Journal of Mechanical Engineering Research and Developments ISSN: 1024-1752 CODEN: JERDFO Vol. 44, No. 4, pp. 243-252 Published Year 2021
Defects, types and classification of the advance welding process- based industry: A review Abed Fares Ali
Engineering College, Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Tikrit, Tikrit, Iraq.
*Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Today industry needs to sophisticated welding methods that can overcome the rapid development in materials. The materials are taking nowadays new formation of alloys and composites that make engineering more complicated. However, pointing out some defects that associated welding is become more important to understand the behavior of materials to the sudden increase in temperature on the welding performance. The most characteristics that obtained from the literature is the mechanical properties and microstructure formation after welding. These characteristics describe how strong the welding is. This paper discussing some defects that generated from the advance welding technology that mainly used in the recent industry. First a discussion on the welding technology with description of each method, and then highlighting the defects and issues of each method in terms of welding type rather than specific material. So, the outcome of this review can be beneficial for researchers to impose more researches on enhancing and reducing as much as possible welding joints defects.
KEYWORDS welding process, welding types, welding defects, crack, fusion metal of welding
INTRODUCTION
Welding is one of the most sophisticated examples of the achievement of advance technology. The welding can be named recently under several welding process types. However, the list of welding is keep growing with the growing of technology. Welding is being used since a very long time but the development still in a rapid increase. It divers from large to complex engineering structure such as ship building and bridges to microelectronic and space application [1], ceramic materials also involved recently in the technology of welding as well as polymer due to the generation of sparks and the usage of flammable and electric current in the materials [2]. The most two types welding that are using in the industry is submerged arc welding and metal arc welding (SAW & GMAW) respectively see figure 1. These two types have a good deposition and economically wealth [3, 4]. In the heterogeneous metals composite plates, it can be prepared employing explosive welding that is also widely used in this filed [5, 6].
In all welding process certain characteristics should be considered in the selecting of a suitable welding process high bonding strength and good machining performance [7]. Therefore, to have a propitiate advances welding processes the process should involve (improving process control and operating factor; simplifying the equipment setting; reducing cycle time, weld size, repairing rates, preparation time for joints, operations of post welding and the most important thing is reducing the potential safety hazards; increasing deposition rate and finally operator removal from risky areas). The selecting of the welding type is basically related to the intensity of heat source required for fusion. However, this property places the different welding process in trends based on heat source. A very significant factor that can play a dramatical role is the ratio of depth to width (d/w) cross section of the weldment, whereby it’s a function of the heat source as well. This factor leads to efficient welding and increasing welding speed [8].
In aeronautical industry the welding nature can be characterized as low production and high cost beside severe conditions of operating, in which concentrated heat sources is much required. In this contrast, for critical
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Defects, types and classification of the advance welding process-based industry: A review components welding the usage of electron beam welding, plasma arc, laser beam is providing such characteristic. The requirement of developing welding process is essential with the development of industry. The materials and composites materials are in a rapid progress and growth in a way the welding technique is necessary to cover the demand and to overcome any problems associated with the recent materials joining. Defect is always accompanying the joint parts if non suitable welding parameter or incorrect welding procedure followed. In some welding type defects such as discontinuities that considers when compare to cold crack as a much less disruptive. On the other hand, cracks in metal welding, less fusion inclusions, Porosity, low rate of penetration, inaccurate bead size [9]. This paper discussing all the types of welding that being utilized in industry and associated defects that may occur during the welding process.
cold pressure
Welding with explosive welding
resistance welding pressure diffusion bonding Welding friction welding process magnatically implelled arc butt welding
manual metal arc welding
Fusion welding gas metal arc welding
gas tungastun arc welding
laser welding
electron beam welding
Figure 1. Welding processes that used in industry [1].
Welding types used in industry
In the industry a several welding types are available that serve all the sectors. However, selecting of a suitable method is the key factor for good product. The most usage welding process are explained below in terms of specifications, usage, and defects.
Magnetic arc welding
One of the advance welding technologies is Magnetic arc welding, in this method an introduction of the magnetic field at the time of welding process. External magnetic field (EMF) is used in this technology to adjust welding arc shape, controlling the transfer of droplet, improve stability of arc improve molten pool solidification, optimizing weldment appearance, and microstructure improvement of the joint and properties [10]. The arc is similar to that used in MIG where the magnetic field is constrained resulted in rotating the arc. This can improve the accuracy and result in a good appearance of the weld with a fast travel. The principal operation of the magnetic arc welding is that a uniformly distribution of the electromagnetic pinch force is occurred, and the plasma cross section is circular in shape. The four magnetic poles are producing a magnetic field via permanent magnet or exciting via coil that produced N-S-N-S distribution [11, 12].
