,n( kai. o` me,nwn evn th/| avga,ph| evn tw/| qew/| me,nei kai. o` qeo.j evn auvtw/| me, neiÅ). Our thesis is this, that with genuine love flowing in our veins, the heart forgives all wrongs and by implication defeats all evil construction and machinations of the human mind. The implication of loving an enemy further brings to mind the desire for human solidarity, for justice and the struggle for socio-economic, political, spiritual transformation and development. It is important to note, however, that Pauline theology is replete with love which demands practical action from the followers of Jesus Christ. The Christian Church (an Assembly of God‟s people) is founded on this principle of faith and practice which is rooted in the love of Christ as the Head. As Ridderbos (1975, 203, 209) claims, “to be rooted in Christ is to be rooted in love” (Col. 2:7; Eph. 5:17) and that to be a new creation is to be in Christ and this is expressed as “faith working itself out in love” (Gal. 6:15). In deed, love is mentioned by Paul to cohabit with faith and hope as the real heart and content of the Christian life (1 Cor. 13:13; 1 Thess. 1:3; Col. 1:4; Gal. 5:5ff). Yet of all these, love is the greatest, and most significantly the first fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22; Rom. 15:20; Col. 1:8). It therefore expresses and explains what it means to be in Christ, to be in the Spirit, to be in and live by faith which constitutes the mark of true Christian life. In love is freedom form sin and its consequences (Gal. 5:13), and in it the demands of the law are fulfilled (Rom. 13:10). Love then is evidence of one already known by God (1 Cor. 8:3), and it is a reflection and constitution of the vital elements of the Church (Eph. 4:15, 16). Believers are to owe one another nothing but love demonstrated in honor and selfless service (Gal. 5:13; Rom. 13:8) without any show of individualism and discrimination. It therefore becomes for all Christians the fundamental principle of religious life and spirituality. In God‟s love rests the power of his election and selection of men as his beloved children. In any case, the love of God is 48 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 meant to be shared among and by all his children as members of his family, thus there is no distinction or segregation: For there is no distinction between Jew and Greek; the same Lord is Lord of all and bestows his riches upon all who call upon him (Rom. 10:12). This fact of life leads us to the next point of reflection.
Love as Reflection of Universal Peace and Stability In the world we find love and hate, good and evil, sadness and joy, courage and fear, justice and injustice, peace and violence, life and death. This means that life is full of anti-thesis, and therefore the capacity of choice has become inevitable. But love by its very nature can conquer this anti-thesis, if properly ordained and pursued. Let us begin here by reflecting on love as a universal principle and ethic for orthopraxis. It is necessary to realize, as Steele claims that so long as sin is in the world, love must wage war against it. Further more, love is revealed as dominant cause over this world, not a fondling sentimentality, but a holy principle, acting in accordance with wisdom and justice, saving the penitent, not condemning him. Perfect love is meant to correct, to cast out not only fear, but all the hateful progeny of depravity. Thus it begins with the seed-grain of holiness sown in regeneration and change of heart (1984, 16, 17, and 19). If we read and understand the Scriptures well, we discover that love for God is based on two basic commandments articulated by Jesus (Brown 1986, 543): One of them, an expert in the law, tested him with this question: "Teacher, which is the greatest commandment in the Law?" Jesus replied: "'Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind.' {37 Deut. 6:5}. This is the first and greatest commandment. And the second is like it: 'Love your neighbor as yourself.' {39 Lev. 19:18}. All the Law and the Prophets hang on these two commandments." (Matt. 22:35-40; Mk. 12:28-34, cf. Luke 10: 25-28). 49 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
This simple answer given by our Lord to his testers captures the totality of the universality of God‟s love which is expected of man to reproduce. Jesus is God-incarnate, visiting his people and living amongst them. Those who conform to him are called his children and therefore must act in holiness as He Himself is made manifest. As we live in the world, our actions should conform to his actions in history. Foremost, the life of Jesus is the record of biblical accountability for ethical reflection on the consort of love. O‟Donovan (1996, 60-62) speculates that as Jesus entered his public ministry, he acted in kindness, love, compassion and mercy, which stand as mark of holiness. He healed the sick, restored the eyes of the blind, forgave his transgressors, cleansed the lepers, cloth the naked, cast out demons, set the captives free, raised the dead and ministered to people‟s pains, sorrows and needs in countless ways (cf. Luke 4: 17-19). The message of 1 Jn. 4:8 re- echoes this point as reference is made to the fact that, “whoever does not love does not know God, because God is love”. Christ became a servant to men despite his position as a divine being in the Godhead, simply because he loved them. He therefore revealed the goodness and compassion of God to us as One who loves unconditionally, who cares and who helps us in time of all our needs (Luke 18:42,43; cf. Isa. 61:1ff). This means that God‟s love is unfailing, constant and imperishable (Ridderbos 1975, 209). Accordingly, love is understood as lying at the root of social community life: “You shall love your neighbor as yourself” (Lev. 19:18). Love in this sense means devotion towards one‟s neighbor for his own sake, accepting him as a brother and letting come into his own, illustrated by social legislation, especially as it relates to the rights of aliens [Lev. 19: 34; 25: 35] (Brown 540). The ultimate purpose of God‟s love according to Ridderbos (1975, 300) is manifest perfectly in human life epitomized in the love of fellowman (Rom. 2:25; 9:5; 11:33). This devotion applies not only to fellow Christians but to those who are outside the Church and Christian fold ([]- 1 Cor. 5: 12, 13; Col. 4: 5; 1 Thess. 4: 12; cf. 50 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
Phil. 4:5), therefore Christians should not repay evil for evil (Thess. 5:15), but should be at peace with all men (Rom.12:17), even to the hostile and unjust (1 Cor. 4:12). The universality of love is a master piece of the Pastoral Epistles (cf. 1 Tim. 2: 1; 4:10), after all it must be recalled that Christ gave himself as ransom for all men (1 Tim. 2: 5,6; Tit. 2:11,12; 3:2; Phil. 2: 15,16; Col. 4: 5.6).
The corresponding relation with what we intend to achieve here is that love is made up in sacrifice and knows no bounds for those who know its meaning and are deeply involved, be it the love of husband for a wife or parents for their children or boyfriend for a girlfriend, or a friend for a friend, or an enemy for a foe, or of God/gods for men under depravity or vice-versa in every case. Love in its actual meaning is real love not infatuation, naked lust or deception.
Conclusion In conclusion, I would say that if Jesus has paid the supreme price of love which many martyrs have emulated, love has conquered. Thus if we truly love, nothing can stand on our way, nothing can stand between us and God, for as St. Paul would say: Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? Shall trouble or hardship or persecution or famine or nakedness or danger or sword? (Rom. 8:35). It is important therefore as a Christian to consider the love injunction in 1 Corinthians 13 which says: If I speak in the tongues of men and of angels, but have not love, I am a noisy gong or a clanging cymbal. And if I have prophetic powers, and understand all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have all faith, so as to remove mountains, but have not love, I am nothing. If I give away all I have, and if I deliver my body to be burned, but have not love, I gain nothing. Love is always patient and kind; 51 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
love is never jealous; love is not boastful or conceited. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. Love bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things. Love never fails…So faith, hope, love abide, these three; but the greatest of these is love.
