Part 7 Audio-Visual Communication
AUDIO VISUAL COMMUNICATION
Module Notes
Nature of Audio Visual Production
We all watch films that we treasure and identify with – for their laughs, their thrills, or their haunting images of terror. Movie stars become cult figures or active politicians.
Movies inform many parts of our lives and therefore we should enjoy them in many ways including the challenging pleasure of trying to think about, explain and write about our experience.
Audio visual communication is something where audiences feel involved. By using audio visual medium, a story can be viewed from different point of views. In this medium of communication, sound has been carefully woven on the fabric of the film. Although video, an audio of a film are created separately and presented together to create a greater meaning.
The need and importance to study Audio Visual:
Audio Visual has a wide connotation and is evident in every sector the society; there are various advantages of the same:
It records and preserves historical events, provides public with information, instructs people with tools and machines, teaches children in the classroom and students in the lecture hall, educates and enlightens grown up with the current and social affairs, assists scientists and technicians, brings people together to understand each other and instructs, informs and educates people who cannot read and write.
Film is an art form which requires sophisticated technology; it’s a source of popular entertainment, and a powerful method for citizens.
Images and Expression: Images express mental states, feelings, emotions etc. The image is a virtual object and not a real object. For example: The photograph of a tree is a virtual object and not the real object. Virtual objects only exist for a perception.
Image
Virtual
Real
Perception
While making a film, the person would have felt, experienced, heard or understood an event. Each of these will have an inner structure of significance or a skeleton. The inner structure of the image should be representative of the inner thing in order to transfer feelings, emotions. One also needs to select and choose the video and audio segments. They need to be rearranged in a particular sequence according to the inner structure of the artist’s mind.
Composition: Composition means exclusion of things that the film maker doesn’t want and inclusion of the things that he wants. Each artist makes a unique composition and eventually delivers a unique meaning. Composition is the artist way of saying the complexity of the subject.
When you create a composition, you create a meaning. When the composition of the picture changes; its meaning also changes. What is said by a picture cannot be separated from the way it is said. All the rules of any art form is governed by our day to day life.
The three important elements of composition include:
- Visual - Audio - Editing
The three basic elements of film making include:
- Camera - Microphone - Editing
A camera gives the artist an eye to recreate the image in mind. There is an audio medium that involves the selection and recreation of sounds for the audio perception to understand the experience. Editing involves the rearranging of the elements in a particular order.
Camera – The camera is so versatile that it makes you look at things in many different ways. The film maker can portray different compositions and meaning by placing the camera in different distance from the subject and in different angles or levels the film. The film maker also decides whether the camera should be static or moving depending upon the mood or message that he wants to convey.
Depending on distance of camera from the subject, the shots can be divided into different types:
- Extreme close up shots - Close up shots - Medium shot - Long shot - Extreme long shot The three important decisions while shooting include:
- Distance – how far from the subject - Height – how much height from the ground - Movement – whether it is still or moving
Distance – The first step to analyse the film is the distance between the camera and the subject. What we see is a virtual subject. Changing the distance of the camera from the subject will change the size of the image. The moment the size of the image changes, the meaning or the composition also changes.
Height – When you raise the camera or lower it, you are changing the height of the camera. When you tilt the camera upwards or downwards, it changes the perspective of the subject making it look different thus leaving a different meaning.
Different angles of a camera are:
- High angle - Eye level - Low angle
The angles can be varying. It can be very low or high which is the extreme case of changing the viewpoint. The eye level shot is a very neutral and normal shot, there is no distortment of the subject. These shots describe powerful eye contact.
Movement – The different kinds of camera movement include:
- Panning - Tilting - Tracking
SHOT, SCENE AND SEQUENCE
SHOT: A shot is the basic unit of a film and refers to one length of continuous (unedited) action. While shooting, a shot is created when you turn the camera on (begin recording) and then turn it off. Often, a director will record multiple takes (attempts) of each shot in order to get one perfect take to be edited into the final film. While editing, a shot refers to the action between two adjacent edit points. In film, a shot is a continuous strip of motion picture film, created of a series of frames, that runs for an uninterrupted period of time. Shots are generally filmed with a single camera and can be of any duration. Frames, shots, scenes, and sequences form a hierarchy of units fundamental to many tasks in the creation of moving-image works. The distance from the camera to the subject greatly affects the narrative power of a shot. The three basic kinds of shots are long shots, medium shots, and close-ups; more specific examples include the extreme long shot, the aerial shot, the bird's eye shot, the over the shoulder shot, the point of view shot, and the two shot. SHOTS IN RELATION TO DISTANCE: 1. Extreme Wide/ Long Shot (EWS)
In the extreme wide shot, the view is so far from the subject isn't even visible. The point of this shot is to show the subject's surroundings designed to show the audience where the action is taking place. The EWS is also known as an extra long shot.
2. LONG SHOT
A long shot (sometimes referred to as a full shot or a wide shot) typically shows the entire object or human figure and is usually intended to place it in some relation to its surroundings; however, it is not as far away as an extreme long shot would be.
3. MEDIUM SHOT
A medium shot is a camera shot from a medium distance. a shot of the person from the knees up or the waist up is a close-up shot.