In the pipeline welding, problems can associate in the magnetism and arc blow causing some issues in the welding formation. The investigation of Grossinger et al. [13], a discussion of the residual magnetism problems and arc blow that causing welding defect. However, a deviation of the arc due to the residual magnetism of aimed parts for soldering influence the DC arc of the welding of the pipeline resulting in what so called arc
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Defects, types and classification of the advance welding process-based industry: A review blow. The author also mentioned that at 40 gauss instability of the arc welding can be obtained and, in some conditions, blown out. Ramesh et al. [14] found out that dissimilar material sometimes hard to be welded utilizing this method.
Friction welding
The principle working of this method is simply utilizing friction to generate welding. It is solid state welding process, the welded parts are moving in opposite directions to generate hardness to weldment. Rapid fusion is created due to the intense heat whereby no need for surface treatment is required to contact the surface of the two parts, therefore, the friction will correct any issues pertaining contact [15]. The resulting welding have excellent welding properties in which considered stronger than the base material. On the other hand, less porosity observed, and it is very suitable for dissimilar material. It is used in the automotive industry extensively specially for joining forgings to castings [16]. In this welding process, a high yield is observed which is unusual comparing to other welding types. The welded parts in engine friction welding resulted triphase and the power factor is Cos ϕ = 0.80-0.85. If compared to one phase of the electric resistance of one phase process it is found to be Cos ϕ = 0.40- 0.60 [17]. Though the available literature no significant issue associated with this welding type found. But most of the defects can be found in the friction stir welding which is a one type of friction welding.
Explosive welding
This method of welding is in somehow similar to the friction welding. It is brute force technique, whereby, pressing of one metal to be welded is done by utilizing small amount of explosive. Due to this large force, a metal will fuse and resulting in welding. Many applications utilizing this welding method, but it mainly used in tube material and cladding sheet that known to use in the heat exchangers manufacturing [18]. Small portion of chemical energy amount that produced by explosives welding. A transfer energy accompanying the explosive initiation to recombine the welded parts. It is also to enhance the composite bonding surface, adding an interlayer can change the traditional distribution of the energy formation [19].
Ultrasonic welding
In this welding type, an extreme high frequency sound is used to vibrate the materials need to weld. These oscillating movement generate adequate heat for fusion. The source of energy is coming from the sonotrode that is make a localized weld by pressing the surface need to be joined. This process is close to the spot welding. Plastic material is the main working boundaries of the ultrasonic welding and in some cases in the assembly of electronics and electrical parts [20]. Therefore, it is not suitable for metal processing fabrication. It can be also used in many other industries away from metal fabrication such as electronic, medical, automotive, medical and appliances.
Laser welding
Normally laser uses in the cutting process of material due its intense light beam that producing too much heat. The generated heat is not only for cutting, but it can be employed in welding process. The light beam and because of its very thin, it can be concentrated in a small portion and area that can be penetrated and make a deep welding. This type of welding can be used with hard materials such as titanium, stainless steel, aluminum and steel [21].
Electron beam welding
High welding quality can be produced form electron beam method, the high energy of the electrons generated heat in the base metal in which a welding occurs. The equipment of welding is very high expensive, the welding is normally performed in the vacuum environment. However, it is utilized for welds required highly deep penetration and the welding process considerably high speed [22].
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Defects, types and classification of the advance welding process-based industry: A review Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW/MIG)
It is also called Metal Inert Gas (MIG) uses a gas as a shielding accompanying the wire electrode, this is for heating the joint metal. MIG method is the most common used welding in industry, however, direct current and constant voltage required for this welding type. The four types of primary method of metal transfer are pulsed spray, spray, globular and short-circuiting. In order to protect the welding arc, inert gases mixture (argon and helium) are passing through welding area for shielding purposes, as well as welding pool, base metal and electrode to prevent interaction between them and the environment. similar to other welding method, certain parameters shall be considered to obtain strong weldment, these parameters are arc current and voltage, electrode travel and wire feed speed, preheating temperature and current density. The preheating processes includes raising the base metal temperature, more specifically the area neer the bead. This process is basically aimed to reduce as much as possible the residual shrinkage stresses and increasing crack resistance in the welding area [23].
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW/TIG)
Appose to the MIG welding, TIG can weld thick sections metal such as stainless steel or even so a nonferrous metal. Inert gas is used in this method and tungsten electrode that perfume the weld. In industry the process is considered time consuming much more the other welding types as well as complex [14]. The variation of welding parameters has a significant impact on the welding properties in which effected the final material properties. these factors or parameters are heat input; voltage and current time. Owunna et al. [24] observed that the higher penetration degree of the weld bead resulted in a significant load capacity and better resistance of the joint of the welded materials. On the other hand, broader HAZ can be obtained from high distribution of temperature. In general, this process of welding creates an important diversity in the hardness in terms of better grain size, this variation is occurring in between the weld joint neighborhoods and the furthest areas
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
This process is using a manual stick welding through electric current passing through the stick to generate an arc between the metal and the stick. This method is compatible with construction steel structures and in the industrial fabrication for welding steel and iron. The factors that controlling the weld quality are shielding gas role for GMAW process, sources of welding power, welders, and skill welding consumables. The current technology provide an evaluation of the aforementioned factors via the welding quality and not through monitoring how welding influenced by changing these factors [25].