This passage sums up the requirement for us ordinary men to celebrate Love as characteristic of the common good; as a strong and deep concern for the brotherhood of humanity; as respectful affection for husband and wife, children and friends alike; as unconditional love of a foe by which truth, forgiveness and reconciliation strives; as benevolence, devotion, trust, kindness, patience; as faithfulness to God and to man. Love is all about being friendly, about helping others, about being accountable, about compassion, about happiness, about peace, about stability, about sacrifice, about honor, about loyalty, about fairness, about justice, about being sweet, about being spiritually and morally sound. To say the least, it is beyond human description and total comprehension. It is in view of this that love is a supreme act instituted by God. It is a call to live by it and for it because where there is love, there is justice, there is peace and there is life.
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References Bible Works,5.0, Windows 98/2000 Release Version 5.0.034a 2001 Bible Works, LLC. Michael S. Bushell and Michael D. Tan, programmers. CD-ROM. Norfolk, VA: L. L. C. 1992-2002. Brown, C. ed.1986. The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology Vol. 2. Grand, Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Corporation and the Paternoster Press. Earle, R. 1991. Word Meanings in the New Testament. One Vol. ed. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House. Fernando, Ajith. 1998. Acts: The NIV Application Commentary- from Biblical Text…to Contemporary Life. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House. Gbuji, O. Anthony 2006. The Pastoral Care of Marriage and Family Life in Nigeria. Ibadan, Nigeria: St. Pauls. Hargreaves, J. 1979. A Guide to the Parables. London: SPCK. Mbiti, J. S. 1970. Concepts of God in Africa. London: SPCK. New International Version Life Application Bible (NIV). 1988, 2005. Wheaton, Illinois and Grand Rapids, Michigan: Tyndale House Publishers & Zondervan Publishing House. O‟Donovan, W. 1996. Biblical Christianity in African Perspective. Ilorin, Nigeria: Paternoster Press. Picture Frames.co.uk javascript__do Post Back(“ct100$btnlogin”). Ray, R. Ronald 1992. Becoming a Christian: A Biblically Ecumenical Perspective. Bukuru, Nigeria: R. R. R. Publications. Ridderbos, H. 1975. Paul: An Outline of his Theology. John Richard De Witt (Trans.). Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. Steele, D. D. Daniel. 1984. Love Enthroned. Salem, Ohio: Schmul Publishers. Stevenson, W.R. ed. 1994. Christian Political Activism at the Crossroads. New York, London: Calvin Center Series.
53 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH AND INCULTURATION WITHIN THE NIGERIAN CULTURAL SETTING
Felix Ehimare Enegho, Ph.D
Abstract The issue of inculturation has continued to occupy the front burner in the Roman Catholic Church in Nigeria for several years. In the past, especially in Africa, the early missionaries to the continent consistently saw the relationship between the African culture and Christianity as alien. They reckoned that if the church was to be clearly understood by the African Christians the church was to be seen through the lenses of the West. It was as if Africans were not fully part of the Christian family in the global community. The position of the Second Vatican Council (1962 – 1965) is appreciated by the church in Africa. This is due largely to the fact that via inculturation the Roman Catholic Church in Nigeria now has a sense of belonging. Even in this present situation, there is the need for Roman Catholics in Nigeria just as in other parts of Africa to continue to take their destiny in their own hands. If the church is to be fully African and yet without any element of syncretism, it is fully and truly the responsibility of Africans to work hard to bring about an authentic inculturation. Since Nigerians are very cultural, it is the aim of this paper to assess inculturation in the Roman Catholic Church within the Nigerian cultural setting. 54 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
Key words: Roman, Catholic Church, inculturation, Nigerian, cultural setting
Introduction The place of culture in our global community cannot be overemphasized. It is in the light of this reality that this paper becomes quite relevant in order to bring to the front burner its importance in the life of the Roman Catholic Church in Nigeria. Not taking the issue of culture as important could be detrimental to Christianity as people are likely to perceive the Christian religion as the culture of the Western world. To buttress the catastrophic effect of culture in the lives of people not only in Africa but in other parts of the world if not properly handled, there is the need to point out here the Great Cultural Revolution that Mao Zedong launched in 1966 with the assistance of young people (Red Guards, many in their teens) to cleanse China of the pernicious influence of bourgeois culture which claimed the lives of 15 million people, according to most conservative estimates. Some others opine that no less than 50 – 70 million human lives were lost as a result of the excesses of those cultural zealots (Menamparampil 2002:9). Some African Christian scholars including this author hold the belief that the half success in the area of evangelism recorded by the early missionaries who came to sub – Saharan Africa has something to do with the fact that they failed to understand the African culture. Their failure to understand the cultural values of Africa led to their not achieving optimum success in their mission. It is wrong to see the African culture as barbaric, primitive and naïve. This is because there is no culture in this global village that has all the answers to issues. In the light of this assertion, is there no need to point out the fact that if Nigerians and indeed Africans in our contemporary time are to appreciate the beauty of Roman Catholicism, that the issue of inculturation should be taken more seriously so that Catholics in Nigeria who have affiliation with the 55 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 church of Rome may continue to be Roman Catholics and yet retain their identity as Nigerians?