4. Establishing shot An establishing shot sets up, or "establishes", a scene's setting and/or its participants. Typically it is a shot at the beginning (or, occasionally, end) of a scene indicating where, and sometimes when, the remainder of the scene takes place. For example, an exterior shot of a building at night, followed by an interior shot of people talking, implies that the conversation is taking place at night inside that building. Establishing shots may also use famous landmarks – such as the Eiffel Tower, the Colosseum or the Statue of Liberty – to identify a city. For example, the TV show Seinfeld often uses a "Restaurant" establishing shot — an exterior shot of a restaurant that is followed by interior shots of the characters inside. Or an establishing shot might just be a long shot of a room that shows all the characters from a particular scene. For example, a scene about a murder in a college lecture hall might begin with a shot that shows the entire room — including the lecturing professor and the students taking notes. 5. CLOSE-UP SHOT
A close-up tightly frames a person or object. The most common close-ups are ones of actors' faces. They are also used extensively in stills photography. Close cuts to characters' faces are used far more often in television than in movies; they are especially common in soap operas. Close shots shows the character’s emotions. Close-ups are also used for distinguishing main characters. Major characters are often given a close-up when they are introduced as a way of indicating their importance. Leading characters will have multiple close-ups.
Types of close-up: There are various degrees of close-up depending on how zoomed in the shot is. Medium Close Up:
Half-way between a mid shot and a close-up. Usually cover's the subject's head and shoulders.
Close Up:
A certain feature, such as someone's head, takes up the whole frame. Extreme Close Up :
The shot is so tight that only a fraction of the focus of attention, such as someone's eyes, can be seen
SHOTS IN RELATION TO CAMERA ANGLE 1. Bird's eye shot:
A Bird's eye shot refers to a shot looking directly down on the subject. The perspective is very foreshortened, making the subject appear short and squat. This shot can be used to give an overall establishing shot of a scene, or to emphasise the smallness or insignificance of the subjects. These shots are normaly used for battle scenes or establishing where the character is.
2. Two shot
A Two shot is a type of shot in which the frame encompasses a view of two people (the subjects). The subjects do not have to be next to each other, and there are many common two-shots which have one subject in the foreground and the other subject in the background. The shots are also used to show the emotional reactions between the subjects.
3. Point of view shot
A point of view shot also known as POV shot is a short film scene that shows what a character is looking at. It is usually established by being positioned between a shot of a character looking at something, and a shot showing the character's reaction.
4. Over the shoulder shot
An over the shoulder shot (also over shoulder, OS, OTS, or third-person shot) is a shot of someone or something taken over the shoulder of another person. The back of the shoulder and head of this person is used to frame the image of whatever (or whomever) the camera is pointing toward. This type of shot is very common when two characters are having a discussion and will usually follow an establishing shot which helps the audience place the characters in their setting.
5. Aerial shots
Aerial shots are usually done with a crane or with a camera attached to a special helicopter to view large landscapes. This sort of shot would be restricted to exterior locations. A good area to do this shot would be a scene that takes place on a building. If the aerial shot is of a character it can make them seem insignificant or vulnerable. 6. High angle shot
A high angle shot is usually when the camera is located high (often above head height) and the shot is angled downwards (in contrast to a low-angle shot). This shot is used sometimes in scenes of confrontation and fights to show which person has the higher power. The subject of a high angle shot looks vulnerable or insignificant; if the shot represents a character's point of view the shot can also be used to make the character tall, more powerful or threatening.
7. Low-angle shot
A low-angle shot, is a shot from a camera positioned low on the vertical axis, often at knee height, looking up. This technique is sometimes used in scenes of confrontation to illustrate which character holds the higher position of power, and is a common element in the aesthetic texture of certain genres such as film noir.
SCENE The scene is the single most important element in the screenplay. Good scenes make good movies. When you think of a good movie, you remember scenes, not the entire film. The purpose of the scene is to move the story forward. A scene is a unit containing a single and continuous dramatic action unified by time, space, content, concept, character, theme, or motif. While it could conceivably be a single shot a scene is usually a cohesive series of related shots. Scenes advance the story; they realize a beat in the story line. They may introduce a problem or resolve one, or they may introduce a complication. Scenes will introduce characters, present exposition (to fill in the back story), deliver some relevant information, establish a setting, create a mood, reveal character relationships, or express a theme. A scene is a part of the action in a single location. Due to the ability to edit recorded visual works, it is typically much shorter than a stage play scene. Various scenes • Master scenes - which are the key scenes to the bulk of the plot. • Flash back scenes - where the audience is taken into the past to reveal crucial story points. • Introduction scenes - where characters are introduced for the first time. • Static Scenes - where there is very little motion of the subject or camera.