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
It is a probable and speedy welding method, it is used in the construction projects and it is semi automatic arc welding. This method is developed and alternate to shield welding [26]. In a simple comparison with the GMAW method, the process of welding is considerably much complicated due to the composites of flux, diversity of working conditions and flux-cored wire configurations is special [27]. A very good penetration of the welding process into the base metal which is very interesting. However, the usage of it is usually work with stainless steels, mild alloy steels, high nickel alloys and low alloy steels. As deposition rate increase, tolerance process improvement, higher factor of operation, enhancement of the joint quality lead to reduce the welding overall cost whereas, consumable costs is high [28, 29].
Welding defect in industry
In the welding procedure a reduction of the deformation resistance is performed in the materials required to join, this reduction done by applying certain energy amount as a form of heat. Therefore, this applied heat generated changed in the microstructure condition of the material in the form of grain orientation growth, re- crystallization, strengthening precipitates dissolution and coarsening. These changes in the microstructure is depend in its occurrence on the differentiate in temperature associated with different materials, whereby, depend on the involved material’s chemical composition. This dependency is controlling the process condition of the temperature by turning it to very hot or cold. In the condition of very cold-welding process, can revealed
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Defects, types and classification of the advance welding process-based industry: A review specific types of defects differ from the very hot condition. Void formation and non-bonding defects occur in the very cold case as a result of inadequate material flow. On the other hand, excessive material flow which is happening in the case of very hot welding revealing flaws in the weldment such as nugget collapse within the stir zone, flash formation and strength properties deterioration of the joint [30].
Additionally, other types of defects can also be observed such as penetration and joining lack and geometry defect, all these are attributed and linked to operator errors. Rombaut et al. [31] have stated encountered problems in the welding of steel to ceramic by the friction welding. This problem is generated in the cooling phase when cracks initiation is propagated, or during the post welding. The differentiate in the crystallographic structure between steel and metal has a major role of make a difficulty of joining. As mentioned by Yilbas at al. [32] in the welding of aluminum, oxide contamination can probably reduce the welding quality, in which represent the interface impurities that prevent from close contact for prober bonding. Similar things can be said when the welding time is too long [33]. Dialami et al. [34]studied some defects in simulation of the defects that may produce in the friction stir welding. Depends on the working conditions of the FSW the defects may be generated due to the input heat is insufficient, heat input is extreme, abnormal stirring. Kim et al. [35] defined some identified some defects that could be generated outside the processing window of the FSW.
However, Flash and void defects, cavity and void type defects, remnant line joint defect. Kumaraswamy et al. [36] found sticking condition in the shear friction of the FSW. Hamade and Baydoun [37] observed three defects in the welded specimen by FSW are one surface lack of fill and two wormhole defects. Theses defects summarize almost most of the voids noticed in the welding. In the magnetic arc welding, there is limitations and disadvantages associated with it. However, this process of welding is constrained for welding round tubes and bars having similar diameter, if any changes could result in a weak welding. The materials that required to weld should be ductile, whereas, non-forgeable materials and dry bearing are difficult to weld utilizing this method. Critical work piece alignment and preparation for the development of even rubbing and heating. Besides that, un machined alloys are difficult to weld. On the other hand, high cost of the tool and equipment. Broadened material types are covered by Explosive welding.
The study of Honarpisheh et al. [38] illustrated that one of the defects that resulted from explosive welding is that a composite material tend to deformation when the thermal conductivity and the coefficient of linear expansion of two materials having large different values revealing too much residual stresses. It is also pointed by Saravanan and Raghukandan [39] that in the process of aluminum alloy explosive welding and welding of other metals, a complication conditions of the compounding increased such as increasing the strength of the aluminum alloy. In addition, a severe problem could be occurred in the conditions of aluminum‑magnesium alloys welding. Kaya et al. [40] suggested that if interface welding energy is very high a plastic deformation generated due to interface excessive deformation, this lead to excessively melt the interface or burn. One of the limitations that ultrasonic welding suffering from in the current technology is that difficulties of welding large joints (larger than 250 mm in length) in a solo operation, however, it is suitable for many thermoplastics’ materials and composites.