Culture and the Christian Church Culture is certainly a concept that is not easily definable. But if it is taken to mean the way of thinking and behaviour shared by a substantial social grouping which gives them identity in relation to others, then there is no doubt that all persons participate in one culture or another. Culture‟s effect on theology and invariably on Christianity can be said to consist in the fact that no one can escape sharing in the mentality and intellectual climate of his or her own culture. In Christ and Culture, Richard Niebuhr distinguished five different, yet overlapping attitude to human culture that have found expression in the history of Christian thought on this issue. He described them respectively as „Christ against culture‟, „the Christ of culture‟, „Christ above culture‟ (or rather, „Christ and culture in synthesis), „Christ and culture in paradox‟ and „Christ as the transformer of culture‟. Apart from the first attitude which emphasizes a radical opposition between the revelation in Christ and the achievements of human culture, all the others indicate in varying degrees a positive estimation of culture. A theology of culture implies a continual revision of the church‟s and the theologian‟s perception of the polarities of Christ and culture in the light of the supreme significance of the death and resurrection of Christ for the destiny of the world and all human achievement (Ferguson 1988: 183). Though the Bible has no word for culture as such, it is however clear that from the beginning God created man and woman as creatures of culture. For instance, the early chapters of Genesis present the created orders as an interrelated community in which relations with God, the earth, and human beings all played a part. The fall following Adam and Eve‟s rebellion against God‟s instructions resulted in a disordered community and a culture that was a reflection of human pride. (Gen. 11:4) God‟s intervention emanating from His choosing Abraham to the deliverance of the 56 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
Israelites from Egypt, should be seen in terms of God‟s purpose to bring about restoration and renewal of the created order via a people reflecting His character (Dyrness 1984: 212). The Christian church was born in the midst of major intellectual traditions. Some, such as Justin Martyr, were of the view that good culture was a reflection of the divine Logos and preliminary training for the gospel. Others agreed with Tertullian, who insisted that culture was the locus of sin and that salvation involved an ethical separation from surrounding influences. But it soon became clear that if the church was to communicate its faith in terms that could be clearly understood by the world, it too, like the New Testament church must make use of current expressions. The ideas of infinitude and eternity, which the Greeks were reluctant to apply to God, were used to describe the Christian God; the Near Eastern idea of a transcendent source of all things influenced later formulations of the doctrine of creation; and Plotinus‟s intelligible world was used to describe the New Jerusalem and to formulate a way to God from within. At some other points, however, as views of history and providence, Christianity broke sharply with these influences (213). The position of Christianity was decisively changed in the world with the conversion of Emperor Constantine (A.D.312) to Christianity. He possibly changed the character of Christianity itself, and made it possible for a particular civilization to be identified with Christianity. The temptation was to see the Christian faith in an institutional way rather than as the power of God to reform individuals and communities. Augustine of Hippo contributed the first general interpretation of history and culture in his City of God. There he argued that history involved a continuous struggle between the city of man ruled by cupiditas ( or covetousness) and the city of God ruled by love. With the fall of classical culture Augustine had come to feel a certain pessimism about human achievement and the need to rely on the grace of God. For him, the fall created a split in human consciousness which could be healed only by submission to the church and an 57 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 appropriation of its art and liturgy as a way of achieving oblique knowledge of God. Biblical imagery then replaced the classics as the basis for a “Christian culture” which invariably laid the foundation for medieval art and worship (213). Some years ago, every human issue was discussed from the point of view of class – struggle. Even a family quarrel or a neighbourhood tussle could only be explained in the vocabulary of colliding class interests. But in our contemporary world, other forces dormant or unnoticed till now, have begun to reveal themselves. Ethnicity and cultures are being recognised as powerful determinants of human behaviour. We can ignore them only to our own detriment. It is not right to think that affirmation of one‟s identity is itself the source of trouble. Everybody has a right to belong to a community, and celebrate the sense of belonging. But he has the task of respecting similar rights of others. In fact, it is not an advantage for any community to have individuals who belong nowhere. It was said that “Karl Marx was thus a Jew and not a Jew, a Christian and not a Christian, a Prussian and not a Prussian” (Menamparapil 2002:11- 12). Such undefined identity, if it was really true, may not have been a blessing. Culture is so much a part of the lives of everyone in this global community that it is not easy for people to take a detached position, look at it from outside, and have a clear view of ourselves and of our culture objectively. It is even more difficult to see, comprehend and accept what is unique in another culture. It is more difficult still to learn to esteem, respect and interact intelligently with a vast variety of cultures at the same time. The „We – and – They‟ struggle (identity – otherness tension) has been going on through human history. For instance, in the early Christian community when the Hellenists complained against the traditional Jews that their widows were neglected in the daily distribution of food, the Apostles appointed seven efficient deacons to do impartial service (Acts 6: 1-7). But the inter – ethnic problem was not solved in the Christian Church for all time. There is the need for true servants of the Gospel to learn to become all things to all 58 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 people, and to understand, respect and even identify himself /herself with every community and culture at whose service he/she is. This he/she does for the Gospel‟ sake.(1 Cor 9:22 – 23) (Menamparapil 2002:13- 14).
Vatican Council II and inculturation The effect of Vatican Council II on the entire church can only be compared to a shaking of the foundations. John XXIII projected aggiornamento or openness to the world, to the signs of the times, as a way of life in the church. An ongoing Reform within the Roman Catholic Church becomes a key to ecclesiology. It was expected that „self – insulation‟ would no longer characterize ecclesial life. Theologians measuring the strength of the Vatican Council II from what obtained before its convocation, called it the end of the Tridentine or even Constantinian era (Alberigo 1985, Uzukwu 1986: 46) ). Rahner was so impressed by the shift of the Roman Catholic Church from being European church to a World – Church that he insisted that with Vatican Council II has come the “third epoch” of the church. This third epoch would be a turning point equally as momentous as the movement from Jewish Christianity (First Epoch) to Hellenism and European culture and civilization (Second Epoch) (1986: 46). The effort of the Vatican Council II Fathers is worthy of commendation especially on “The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy”. A section of the document emphasized on “Norms for adapting the Liturgy to the Temperament and Traditions of Peoples”. The Council Fathers opine that even in the liturgy it is not the intention of the church to impose a rigid uniformity in matters which do not involve the faith of the good of the entire community. Also, that anything in the life of the people of various races and nations which is not indissolubly bound up with superstition and error the church studies with sympathy, and if possible, preserves intact. She sometimes even admits such things into the liturgy of the church, as long as they harmonize with its true and authentic spirit (Flannery 1992: 13). 59 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
Concerning the “Norms based on the Educative and Pastoral Nature of the Liturgy” the Council Fathers pointed the fact that the use of the Latin language, with due respect to particular law, is to be preserved in the Latin rites. But that since the use of the vernacular, whether in the Mass, the administration of the sacraments, or in any other parts of the liturgy, may frequently be of great advantages to the people, a wider use may be made of it, especially in readings, directives and in some prayers and chants. They went further to state that translations from the Latin for use in the liturgy must be approved by the competent territorial ecclesiastical authority (13). With all these statements and others by the Vatican Council II Fathers, it is crystal clear that they meant well for the Roman Catholic Church in the area of inculturation.