Sequence A sequence is a longer segment made up of a series of closely related scenes that together form a unified whole. Sequences need not be continuous; their events may occur at different times and places just as long as they are related to each other. In film, a sequence is a series of scenes which form a distinct narrative unit, usually connected either by unity of location or unity of time. For example a film might include an extended recruitment sequence in which the leader of the gang collects together the conspirators, a robbery sequence, an escape sequence, and so on. Each of these sequences might further contain sub-sequences; for example the robbery sequence might consist of an entry sequence, a safe-cracking sequence, and so on. The sequence is one of a hierarchy of structural units used to describe the structure of films in varying degrees. Analyzed this way, a film is composed of one or more acts; acts include one or more sequences; sequences comprise one or more scenes; and scenes may be thought of as being built out of shots (if one is thinking visually) or beats (if one is thinking in narrative terms). EXAMPLE: MANTHAN The sequence of Dr. Rao leaving the village is made from three distinct scenes: 1. Dr. Rao receives a telegram which informs him about his transfer and he gives this news to his wife. 2. Dr. Rao goes to meet Bindu, but is not allowed from doing so by her jealous husband. 3. Dr. Rao and his wife are on the railway station and Bhola is runs to stop them. The scene where Dr. Rao goes to meet Bindu is composed of fourteen different shots for 96 seconds. E.g. Bindu is sifting grains and looks up to see Dr. Rao coming, OTS (from the husband) of Dr Rao, long shot of the three, close up of Bindu, close up of Dr. Rao, etc
IMAGE SIZE
We understand the physical nature of the world through a comparison of size. We recognize an object through an object by it’s proportions and it’s normal size relationship with other objects. A 3-m-high shirt button would require a moment to categorize before we had established a new frame of reference. But it would be instantly recognizable at it’s normal size.
A frame around an image seals of it’s context (frame of reference) and become unrecognizable unless it is a very familiar object, for eg. a human face. People can be tricked by a close shot of a model replica until the camera pulls back and reveals it to be a fraction of the size of the original. Some objects need to be set in their context before they can visually communicate clearly without any confusion about their identity.
A composition can achieve an impact by introducing an indication of scale or size comparison. Eg.- a small child in a large space or an ocean liner being pulled by a tug. The size of an unknown object is understood through comparison with an object of known size or with the background or by it’s appearance in relation to the frame. The human figure is most easily recognized and used most often in size comparisons. An over used technique is the familiar zoom out from the presenter. It reveals that s/he is standing on a large scale bridge or on top of a building. This shows scale but requires a lot of ‘dead’ visual between the start and the end shot which are the only two images being compared. More attractive compositions can be achieved by using a high angle position looking down, for eg., into a valley to see a winding road with a vehicle moving along it or a train puffing through the hills. This type of image appeals to most peoples general fascination with model lay outs where the spectator can take up a detached position and observe a scene without being part of it.
The proximity of a subject allows a frame of reference to be established and associations and comparisons to be made. The same factors are at work over time with adjacent shots allowing a development of new information or continuity in story telling. Proximity of subject allows judgments of scale and connections. Proximity in time allows continuity and the relationship between visual references which constructs an argument whereas in Fig. 5.24a the cinema image is viewed in near darkness with no visible object surrounding the screen, the television image is always in proximity with the objects surrounding the TV set Fig. 5.24b. The moving image on the screen holds the attention against the surrounding competition of wall paper, furniture , ornaments and people. The combined two dimensional designed composition including scale indicators has now to contend, when viewed, with a three dimensional environment.
To create an effect of height the simplest means is to have the actor stand on a block; or by positioning him forward of the other players and lowering the cameras making him appear taller. Sometimes the art director designs ‘converging sets’with built in ‘forced perspective’ in which normal sizes players appear in the foreground and undersized or even midget players are positioned in the distance. We are easily deceived by apparent size. Relative size, distance, perspective may all be distorted. However these are devices of theatrical films. In non theatrical films the exact size of objects are made known. Tools , machines and instruments are filmed with an operator in position to reveal their proportionate size. Regardless of their actual physical size, images that ‘crowd’ the frame are considered large. Eg. the 3-m- high shirt button. This actually tiny object appears huge because it’s edges touch the edges of the screen (crowding). To create an impression of a large group of people we can ‘crowd’ the smaller group we have so that they overlap the frame and we can create the impression that there are more outside the picture. Seeing less than the whole relays the impression that the entire picture is to vast and complicated to capture in it’s entirety. Filming at a high angle makes the small group being filmed overflow the frame. Such a device can be used to film troops of soldiers and make them look like a large army going to battle.
A figure or object can be made to appear taller by angling the camera upwards particularly if the image consists of vertical parallel lines tending to converge. A low angle wide angle lens shot of a tall building will make it appear taller. A low angle subjective shot of a person from a child’s viewpoint so that he crods the screen will make him appear even taller.
Psychological aspects of image size and angling , in relation to the frame (the space or lack of space surrounding the object in a picture), may be exploited to produce emotional responses from the viewers. An extreme long shot, looking downward at a tiny group of pioneers inching their way up a vast rugged landscape instantly portrays the hardships and privations endured on a long, lonely trek. Theatrical films make extensive use of such contrasting shots for visual variety and to provoke involver the audience more closely by provoking an emotional response from them. Non theatrical films may also use extreme long shots and extreme close ups for dramatic effects.
CAMERA VIEWPOINT
ANGLES
Although the term angle is often used on the set to designate simple camera position, it also has a more limited meaning in terms of camera resources, that is, the height and orientation, or level, of the camera in relationship to the subject.
LOW-ANGLE SHOT
A low-angle shot is one in which the camera is below the subject, angled upward. It has a tendency to make characters or environments look threatening, powerful or intimidating. The low angle shot can also give a distorted perspective, showing a world out of balance. This can produce a sense of both disorientation and foreboding.