Additionally, only specific designed part called (lap joints) can be suited for this type of welding. The lab joints are direct overlap parts having a flat surface packed on each other, whereby, tee, edge joints, butt and corner are geometries are difficult to weld utilizing this welding method [41]. The welding of electrical components can be damaged by the ultrasonic vibrations, only in the case of higher frequency the damage can be reduced. In general, based on the parts to be weld the tools costs for fixtures can be high [42]. In the manufacturing process, choosing ultrasonic welding equipment make it difficult to immediate start churning out parts. Pigments, impact modifiers and fillers are material dependance that characteristic for thermoplastic parts are shows poor response when welded using laser. However, in the high rigid plastic a possibility of residual stresses development is high at inter-phase weld [43]. One of the known defects associated with aluminum alloys welding is porosity, this defect also considers a serios problem in LBW.
Therefore, stress concentration is caused in the weld area as a result of porosity in which the load area reduced due to the presence of porosity. In addition to that, welding pores can also encourage the generation of solidification cracking [44]. In the weldment of aluminum alloys it is found by Kawahito et al [45] two porosity 247
Defects, types and classification of the advance welding process-based industry: A review types are metallurgical and keyhole, these defects are exist in the deep penetration of the weld. The metallurgical pores have a spherical shape, smooth interior wall and independent distribution. The reason of pores generation is because of the hydrogen that confined in the weld pool. On the other hand, the keyhole pores having irregular shape with large pore size, these poroes type are located mostly in the center of the weldment. It is worth noted that the two mentioned porosity types are observed in the partial penetration welds. whereas, in the full penetration welds it is rarely to observe the keyhole porose and only metallurgical pores are found [46].
In the electron beam welding a conductive to electricity material is required to perform a good welding. On the other hand, a very high cooling rate causing sometimes a crack due to the rapid hardening of the weld pool. Some researchers are suggested to utilize a preheating after weld to reduce the effect of rapid cooling influencing. It is always required high precision of the seam, so a preparation in needed which required further processing. The process of welding is an environmental hazard, because it generated X-ray due to the interaction between electron beam and the workpiece [47]. In some materials, inhomogeneity of the microstructure produced strain localization behavior in the base metal [48]. Chen et al. has experimentally investigated the crack formation in γ-TiAl alloy, this crack formation is resulted from the high residual stress that produced in the material due to ductility even if the alloy has a homogenous microstructure [49]. Chaturvedi et al. [50] cracking that initiate due to the FCW is resulted from the induced thermal stresses.
However, cracking is common phenomenon in this type of welding. Not always in welding of metal the microstructure and the penetration shape are desirable in terms of heat affected zone (HAZ). As an example, in the mid-range current a finger-type penetration occurs, this type influence directly the mechanical properties of weldment of metal. However, a number of studies were characterized the controlling of welds by utilizing different current waveform of the arc welding [51, 52]. Lee et al. [53]indicated large stresses in HAZ and FZ. These stresses caused tensile stress at the area close to the welding zone and compressive stresses in the distal area from the welding zone. On the other hand, various defects are still experiencing in the fusion pool and observed as undercut, incomplete fusion, distortion and cracks, these common defects influence the accuracy of production, strength properties and appearance of the welded parts. In regards to this, the angular distortion of welding effected by diversity of welding parameters as investigated by Kadir et al. [54].
As in the case of arc welding when high frequency ignition used at the beginning of welding, the system turned to be inconsistent related to the characteristics of electrode negative phase relationship in another word synchronization lack between arc-starting device and power supply. So, the main reason of this high frequency technique at starting is the using of high voltage oscillations frequency attributed to the oscillator circuit oscillator circuit [55]. Irregular melting occurs during the FCAW welding for the core filler and metal wire sheath, this irregularity reduce the efficiency of air protection of the deposited metal [56]. Thru the flux cored wires melting a core filler protrusion formation occurred at the flux-cored wire electrode end attributable to melting lag of the core filler from the metal wire sheath. These protrusions can be destroyable when it forms as a large particle, and when entering inside the molten weld pool may cause exogenous inclusions if they didn’t melt inside the fusion metal [26]. However, exothermic mixtures contain (CuO + Al) can be added to confirm that the metal wire sheath and core filler having a uniform melting, this addition may improve the efficiency of arc [57].
CONCLUSION
The welding process considered in most of metallic and nonmetallic industry as the key factor of success. However, the development of welding methods keeps progressing alongside with the development of materials. The welding should cover the rapid changing in material structure and mechanical properties in order to be able to produce a robust and durable structure for divers’ applications. Therefore, each method encountered some defects that have been introduced in this review. Cracks and distortion are the most common defects that being shown in the literature as well as highly cost of some equipment. It is found that many parameters controlling the initiation of defects in the weldments in which they are mainly depends on the operator expertly. In each welding type the associated defects reviewed in a way allows researcher to concentrate on weak point of welding.
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