The Roman Catholic Church in Nigeria and the drama of inculturation One thing is to hold a Council and another is its reception. Vatican Council II talked about implanting the church and adapting Christian life to various cultures (Ad Gentes, 6, 15-16, 18-19, 22), but the various local churches especially in the developing world abandoned these concepts for others like contextualization, adjustment and indigenization before they finally adopted the term “inculturation”. The concept “inculturation” seems to have been coined by the Anthropologist Melville Herskoviks in the 1930s. He used it to designate “the cultural education of a person”. The term was borrowed by Roman Catholic theology in the 1960s and was given a theological interpretation which states that “inculturation” is the significant presence of the Christian experience within the culture of the people whose environment the Christian experience takes roots. Inculturation is not to be seen as an intellectual research, but it is that attitude of Christians expressing their faith in the symbols and images of their respective cultures. To stimulate the process of inculturation is to take active part in the struggle of the less privileged so that they get liberated. Inculturation also entails the notion of growth, of the mutual enrichment of persons 60 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 and groups, made possible by the encounter of the gospel with a social milieu. It is also the incarnation of the Gospel in the hereditary cultures and invariably the introduction of these cultures into the life of the church (Scherer and Bevans 1992: 156, Enegho 2000: 146-148 ). Many years after the Vatican Council II there are still some Roman Catholics, the clergy and lay faithful alike who are not comfortable with the whole issue of bringing some positive aspects of the people‟s culture into the liturgy and total life of the church. This researcher has visited some Roman Catholic parishes in the dioceses of Uromi and Idah in Nigeria where there have been effort at indigenizing the liturgy. For instance, in Uromi diocese there have been the translation of the Catechism book into the Esan Language as well as attempting to translate the entire Mass. Priests during services highly encourage the use of the Esan language in the songs, prayers and in the readings. Some go the extra mile by preaching in the Esan language. Some others make use of local interpreters. In some celebrations, young girls wearing wrappers carry gifts to the altar with one of them carrying a native pot that has charcoal with some incense. As they dance to the altar, the pot with the charcoal that has fire with incense give the worshippers a scenario of their cultural heritage. Prior to the Vatican Council II, that would never have been allowed in the Roman Catholic Church. The same is practiced in Idah diocese of Nigeria and possibly in other diocese in Nigeria. This is because the Bishops Conference of Nigeria has continued to promote inculturation in one form or another. Also, the Roman Catholic Church in Nigeria has continued to bring about innovations aimed at promoting the positive aspects of the people‟s culture in the daily life of the church. Vestments are now been made in the local fabrics. Unlike many years prior to the Vatican Council II and after when vestments used during liturgical celebrations were imported from Rome. When one visits the several parishes of the Roman Catholic Church scattered all over Nigeria one is fascinated with the music used during liturgical 61 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 celebrations because of the fact that they are rendered most times in the local languages of the people. An average Nigerian loves music and dancing just as they love football. The Nigerian Roman Catholic is not an exception. People love to express themselves during the Eucharistic celebration. They sing and dance at the appropriate time during the Mass. However, there are still many Roman Catholics in Nigeria who see dancing during liturgical celebrations as an aberration. For such Catholics, anyone who engages in dancing at such a period is either a member of the Catholic Charismatic Renewal group or a visiting member of the non – Roman Catholic Church who are often referred to as the Pentecostals. This attitude on the part of some Roman Catholics has to do with the fact that many are still not aware of the inculturation effort of the church. The attitude of some Roman Catholic priests in Nigeria portray them as those who have not come to terms with the suggestions of the Vatican Council II Fathers in certain aspects in the life of the church and the need to indigenize the church in various cultures and nations. When the priests who ought to be at the forefront of promoting inculturation are not interested, one wonders how the local churches can move forward positively in this direction. When we refer to priests not encouraging inculturation the way they ought to, it is not to suggest that some are not promoting it. Another area that must not be forgotten in this inculturation drama is the place of traditional titles among devout Roman Catholics. In the past, it would be considered anathema if a member of the church was conferred with a tradition title. Such a person would be considered a non – Christian or one who have left the faith. But today, the story is different as some Roman Catholics are now traditional title holders. However, the church is expected to be notified if anyone is to be given a traditional title. The church through the priest and other representatives make sure that such titles are devoid of any ceremonies that are not in line with the belief and teachings of the church. There are some cases where some notable traditional rulers are members of the church. They are 62 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 encouraged to portray Christ in their various communities and try everything within their power to rid their palaces of rituals that reduces the dignity of the human person. This is not to assert that they ought to undermine the positive cultural values of the people. Thanks to the Bishop Conference of Nigeria, the use of the vernacular language has been incorporated into the curriculum in Seminaries where would – be – priests receive their Philosophical, Theological and pastoral training. In the Roman Catholic Major Seminaries, students have various liturgical groups where they meet frequently so as to interact in their various local languages. Their constant interaction in their various local liturgical groups all through their training in the seminaries act as great assistance in their pastoral work as Seminarians as well as in their apostolate as priests. This way, the students continue to be in touch with their various local cultures back in their parishes and dioceses. They also organize liturgical days where they showcase their cultures to others in the seminaries. For instance, in the SS. Peter and Paul Major Seminary, Bodija, Ibadan, and the All Saints Major Seminary, Uhiele – Ekpoma, both in Nigeria liturgical groups are highly encouraged. As seminarians who later are raised to the office of the Catholic priesthood, their involvement in the various liturgical groups has continued to be a source of encouragement to the Roman Catholic Church in Nigeria.
Conclusion That the Roman Catholic Church in Nigeria through the Catholic Bishops‟ Conference has continued to promote inculturation in the various parishes and dioceses is no longer news. The effort at indigenizing the Roman Catholic Church has continued to attract the attention of Roman Catholics in Nigeria and other parts of Africa as is the case with other parts of the world. The hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church has continued to be the vanguard of bringing about an indigenized Roman Catholic Church. However, much work still needs to be done by all and sundry. For instance, in his allocution to translators in 1965, Pope 63 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
Paul VI declared that vernacular languages had become vox ecclesia, the “voice of the Church”. Ironically, his statement was published in Latin, the “voice” that they had supposedly replaced. This event epitomizes the awkward position of the Roman Catholic Church today regarding language and translation. On the one hand, the pastors of the church are committed to the right of Roman Catholics to enjoy their own cultures and to pray in their own language. Yet they feel an obligation to preserve a certain unity in the way in which all Catholics think and pray. When these values seem to come into conflict, translation which is just one area in inculturation becomes a controversial procedure (Beall 1996). The key to the whole issue is how the Church understands and applies the notion of “inculturation”. Several writers posit an analogy between inculturation and incarnation of Christ. Just as the Logos “took flesh” and entered into the culture of first century Palestine, so must the Christian faith take on the culture of each group that receives the Gospel. It should be preached in terms familiar to the people, lest they begin to perceive Christianity as something foreign and irrelevant to their way of life. It goes without saying that this idea can have serious implications for the official worship of the church. In the words of liturgist, Father Anscar Chupungco, the liturgy must “think, speak, and ritualize according to the local cultural pattern” (Beall 1996). Furthermore, this attitude to faith and culture can be traced partly to the documents of the Second Vatican Council, especially Gaudium et spes. But while the Council Fathers emphasized the priority of “the Faith” over culture, some more recent theorists see culture as the ultimate source and norm of faith. Such theorists argue that the elements of the elements of the Gospel are already hidden in every culture, and that it is the responsibility of theologians, pastors, and liturgists bring to the front burner this hidden Gospel. They look forward to the coming to being of distinctive local forms of Christianity, each with its own way of expressing the content of the faith. Also, some writers associate inculturation with the struggle for liberation from all types of political and sexual oppression. For 64 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 them, the liturgy is a suitable forum for the expression and celebration of this struggle (Beall 1996). While the Roman Catholic Church in Nigeria continues to do all within her power to encourage the indigenization of Christianity, there is the need to note that the church is one in liturgy and in other areas as relates to the spread of the Gospel, yet the spreading of the good news of Christ via the various cultures should not be seen as an obstacle to the reception of Christianity. The Christian religion came out of Judaism and was first received by the Jews, yet it continued to spread to the gentile world though with the initial teething problems which were addressed at the Jerusalem Council of A.D 49. From then onward, the church has continued to face challenges in her bid at planting the Gospel among every nation and culture. In Nigeria today, inculturation has extended even to health care where many Roman Catholic priests and lay faithful are now involved in the traditional methods of rendering health care services. Worthy of mention is the contribution of the National Association of Pax Herbal Health Care Providers (PAX HERBALS) Ewu, Edo State, Nigeria under the direction of Rev. Fr. Anselm Adodo, Association of Scientific Identification, Conservation, and Utilization of Medicinal plants of Nigeria(ASICUMPON) in Enugu, Nigeria directed by Rev. Fr. Dr. Raymond Arazu as well as other priests and lay Catholic faithful scattered all across Nigeria. More of this sort of initiative should be encouraged and supported by the church. If Roman Catholics in Nigeria are to continue to be Catholics are yet remain Nigerians, the hierarchy of the church must continue to promote those values that are though cultural are not inimical to the genuine reception of the Gospel of Christ.