HIGH-ANGLE SHOT
The high-angle shot is obviously the opposite of low-angle, and its effects are the opposite as well. The camera is placed above the subject, pointing down. It tends to diminish a subject, making it look intimidated or threatened. This is the conventional way of making characters look insignificant.
EYE-LEVEL SHOT
Eye-level shots are those taken with camera on or near the eye-level of the character or subject being filmed. Eye-level shots tend to be neutral. Much like the medium shot, an eye-level shot puts the viewer on equal footing with the subject being filmed. It has none of the diminishing or exaggerating qualities of the high and low-angle shots. A significant majority of shots in theatrical films, as well as a high percentage of shots in episodic television, are shot at eye-level.
BIRD’S-EYE VIEW
The bird’s-eye view, also called an overhead shot, is actually a variation of the high- angle shot but is so extreme that it has an effect all its own. This shot is from directly above and tends to have a God-like, omniscient point of view; people look ant-like and insignificant. It is used for dramatic effects or for showing a different spatial perspective. It enable the audience to see things which the characters cannot. Many classic examples of the bird’s-eye shot are, of course, found in Alfred Hitchcock’s The Birds (1963). This view is also used in sports & documentaries.
OBLIQUE SHOT
In an oblique shot, also called the Dutch angle, the camera is tilted laterally on a tripod so it is no longer parallel with the horizon. The oblique shot takes the straight lines of the world and presents them as diagonals. It is generally used to give an overwhelming sense of the world being unbalanced or out of kilter. This angle is used for dramatic effects & helps portray unease, disorientation, frantic or desperate action, intoxication, madness etc.
POINT-OF-VIEW SHOT
A Point-of -view shot represents the perception or viewpoint of a specific character. It is not used as frequently as one might at first presume, primarily because camera vision and human vision are decidedly not the same. There are two types of point-of-view shots: Subjective and objective. When the camera assumes the position of one of the characters in the story, and we see the whole story from his/her perspective, it is a subjective shot. When the camera assumes the position of a third person watching the scene unfold, it is an objective. A POV shot need not be the strict point-of-view of an actual single character in a film. Sometimes the point-of-view shot is taken over the shoulder of the character (third person), who remains visible on the screen.
BOTTOM ANGLE
Views the object from the bottom side.
PICK UP SHOTS
These are the special shots without actors, i.e., close up of properties, not recognizable shots of actors in different angles. These shots will be useful for compensating editing/continuity problems. Pick up shots will be taken after taking of the main shots of the scene.
DEPTH OF FIELD it is the field which is in focus. it is the distance in focus which is in front of the object and beyond the object. in case of the close, object is the starting point of the depth of field.
CONNECTIVE SHOT
Shot for connection of background and other ground by using trolley.
CAMERA MOVEMENT
Film is a spacio-temporal art form. Other forms are not spacio-temporal because they do not use space and time at the same time or simultaneously. We can create enthusiasm in an otherwise static shot simply by moving the camera. Some basic shots are: Panning, Tilt, Dolly, Track, Arc and Zoom.
Panning
A pan is a horizontal camera movement in which the camera moves left and right about a central axis. This is a swiveling movement, i.e. mounting the camera on a tripod, simply moving the camera horizontally from left to right. Pan shots are used to show the viewer more of the scenery. This technique is also often used to show views from high places, such as overlooks. Pan shots should begin with a still shot, then pan, then finish with a still shot. You should practice panning at various speeds until you find the speed that works best for you. Panning is moving the camera laterally. Two basic kinds of panning are the following pan and the surveying pan. 1. In the following pan, the camera operator pans to follow a character, such as into the scene or from one spot to another. 2. The surveying pan looks for a character or an object; for example, the character is already in a scene, and the camera pans to meet him or her.
Tilting
A tilt done with a mounted camera is quite simple. We just move the camera up or down, without lowering or raising the position of the camera. This is must like panning, only it is done vertically. This video camera technique is used to follow the subject that you are photographing, or to show the viewer a large object from top of bottom - or from bottom to top. One should note that when we tilt from bottom to top, the object looks larger or thicker. When you tilt from top to bottom, the object looks smaller or thinner. As with panning, we should begin with a still shot, tilt, then stop on a still shot.
Dolly
Dollying refers to moving the camera forward or backward in a scene. Although, at first glance, dollying may seem similar to zooming, the two are different in terms of how and why you use them. You dolly by moving the camera, whereas you zoom in and out by adjusting the lens. We can make our own dolly with a wheelchair, a scooter, a skateboard, a rolling cart, or many other devices that have wheels. This camera movement technique is used to follow your subject. The use of a dolly opens up many possibilities, especially when used in conjunction with other techniques. It helps us to roll backwards as well as forward.
Track
When the camera is mounted on a cart which travels along tracks for a very smooth movement, it is known as a tracking shot. A track is a lateral, sideways, travel shot, with the entire camera and tripod being moved right or left. The track shot differs from a pan; in that, the depth of field in a track shot is maintained as the whole unit, the tripod and camera - moves past the objects.
Arc
An Arc is a move that incorporates tracking and panning at the same time. The camera moves out from the subject, simultaneously making a circular move, an arc, while panning and, sometimes, tilting to keep the subject in frame. This movement is used in musical and dramatic presentations.