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References Alberigo, G.(1985) “La Condition Chretienne après Vatican II” La Réception De Vatican, Ed.. G. Alberigo and J.P.Joshua Paris: Cerf. Beall, S.M. (1996) “Translation and Inculturation in the Catholic Church.” Adoremus Bulletin. Online Edition. 11:6.1996 edition. Dyrness, W.A. (1984) “Christianity and Culture” in Walter, A.E (Ed.), Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Michigan: Baker Book House, 212 - 213. Enegho,F.E . (2002) “A Truly Nigerian Oriented Roman Catholicism: How Realistic?” EPHA: Ekpoma Journal of Religious Studies, 3:1& 2, 2000 edition, 146 - 148. Ferguson, S.B (Ed.) et. al. (1988) New Dictionary of Theology. Illinois: Inter – Varsity Press, Flannery, A. (Ed.). (1992) Vatican Council II: The Conciliar and Post Conciliar Documents. Boston MA: St Paul Books & Media. Menamparampil, T. (2002) Cultures in the context of sharing the Gospel. Mumbai: St. Pauls, . Scherer, J.A and B. Bevans (Eds) (1992) New Directions in Mission and Evangelisation 1: Basic Statements 1974 - 1991. New York: Obis books. Uzukwu, E.E.(1986) “Liturgical Celebration and Inculturation in Igbo Christian Communities – 20 Years After Vatican II” The Nigerian Journal of Theology 1:2, 1986 edition,46.
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ASSESSING THE POSITION OF THE ANGLICAN CHURCH IN NIGERIA TO SAME SEX MARRIAGE
Wilson E. Ehianu,PhD,
ABSTRACT The study examines scripture, culture or dogma as possible basis for the position of the Anglican Church in Nigeria to same sex marriage. It is established that a convergence of these factors, coupled with the encouragement from prominent individuals and the federal government of Nigeria account for the seemingly uncompromising stance of the church to the phenomenon. The methodology adapted in this paper is historical and phenomenological. The Anglican communion in Nigeria is not likely to shift ground on same sex marriage which not only threatens the corporate existence of the communion but cast serious doubts on the ability of the head of the church worldwide to keep the church focused on its principal mission- the salvation of souls.
Introduction Every age presents the Christian church with varied and many challenges. In its formative period, the church was faced with the opposition from the Pharisees, Jews/Romans along side with debilitating heretic movements.1 The middle ages came with the crusades, which preceded the renaissance, humanist movement and the reformation.
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The church in the modern world has been confronted with the torrent of secularization which further loosened whatever grip it had on the Christian faithful. The situation now, as ever, is that as old obstacles are being surmounted, new challenges emerge. One of these is the tendency towards moral relativism which has in part found expression in same sex marriage not only among the laity but also the clergy. In spite of the fact that same sex marriage in the Anglican Communion has become topical; there is hardly any scholarly essay on the phenomenon. What exist are opinions expressed in newspapers, magazines and internet materials largely written within the European cultural matrix. This study while not ascribing absolute objectivity to itself takes a cursory look into the Christian scripture, African culture and the history of Anglican dogma as is relates to marriage. This is with a view to ascertaining if the twin practice of same sex marriage and homosexuality could be justified there from.
The Anglican Church in Nigeria The Anglican Church In Nigeria owes its presence to the missionary effort of the Church Missionary Society (CMS), which is a missionary organ of the Church of England, Anglican Communion. It was founded in 1799. Prominent actors in the enterprise include: Henry Townsend and a recaptured slave boy Samuel Ajayi Crowther, native of Osoogun, near Oyo, who later became a Bishop. These men assisted by returnee ex-slave from Sierra-Leone, the western part of the country-Badagary, Lagos, Abeokuta were beginning in 1842 reached with the gospel as preached by the Anglican Church.2 Encouraged by the success of the Yoruba ex-salves in converting their people to Christianity, the Igbos in Freetown, led by Rev. John Taylor of Igbo decent and with the active support of Henry Venn, the CMS secretary, an expedition was in 1857 made to the Igbo of the Eastern Nigeria.3 With the hospitality of Obi Akenzua and his council who used
68 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 provision of social services such as schools and health care delivery in particular as bait to win converts to the church. The CMS arrived Niger Delta on the invitation of elites who following their association with missionaries elsewhere in the country had come to believe that the church was identical with civilization and secular power. From five principal towns of Delta- Bonny, Opobo, Brass, Kalabari and Okrika, the Anglican Church penetrated into the immediate hinterland of the Ijaw, Ikwere, Ogoni, Eleme to mention a few.4 Anglicanism was planted in Northern Nigeria following two missionary expeditions in 1954 and 1957, the former was led by Macgregor Laid. Mission station was open at Igbede close to Lokoja. From this station, converts were won in other parts of the North.5 On February 24th 1979, the dioceses of the church which were under the province of west Africa were excised to form a separate province. The province of Nigeria Anglican communion with Archbishop T. O. Olufosoye as its primate (1979 – 1988).6 He retired after the mandatory age of seventy years and was succeeded by Archbishop A. Adetiloye in 1988. The present primate of the church, archbishop Peter Jasper Akinola who assumed the leadership of the church was born in Abeokuta, Ogun State in 1944. Under his administration, the church has made progress on many fronts evangelism, provision of social services and in the political life of the nation. With about seventeenth million members out of the eighty million population of Anglicans worldwide, ten archdioceses, eighty dioceses, and over five thousand priests, the Anglican Church in Nigeria can be said to have been well entrenched.7 Given its size and being one of the thirty one hundred and twenty provinces, which cut across 164 countries worldwide, the church wield enormous influence in the affairs of the communion.8 The church equally faces monumental challenges one of which is the controversial tide of same sex marriage. Though there is no record of it in the Anglican Church in Nigeria now, the phenomenon has pitched the Nigerian province of
69 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 the communion against individuals and dioceses overseas that are either indifferent to the practice or have given it their nod. The world “same sex marriage” has become synonymous with homosexuality, lesbian marriage, gay marriage, equal marriage, same gender marriage and so forth. Same sex union refers to an enduring relationship between two people of the same gender.9 In most societies, ancient or modern, sexual perversions occur and societal reactions to such had ranged from indifference to outright execution of culprit. Today, public perception has charged considerably as a result of secularization and human right concerns. In modern times, Denmark was the first country to offer legal recognition to same sex union nationwide beginning in 1989. The ice haven been broken, Netherlands in 2001 went ahead to approve full same sex marriage. Presently, countries that have legal backing for same sex union include: Belgium, Spain, and South Africa. Israel recognizes such marriages performed outside the country but not within it. In United States, only Massachusett State allows same sex couples to obtain marriage licenses. Until recently, same sex marriage was an act believed to be associated with unbelievers and which must not be imagined among Christians, let alone the clergy. Infact, no such act was officially reported in the Anglican Church until Rowan Williams took office in February, 2003 as the Archbishop of Canterbury. Prior to his election, William according to Daily Times “has been known for his liberal views and his support in principle for the appointment of gay clergy”.12 Expectedly, when Canon Jeffrey John, a homosexual was nominated as bishop for the British town of Reading, Williams did not raise any objection. Infact, Peter Jesen was uncomfortable with Williams whom he felt was handling the development with kids gloves. In a conference of conservative evangelicals in Derbyshire, he said, Williams was guilty of total prostitution of the ministry and should resign because he holds tolerant private views of homosexuality while upholding the church‟s official policy that active gays are not permissible in the ordained ministry13 John later withdrew his candidacy following 70 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 the friction between conservatives and liberal members of the church. Financial constrain equally played a part in this withdrawal as it became clear that threats from wealthy evangelical parishes to divert funds away from the diocese were real. In an editorial titled “The Bigots Win”, The Guardian, attributes the frustration of canon John‟s attempt on Nigeria and other \western churches and observed that, “for once the voice of the developing world has been listened to.”14 At this point many thought that John‟s Volte Face must have sent danger signal to all who indulge in homosexuality that the church has no room for them. But they were wrong as elsewhere in the University of New Hampshire America, a self confessed homosexual clergy Gene Robinson, 56, divorced and the father of two who had been living with a male companion for thirteen years was ordained bishop.15 The news was greeted with mixed reactions. While the liberals did not raise any objections to the act, conservatives were spontaneous in their opposition to what they called sacrilege, abomination, and an infamy. Prior to Robinson‟s consecration, some twenty four conservative bishops had vowed to pull out from the church if it was done. But the church of New Hampshire was undeterred.16 The ordination of Robinson was a blast, perhaps comparable only to the German blitz. Emergency meetings were held in quick successions. Williams‟s first reaction to the development was to demand an apology from the churches involved.17 In one of the summits to address the crisis, the Archbishop of Sidney, Australia, Peter Jesen remarked that “The decision to call a summit indicates the gravity of the crisis. My guess is that even in these countries, majority of Christians in the churches are opposed to this development.”18 He surmised that the act was an innovation which has caused disunity. Jensen however, ruled out the possibility of a split in the communion nothing that “split is too strong a word”19 Jensen‟s speculation was confirmed when the Truro and the Fall churches in Virginia voted to pull out from the worldwide Anglican communion.20
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As neither apology as suggested by Williams nor repentance as demanded by anti-Robinson group was forthcoming, the Anglican church of Canada and the Episcopal Church in the U.S. were sanctioned. They were asked to voluntarily withdraw from the Anglican Consultative Council. The decision was ratified by thirty eight primates of the Anglican communion worldwide at their meeting in North Ireland.21 Earlier in 2003, the Anglican Church in Nigeria had severed links with U.S. dioceses that approved and consecrated Gene Robinson after the calls for their expulsion was played down by the communion.22 The crises in the Anglican family worldwide rather than subsiding continues to put the church on thin ice. The pertinent question is why is the Anglican Church in Nigeria in the forefront of the resistance to same sex marriage? We now explore the areas of scripture, culture, and dogma for possible answers.
Scripture: Arguably, one area that Christian churches agree theologically is the field of marriage which is expected to serve a tripartite function procreation, companionship and the avoidance of fornication.23 Archbishop Akinola has maintained a hard line position against same sex union on the group that “homosexuality is unbiblical and therefore should be treated as such”24 He admits that:
There are homosexuals everywhere including Africa. No one is debating that. But what we are saying is that the Bible is very clear about that. Those who are in it should know that it is a sin against the Bible. I cannot see how I can reconcile myself with an open gay who is now ordained as a bishop of the church. This is my position.25.
Speaking further, he lamented that: We have discovered that seminaries in overseas are centres where unwholesome developments 72 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
manifest. The church in Africa will develop their own seminaries and theological centres. After 160 years of the church in Africa, it has come of age.26
The avowed critic of same sex union has not been spared either. Some say he is backed by conservative bishops and theologians who seek to dominate the Anglican Church in Nigeria. To this charge, Akinola replied, “ I object to that very strongly and I condemn with ever nerve in my body such insinuations. The Anglican primate of Nigeria calls himself “an ordinary pastor in the church of God but chosen by God to protect the scriptures”.28 Handy scriptures often cited by Akinola and which condemn homosexuality, sodomy and lesbianism include: Genesis 18:20f: Then the Lord said, Because the outcry against Sodom and Gomorrah is great and their sin is very grave, I will go down to see whether they have done altogether according to the outcry which has come to me…
Another of such passage is Leviticus 18:27ff: Do not lie with a man as one lies with a woman, that is detestable… do not defile yourself in any of these ways, because this is how the nations that I am going to drive out before you became defiled.
Yet another scripture often cited by Akinola is Leviticus 20:13, it reads.
If a man lies with a man as one lies with a woman, both of them have done what is detestable. They must be put to death; their blood will be upon their heads.
In order to prove that these prohibitions are not limited to the Old Testament, the New Testament books of Romans 1:26 and 73 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
Revelation 21:8 are handy passages for the head of the church in Nigeria. Romans 1:26 For this reason, God gave them up to dishonorable passions. Their women exchanged natural relations for unnatural, and the men likewise gave up natural relations with women and were consumed with passion for one another, men committing shameless acts with men and receiving in their own persons the due penalty for their error.
Similarly, in Revelation 21:8, we find But the… abominable and murderers and whoremongers and sorcerers… shall have their part in the lake which burns with fire.
In the light of the above scriptures, the Anglican Church in Nigeria issued a public statement titled “Homosexuality: A fundamental departure from scripture.” Part of it reads. In matters of faith and practice, scripture provides sufficient warrant for what is considered right and what is adjudged to be wrong… for us, therefore, adherence to scripture is not only paramount, it is also non-negotable.30
The statement which was signed by the primate himself surmised that: On the authority of the word of God, we see homosexuality as a rebellion against God just like that typified by Adam and Eve… A rebellion cannot be relative… to overlook this fundamental departure from scriptures as usual, is neither safe for faith or conscience and it means “walking in the counsel of the ungodly.31
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The support the church has received from prominent Nigeria‟s in its opposition to same sex marriage serves to strengthen its resolve. For instance, addressing a conference of All African Anglican Bishops at the Vinning Memorial Cathedral held between October 26-31st, 2004, then president, Olusegun Obsanjo commended the Anglican bishops within the worldwide communion for their opposition to gay marriage which he asserted was “clearly unscriptural and unnatural, for such is a perversion of the divine order”32 To Benson Osadolor one does not need to be a theologian in order to know that gay marriage is unscriptural. In his words, culprits are not only mad but possessed.33 Whether or not the scripture contains sufficient passages in condemnation of same sex marriage, is left for the individual to judge.