Zoom
All camcorders are equipped with a zoom lens with a servo button marked T (for tight) and W (for wide). Zooming in and out changes the focal length and, therefore the size of the image with varying speeds while the camera is stationary. Be careful not to zoom too quickly on your subjects and use sparingly.
LIGHT
Lighting plays a very important role in film making because a visual image is formed due to the play of light. Most likely the single most important aspect of cinematography is lighting. Light is necessary to create an image exposure on a frame of film or on a digital target (CCD, etc). The art of lighting for cinematography goes far beyond basic exposure, however, into the essence of visual storytelling. Lighting contributes considerably to the emotional response an audience has watching a motion picture. The control of light quality, colour, direction and intensity is a major factor in the art and science of cinematography.
THE THREE POINT LIGHTING SYSTEM (BASED ON POSITIONING OF THE LIGHT SOURCE) :
The three-point lighting system is the most common lighting scheme used in motion pictures. It uses a key light, a fill light, and a back light (or rim light). Using three lights from three different directions creates a sense of depth on people and objects guaranteeing everything will look three dimensional.
Key Light The key light is the primary light used to illuminate a subject. It is usually positioned 15 – 45 degrees from one side of the camera and angled down 15 – 45 degrees from above the subject. This light represents the primary source of light in a scene simulating the sun, a window, a light bulb or some other source of light.
Fill Light After the key light is positioned you will notice a harsh shadow on one side of the subject opposite the key light. The fill light is meant to reduce the shadow but not eliminate it entirely (shadow gives a sense of depth). A fill light should be placed on the opposite side of the key light but needs to be about half as bright and not positioned quite as high. Do not place it at the exact same angle as the key light. It is meant to simulate other light sources or light that is being reflected off other objects.
Back Light (Rim Light) The back light needs to be placed behind the subject opposite the camera but high above both so that none of the light goes directly into the camera. This light will create a slight glow on the back of the subject and thus separate it from the background. This prevents the subject from looking two dimensional on the film. It is sometimes referred to as the hallo effect. Beyond Three-Point Lighting Of course there are many variations to this scheme and additional lights are often added as needed, but for 95% of your movie making, this simple schematic will do. Once you have mastered this technique and are able to create and sustain a general mood throughout a movie, feel free to experiment as much as you like. However, until you do, don’t start playing around too much or you could ruin an otherwise good movie with poor lighting.
Background Lighting: The background light is used to illuminate the background area of a set. The background light will also provide separation between the subject and the background. In the standard 4-point lighting setup, the background light is placed last and is usually placed directly behind the subject and pointed at the background.
PURPOSE OF LIGHTING: Film lighting has three main purposes. The first is clarity of image. It is important for viewers to be able to discern all the important elements in the frame. These might range from facial expressions and physical gestures to the presence of significant props. In early cinema this was the sole purpose of lighting, but around 1905 other factors came into play. Lighting's second purpose is a quest for greater realism. Films began to introduce visual schemes that suggested that the lighting came from logical sources within the world depicted. The use of "effects lighting," as it was known at the time, paved the way for the third purpose: the creation of atmosphere or emotional effect. The development of lighting technique as a significant element of mise-en-scène became an important tool for manipulating audience responses to characters and narrative events. Increasingly, a repertoire of standardized lighting techniques came to be used for particular dramatic situations and particular lighting styles came to be strongly associated with film genres.
HOW LIGHTING CAN BE USED:
Most likely the single most important aspect of cinematography is lighting. Light is necessary to create an image exposure on a frame of film or on a digital target (CCD, etc). The art of lighting for cinematography goes far beyond basic exposure, however, into the essence of visual storytelling. Lighting contributes considerably to the emotional response an audience has watching a motion picture. The control of light quality, colour, direction and intensity is a major factor in the art and science of cinematography. Lighting has come to be an important component of cinema's visual design. It is widely recognized that in film, it can create a substantial emotional impact. A primordial response to darkness and light is a deep-seated element of human psychology that filmmakers have harnessed in order to influence the ways viewers respond to narrative development. On the one hand, deep shadows can make a character seem untrustworthy or conceal a host of horrors. On the other, bright, diffused lighting can provide comfort and reassurance or create the impression of an angelic countenance. The director manipulates this basic format to achieve the atmosphere he wishes to signify. For instance, if he uses only the key and back lights, he will produce a sharp contrast of dark and light areas on the screen as shadows are formed. This is known as low-key lighting. These shadows can be decoded by the audience to suggest an air of mystery, as used in the 'film noir' (dark films) of the 1940s and 1950s. They can also be decoded to suggest a world where there is depression and decay, as we find in many modern-day films depicting life in the future. Exaggerated use of low-key lighting can be found in horror films, where underlighting (placing a light under a face or an object) gives a dramatic, often distorting effect. Low-key lighting is often seen as expressive. High-key lighting means that filler lights are used. This will appear much more normal and realistic to our eyes but can also be manipulated to give a more glamorous appearance to a star’s face, or add a 'twinkle' to their eyes. It is much 'softer' than low-key lighting.