Culture: Culture refers to the way of life of a particular people. It embodies all the values cherished by the people. The moral, religious and spiritual values of a people are part and parcel of their culture.34 It involves the training and development of the mind; the refinement of taste and manners acquired by such training.36 Obvious from the foregoing is the fact that the do‟s and don‟ts, like and dislikes of an individual is a factor of his/her culture. African culture, for instance is basically a religious one. This religiosity is reflected in the way most Africans practice their new found faith- Christianity or Islam. Oguejiofor sums it up as follows: Ours is a society emerging from the clutches of African traditional religion, whose gods may be in retreat, but whose basic attitudes still guide the beliefs and practical life of the new Nigeria Christian. There is indeed a lot of sense in which our old testament is the African traditional religion since its world view determines the basic thought structure of Africa Christians.37
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As a way of life, African religion is tied to the socio economic, religion and political life of its adherents. Rules and regulations are spelt out and deviant behaviour is punished by the community and/or by the gods. The conduct of marriage and sex as a social and biological phenomenon is considered sacred and therefore highly regulated as it is the medium of procreation which guarantees the continued existence of the human race. Marriage in Africa is the coming together of a man and a woman for the principal purpose of procreation. Any marriage in Africa that cannot engender procreation has no justification for existence. For sure, homosexuality is anti - procreation and therefore cannot be contemplated. Homosexuality is an abomination that must be atoned for before the gods in order to cleanse the land. It is aru, nso ani among the Ibos of eastern Nigeria, awa in Benin, tir, swaba, au, ada in Hausa, and eewo in Yoruba. Akinola as The Guardian observed is popular for his unique understanding of African culture which he always related with parallels from the Old Testament.38 Many Africans, including Akinola himself postulate that no typical African, that is one born and brought up in Africa can be at home with same sex marriage. To Robert Mugabe, a man who goes to bed with another man is worse than a pig.39 In obvious support for the Anglican Church in Nigeria, John Onaiyekan, Roman Catholic Archbishop of Abuja, Nigeria asserted that “homosexuality is abominable, there is a limit to which one can tolerate evil”40 Apparently, exonerating Africa from homosexuality, Akinola postulates that “homosexuality has no basis in African culture, it is the problem of Europe and America”41 In the words of Obasanjo, “the practice is definitely unAfrican”42 The then president of Nigeria did not just stop at condemning homosexuality, but was determined to forestall the infiltration of such a practice into the country. This he did by sending a bill to the country‟s National Assembly and with a prayer that it be passed into law expeditiously. Part of the bill reads: 1. No same sex marriage shall be celebrated by any recognized cleric of a mosque, church 76 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
denomination or body to which such place of worship belongs. 2. No marriage license shall be issued to parties of the same sex in the Federal Republic of Nigeria. 3. Prohibition of registration of gay clubs and societies and publicity of same sex relationship.43
In summary, opposition to gay marriage by most Africans cannot be divorced from their cultural roots.
Dogma: The term dogma is derived from the Greek word which means that which seem good and was used in antiquity to refer to such things as the decrees of kings and principles regarded as axiomatic by the various philosophical school.44 In its more technical sense, dogma is applied to those doctrines explicitly formulated by the church and are held to be normative for its member.45 Dogma is an integral part of every religion, whether primitive or modern. By the fifteenth century, the marriage of Christians had come to be regarded as a sacrament. The preface to the marriage service sums up the end of marriage. It defines its purposes as the procreation of children, the avoidance of sin (fornication) and mutual society. The first of these is believed by the church to be the prime end. The 16th century Reformation in England did not affect the status of marriage. The first breach with Canon Law was effected by Lord Hardwick‟s Marriage Act of 1753. Inspite of the wide modifications on marriage, such as ban on clandestine marriages, and conditions for divorce, the law making marriage an affair between an adult man and woman (minimum is age 16 years) was untouched.46 In affirmation of the Anglican law on marriage and as a preemptive measure against same sex marriage within its fold, the Lambeth Conference- which was a gathering of the world‟s Anglican bishops held every ten years imposed in 1988 a moratorium on ordaining or wedding homosexuals, describing it as contrary to scriptures, the document adds that the blessing of same 77 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010 sex marriage was not accepteable.47 Although this resolution may bear the semblance of a dogma, it is not exactly so as Anglican provinces enjoy a wide range of autonomy even in such areas as doctrine. Little wonder therefore, that Archbishop Brunett after the Lambeth Conference Resolution 1:10 which dwells on sexual ethics asserted that Anglican Reports did not clarify what the autonomy of national church bodies is or the right of dissent in these churches. On the autonomy of the province of Nigeria for instance, Omoyajowo observes that The Church of Nigeria today is an autonomous church in the sense that it is an autonomous province within the Anglican Communion… This is traditionally justifiable because even the Lambeth Conference is not a legislative body; the Anglican Consultative Council is an Advisory Body: the Primates Conference does not dish out rules, laws and regulations to the provinces… the Archbishop of Canterbury as Head of the Anglican communion, does not exercise legislative powers over the provinces of the communion.48 So, Lambeth resolutions such as that of 1988 which appear to carry the weight of dogma are somewhat mere resolutions which have no binding force on members. This is the loophole which proponents of gay marriage invoke to silence contrary views. Lambeth relies on the goodwill, and magnanimity of members to avoid such acts that are capable of endangering the communion. The communion it seems got less than it expected from the U.S and Canadian churches when the body in obvious disappointment said: The action in Canada and the U.S could be perceived to alter unilaterally the teaching of the Anglican Communion… while we recognize the juridical autonomy of each province in our communion, the mutual interdependence of the provinces means that none has authority unilaterally to substitute an alternative teaching as if it were the teaching of the entire Anglican Communion. Such
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decisions jeopardize our sacramental fellowship with each other.49
From the forgoing, it will be fundamentally wrong to attribute the opposition of the Anglican Church in Nigeria to dogma because there is really no dogma in the strict sense of the word. This is because dogma presupposes some measure of compulsion and inviolability and this is not exactly so with Anglican system. However, if the extant law which limits marriage to adults of opposite sex is invoked, it stands to reason that same sex marriage is illegal and against Anglican history and tradition.