SOUND : AUDIO COMPONENT IN FILMS
“The eye is superficial; the ear is profound and inventive.” This is how Robert Bresson expressed his sympathy for sound. If we hear what Bresson is telling us, we should realize that adding audio to images does not just allow for a greater manipulation of the images, fine tuning them so to speak. It also means that the world opened up by sounds can be radically different from the one our eyes have accustomed us to. In films, the visual aspect is more readily comprehensible. The audio component has to be carefully woven in accordance with the visual component. Sound is an important element of the composition. A meaningful sound track is often as complicated as the image on the screen. A sound film is a motion picture with synchronized sound, or sound technologically coupled to image, as opposed to a silent film. The first known public exhibition of projected sound films took place in Paris in 1900, but decades would pass before reliable synchronization was made commercially practical. The first commercial screening of movies with fully synchronized sound took place in New York City in April 1923. In the early years after the introduction of sound, films incorporating synchronized dialogue were known as "talking pictures," or "talkies." The first feature-length movie originally presented as a talkie was The Jazz Singer, released in October 1927. A BRIEF HISTORY ON THE INTRODUCTION OF SOUND IN FILMS: The idea of combining motion pictures with recorded sound is nearly as old as the concept of cinema itself. On February 27, a couple of days after photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge gave a lecture not far from the laboratory of Thomas Edison, the two inventors privately met. Muybridge later claimed that on this occasion, six years before the first commercial motion picture exhibition, he proposed a scheme for sound cinema that would combine his image-casting zoopraxiscope with Edison's recorded-sound technology. No agreement was reached, but within a year Edison commissioned the development of the Kinetoscope, essentially a "peep-show" system, as a visual complement to his cylinder phonograph. The two devices were brought together as the Kinetophone in 1895, but individual, cabinet viewing of motion pictures was soon to be outmoded by successes in film projection. In 1899, a projected sound-film system known as Cinemacrophonograph or Phonorama, based primarily on the work of Swiss-born inventor François Dussaud, was exhibited in Paris; similar to the Kinetophone, the system required individual use of earphones. An improved cylinder-based system, Phono-Cinéma-Théâtre, was developed by Clément-Maurice Gratioulet and Henri Lioret of France, allowing short films of theater, opera, and ballet excerpts to be presented at the Paris Exposition in 1900. These appear to be the first publicly exhibited films with projection of both image and recorded sound.
The entire sound track is comprised of three essential ingredients: • the human voice/ speech • sound effects • music These three elements must be mixed and balanced so as to produce the necessary emphasis which in turn creates desired effects. These three elements are discussed below: THE HUMAN SPEECH/VOICE: Dialogue authenticates the speaker as an individual or a real person rather than the imaginary creation of a story teller. As is the case with stage drama, dialogue serves to tell the story and expresses feelings and motivations of characters as well. Often with film characterization the audience perceives little or no difference between the character and the actor. Thus, for example: Humphrey Bogart is Sam Spade; film personality and life personality seem to merge. Perhaps this is the case because the very texture of a performer's voice supplies an element of character. When voice texture fits the performer's physiognomy and gestures, a whole and very realistic persona emerges. The viewer sees not an actor working at his craft, but another human being struggling with life. It is interesting to note that how dialogue is used and the very amount of dialogue used varies widely among films. For example: In the film 2001 little dialogue was evident, and most of what was used was banal. In this way the filmmaker was able to portray the “inadequacy of human responses when compared with the magnificent technology created by man and the visual beauties of the universe.” The comedy, Bringing Up Baby, on the other hand, presents practically non-stop dialogue delivered at break-neck speed. This use of dialogue underscores not only the dizzy quality of the character played by Katharine Hepburn, but also the absurd duality of the film itself and thus its humor. The audience is bounced from gag to gag and conversation to conversation; there is no time for audience reflection. The audience is caught up in a whirlwind of activity in simply managing to follow the plot. This film presents pure escapism - largely due to its frenetic dialogue. An artist consciously includes certain elements in a frame to make a meaning. These can be used in any combination. Human speech can be combined with sound or music to provide emphasis to the situation as well as the character. Silence can also be used as a significant element in certain scenes of a film. Silence can by successfully created by compare and contrast. An excellent example of silence creating an impact would be the scene from the movie Jurassic Park in which they wait anxiously for the first glimpse of the dinosaur. They could hear the “thuds” as the dinosaur advanced. Each sound was cleverly alternated with complete silence to create the suspense and fear.
SOUND EFFECTS: To look at a film with dialogue, but without sound effects (as one does when building up a rough cut), forces us to question us the soundness of the project. Without sound effects, the characters on the screen are not quite real: it is as if their soul had left them. In film, the foremost raison d’etre for the sound effect track then is to make sure the world remains as we know it. Sound effects are of two types synchronous and asynchronous sounds. Synchronous sounds are those sounds which are synchronized or matched with what is viewed. For example: If the film portrays a character playing the piano, the sounds of the piano are projected. Synchronous sounds contribute to the realism of film and also help to create a particular atmosphere. For example: The “click” of a door being opened may simply serve to convince the audience that the image portrayed is real, and the audience-may only subconsciously note the expected sound. However, if the “click” of an opening door is part of an ominous action such as a burglary, the sound mixer may call attention to the “click” with an increase in volume; this helps to engage the audience in a moment of suspense. Asynchronous sound effects are not matched with a visible source of the sound on screen. Such sounds are included so as to provide an appropriate emotional nuance, and they may also add to the realism of the film. For example: A film maker might opt to include the background sound of an ambulance's siren while the foreground sound and image portrays an arguing couple. The asynchronous ambulance siren underscores the psychic injury incurred in the argument; at the same time the noise of the siren adds to the realism of the film by acknowledging the film's (avowed) city setting. Sound effects exist because we expect them to be there. For example, in the scene from the film Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam, in which the protagonist Samir talks to his heavenly father we hear the sounds of thunder as a response. The sound effect is used to keep the conversation alive from both sides. Sound effects can also be used to convey what a character is thinking about at a point of time. For example in the Japanese film Kwaidan directed by Masaki Kawayashi, there is a scene in which the protagonist takes part in a archery contest. He had left his wife back at home and he couldn’t concentrate on the work at hand as he was thinking about her. In one scene we see the hero aiming for a shot but the sound of the galloping horse is overtaken by the sound of the spinning wheel. In the next scene, we see his wife working on the spinning wheel. But the sound of the wheel is overtaken by the sound of the galloping horse which indicates that she is thinking about him. Sound effects can be significantly used to create the mood of a scene. In Satyajit Ray’s Pather Panchali, there is a scene in which Durga’s father returns after 5 months of absence. He is not aware of his daughter’s death and starts distributing the presents that he got from the city. When he calls for Durga, Sarbojaya, Durga’s mother breaks down because finally she has someone she can share her grief with. The sound of her cries and her speech is drowned by music because the audience already know what she is talking about. Similarly in Ghatak’s Meghe Dhaka Tara, there is a scene in which the elder brother of the family goes to meet the meet the female protagonist in the sanatorium. He brings good news from and is happy to meet her. Everyone in the family is well settled in life and is progressing in his or her career. But the protagonist is not a part of that happy state. She is suffering in the sanatorium and is about to die. She supported the family in their days of trouble and sacrificed her own happiness for them. But now when she needs support and care nobody is there for her. She breaks down in front of her brother and says “Ami bachte chai (I want to live)”. Her speech resounds in the entire valley expressing her grief and suffering. She feels cut off from the society and she is suffering due to their indifference. Sound can also be categorized into diegetic and non-diegetic sound depending upon its source. Diegetic Sound: Diegetic means belonging to the world of films, so diegetic sound incorporates all those sounds that are motivated by the film world. It can be ‘on-screen’ or ‘off- screen’. ‘On-screen sound’ simply proceeds from the images we can see on the screen. ‘Off-screen’ sound is still diegetic but we are left to imagine rather than see the source of the sound, e.g. we may see the interiors of a flat and hear the doorbell ring. We don’t need to see the door or the doorbell but can their presence from the off-screen sound. Off-screen sound particularly effective in creating suspense and fear of something we can hear but can’t see, e.g. The Blair Witch Project(Sanchez and Myrick, USA, 1999), Jurassic Park(Spielberg, USA, 1993). Combined use of on-screen and off-screen sound creates the complete effect. For example, in Pather Panchali, when Sarbojaya reads the letter from her husband we hear his voice, though he is not present in the scene. In the same film, when Sarbojaya sits and tries to decide on her future course of action, we hear the off-screen sound of a train and she decides to migrate. When she takes out her silver utensils to sell them we hear their sound indicating the importance of their going out of the family. Although all films use on-screen and immediately of-screen sound effects basically the same way, the selection process and their characteristic degree of presence must be carefully thought out. Sound effects are thus positioned throughout a film to “waken up the visual space”. As Michel Chion demonstrated in his analysis of Robert Bresson’s A Man Escaped(1956), the sounds we hear infer successive circles of presence around a French Resistance fighter imprisoned in a Nazi jail. First, there are the immediate noises within the cell itself: those the man makes as he walks back and forth, sits on the mattress, and writes something on the wall. Beyond the tiny cell, we hear what is happening in the rest of the block: the yelling of other prisoners, the guards coming and going, etc. Past that, there are the different sounds of the small town that surrounds the jail: children playing on a street, birds chirping, mostly the traffic. Then, at night, when everything quiets down, one is able to hear the whistling of a train at the outskirts of a city. As the camera stays for the most part with the man in his cell, all these sounds imply an ever-receding landscape of human activity beyond that which is visually available. Therefore, it is not just that synchronized sounds anchor the presence of the man in his cell, it is that other sounds, from people and things we do not see, complete the picture so to speak, testifying to the presence of an entire world out there. Diegetic sound would include: • Dialogue and all other sounds made by the actors, e.g. laughing, screaming(but not voice-over narration). The things people say is not only a way of drawing character but also of stimulating an audience’s response to that character. Dialogue is a very clear and direct way of introducing information which helps to explain actions and motivations. Characters can also easily fill in explanations of events and indeed describe events or parts of events not actually seen. • Sound effects suggested by the setting e.g. phones and doorbells ringing, television and radio in the background, traffic noises, footsteps, dogs barking, etc; • Music, if we can see that it is sourced in the world of the film; for example the characters attend an opera (Pretty Woman, Marshall, USA, 1990), (The Godfather part III) or put on a record or dance, e.g. Strictly Ballroom( Luhrmann, 1992) and Saturday Night Fever (Badham,1977).