Recommendation/Conclusion Obvious from the forgoing is the fact that homosexuality and same sex marriage have neither basis in the scripture, African culture nor Anglican history and tradition. If the act is allowed to gain ground, the church would have deviated from its history which is supposed to be a compass for its future. The church should dictate the moral tone of the society and not the other way round, should the Anglican Church condone homosexuality, the church could as well be on its path to embrace bestialism. Male and female distinctiveness is a welcome variety in God‟s creation and nearly every human society throughout history has distinguished between them and has had a set of norms, views, guidelines, or even laws, defining their relationship and function. In the Old Testament, the distinction between the creation of man and the woman is reflected in Gen. 1:26, 2:18-20. Over the years, this difference have continued to be undermined and eroded, rightly or wrongly, on the altar of convenience, pleasure, human rights, moral relativism and sundry considerations. The phenomenon of same sax marriage is one which has set parliaments, human right groups, and religious bodies on the path of conflict within themselves and with other groups. The oppositions of the Anglican Church in Nigeria to same marriage derives fillip from many areas first, there is copious condemnation of the practice in the scriptures (Old and New 79 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
Testaments) second, lies the fact that African culture detests the practice. Third, is the awareness that a larger population of the communion frowns at it. Fourth, the Nigerian province is convinced that Christian denominations, especially the Roman Catholic Church, are averse to the act and that the church risks losing its place in ecumenical organizations in the country if it condoned such a practice. Fifth, comes the oppositions to it by prominent African leaders such as Robert Mugabe and Ex- president of Nigeria, Olusegun Obasanjo. The controversy surrounding same sex marriage in the Anglican Communion, if anything, as Richard Thomas has observed, “… is going to be the start of the debate, not its conclusion.”50
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Endnotes 1. D. B. Usman, An Introduction to Church History, Aba: Muse Books, 1999, 11 2. A. A. Omoyajowo (ed) The Anglican Church in Nigeria, 1842- 1992, Lagos: Macmillan publishers, 1994, xxviii. 3. Omoiajowo, xvi 4. D. C. Okeke, “The Church in Igboland” in The Anglican Church in Nigeria 1842-1992, Macmillan Publishers, 1994, 19 5. B. A. Obuoforibo, “The Church in the Niger Delta” in The Anglican Church in Nigeria 1842-1992 Lagos: Macmillan publishers, 1994,.40 6 F. Afolayan, “The Church in the Northern Nigeria” in The Anglican Church in Nigeria 1842-1992 Lagos: Macmillan publishers, 1994, 84. 7. Omoyajowo, xxiii. 8. “Anglican Communion Sanctions North America Over Consecration of Gay” in The Guardian, March 9, 2005, 64. 9. “Anglican Church in Tumoil Over Gay Bishops Controversy” in Daily Times, August 12, 2003, p.9. See also The Evangelist, July, 2008,.6. 10. Same Sex Union en. Wikipedia.org/wiki. 11. Same Sex Union en. Wikipedia.org/wiki. 12. http://en. Wikipedia.org wiki/ssm 13. “Archbishop Despair Over Anglican Infighting” in International Guide, December 2004, 37. 14. “Anglican Split Over Ordination of Homosexual Bishop” in The Evangelist, December, 2003,1. 15. “Archbishop Despair Over Anglican Infighting “ in International Guide, December 2004, .37. 16. “Anglican Split Over Ordination of Homosexual Bishop” in The Evangelist, December, 2003,.1. 17. D. Adeyanju, “African Anglicans Won‟t Break Away from Europe, Akinola Assures” in The Guardian October 26, 2004, p.1. 81 African Journal for Mission in Context, Volume I Number 1, December, 2010
18. Ibid. 19. Ibid. 20. Ibid. 21 “American Churches adopt Akinola as Head of the Anglican Communion” in The Guardian December 19, 2006,.1. 22 “Anglican Communion Sanctions North America Over Consecration of gays” in The Guardian March 9, 2005,.64. 23. Ibid. 24. D. Adeyanju, Ibid;.1. 25. Ibid,.2. 26. Ibid. 27. “American Churches Adopt Akinola as Head of the Anglican Communion” in The Guardian, December 19, 2006,1. 28. Ibid. 29. Ibid., 4. 30. “What the Primates of the Anglican Communion Resolved at Lambeth Palace” in The Guardian July 13, 2003, p.A16. 31. Ibid.. 32. J. Ayantunji, “For the Good of Africa Bishops Hold their First African Confidence in Nigeria” in Tell Magazine, November 8, 2004, 13 33. B. Osadolor, Personal Interview, Lecturer, Department of History and International Studies, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria. 5/11/2007 34. J. A. Onimhawo, “Religion for Cultural, Social and Spiritual Change” in N Okoh (ed) Religion, Culture and Spirituality, Benin city: Ambik Press, 1993, 20 35. N. O. Osarogiuwa, “Religion for Cultural, Social and Spiritual Change” in N Okoh (ed) Religion, Culture and Spirituality, Benin City: Ambik Press, 1993, 15 36. H. Juwe, “Religion for Cultural, Social and Spiritual Change” in N Okoh (ed) Religion, Culture and Spirituality, Benin city: Ambik Press, 1993, 56
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37. J. O. Oguejiofor, “Pitfalls in Our Pentecostalism” in A. G. Nnamani (ed) The New Religious Movements: Pentecostalism in Perspective, Benin City: CATHAN, 2007, 3 38. “American Churches Adopt Akinola as Head of the Anglcian Communion” in The Guardian, December 19, 2006, 1. 39. E. Okoh, Personal Interview, Lecturer, University of Benin, Benin City, C. 50years, 5/7/2008. 40. D. Adeyanju, Ibid;, 1. 41. Ibid. 42. J. Ayantunji, Ibid;, 13. 43. L. Atakpu, “Sexual Rights Freedom of Expression, and Same Sex Marriage Prohibition” in The Observer, November 8, 2006, 13 44. V. A. Harvey, A handbook of Theological Terms, London: Macmillan Publishers, 1962, 72 45. Harvey, 72. 46. F. L. Cross, The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, London: Oxford University Press, 1958, 873. 47. “Archbishop Despair Over Anglican Infighting” in International Guide, December 2004, 7. 48. Ibid. 49. J. Solheim, “Threat to Communion” in The Guardian, October 26, 2003, A17. 50. P.J. Akinola, “Homosexuality: A Fundamental Departure from Scripture” in The Guardian, July 13, 2003,. A16.
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NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
The editor welcomes the submission of original manuscripts in English language for publication in the African Journal for Mission in Context. They should be should be typed in Times New Roman, font size 12, double-spaced, 15 pages, including the references. Manuscripts should be submitted by email attachment. Articles that are really contextualized and with a mission focus will be prioritized.
Abstract The manuscript should include an abstract immediately after the title page.
Title of article, full names and e-mail address of the author are to appear on the abstract page only.
All headings: must be in font size 12 and bold. All sub-headings: must be in font size 12, bold and italics.
Sources: Sources used for the paper should as far as possible, include African authors as well as others; likewise male and female authors.
Use of Inclusive language is encouraged. In referring to men and women, it is better to say „people‟ rather than „men‟; his/hers, her /him rather than his/him unless one is referring only to men.
Style sheet: The American Psychological Association (APA) style sheet and reference guide is recommended.
Further guidance can be obtained from the editor on request.
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