Non – diegetic sound: Non-diegetic sound does not belong to the world of the film, so this would include: • The musical score or sound track. • Voice over narration- a technique whereby the voice of one of the characters accompanies the images telling us the story. Best examples are films of Martin Scorsese – Taxi Driver(1976), The Age of Innocence(1993). MUSIC: Background music Background music is used to add emotion and rhythm to a film. Usually not meant to be noticeable, it often provides a tone or an emotional attitude toward the story and/or the characters epicted. In addition, background music often foreshadows a change in mood. For example, dissonant music may be used in film to indicate an approaching (but not yet visible) menace or disaster. Background music may aid viewer understanding by linking scenes. For example, a particular musical theme associated with an individual character or situation may be repeated at various points in a film in order to remind the audience of salient motifs or ideas. Film sound is comprised of conventions and innovations. We have come to expect an acceleration of music during car chases and creaky doors in horror films. Yet, it is important to note as well that sound is often brilliantly conceived. The effects of sound are often largely subtle and often are noted by only our subconscious minds. Yet, it behooves us to foster an awareness of film sound as well as film space so as to truly appreciate a twentieth century art form, the modern film. SOUND EDITING: From the very earliest days of cinema, sound has been one of the key devices by which a film-maker can counteract the fragmentary nature of film to tell, propel, or enhance its storytelling properties. Edits may be frequent, constantly presenting us with changing visual images, but sound is likely to be more continuous, carrying over from one shot to the next and so helping to connect the images and provide continuity from one shot to the next. Sound also provides the viewer with sound motifs which contribute to their engagement with the narrative and aid a sense of completeness. Editing is the composition of a segment of action for the viewer’s perception. It is act of combining the visual and audio element in a sequential manner. Sound editing is a creative professional manner of selecting and assembling sound recordings in preparation for the final sound mixing or mastering of a television program, motion picture, video game, or any production involving recorded or synthetic sound. Sound editing developed out of the need to fix the incomplete, undramatic, or technically inferior sound recordings of early talkies, and over the decades has become a respected filmmaking craft, with sound editors implementing the aesthetic goals of motion picture sound design. The essential piece of equipment used in modern sound editing is the digital audio workstation, or DAW. A DAW allows sounds, stored as computer files on a host computer, to be placed in timed synchronization with a motion picture, mixed, manipulated, and documented. The standard DAW system in use by the American film industry, as of 2005, is Digidesign's Pro Tools, with the majority running on Macs. Another system in use presently is Yamaha owned Steinberg's cross platform DAW Nuendo running on Macs using operating system Mac OS X but also on Windows XP. Other systems historically used for sound editing were: • WaveFrame, manufactured by WaveFrame of Emeryville, CA • Several DAWs have been manufactured by Fairlight • SonicSolutions • AMS-Neve Audiofile A cut is an editing device which joins two shots together. In sound editing we have instantaneous replacement of one sound with the other. Tools used for sound editing is same as the ones used in video editing. They are: • Fade: the first sound reaches zero level (silence) then the second sound comes up. • Dissolve: there is no moment of silence between two sounds. The sounds are more compressed and simultaneous. If first sound is at level 10 then the second would be at level 1. Every editing device or transition carries a particular meaning/significance. The images might frequently change but they can be connected by a musical score that has the effect of knitting the shots together into a scene or sequence. Another way of using sound to the same effect is through bridges. Diegetic sound continues from one shot into the next. In the opening scene of Raging Bull Jake La Motta ends his monologue with ‘That’s entertainment’. This line is repeated and becomes an ironic comment on the next image we see: the younger La Motta being beaten in the ring. In an early scene from Charles’ life in Citizen Kane the line ‘Merry Christmas’ is followed by ‘Happy New Year’, but said ten years later.
VERBAL LANGUAGE When we watch a film, the sounds that we hear can be diegetic or nondiegetic. Diegetic sound is sound which is part of the film world we are watching. This can be dialogue, music or sound effects which come from a source within the film world. The music in this instance will be from a source in the film which we acknowledge could actually be producing music, for example, a CD player or jukebox. Diegetic sound can occur either on screen or off screen; in other words we can either see the person or object that is making the sound (on screen) or we don’t (off screen). Nondiegetic sound is sound which we do not recognise as part of the film world such as a voice-over or background music. Entering a more specific section of the audio aspect of films, we shall discuss the role of VERBAL LANGUAGE in audio-visual productions. In film-making terms, language of films is generally associated with the camera movement, lighting, etc. The script plays an equally important role. Dialogues, syntax and style of language along with the right intonation, modulation and diction help create the ambience. A good example of this would be Gulzar’s TV series Mirza Ghalib. The language helps create the mood of the eighteenth century Mughal dominated India. The dialogues written in lilting Urdu interspersed with Ghalib’s verses sung by Jagjit Singh capture the essence of that era and add another dimension to the series. Some examples of Mirza Ghalib’s shayari- har ek baat pe kehte ho tum ke 'too kya hai' ? tumheeN kaho ke yeh andaaz-e-guftgoo kya hai ? huaa hai shaah ka musaahib, fire hai itaraata wagarna shehar meiN 'GHalib' kee aabroo kya hai ? Another example of this is Shyam Benegal’s movies set in rustic locations. The dialogues are written keeping in mind the mood that the director wants to create. The colloquialisms introduced add a distinct flavour to Benegal’s masterpieces. For instance, dialogues in Manthan, Ankur, Nishant, etc. Benegal’s intelligent film- making also captures irony through dialogue. In the scene from Manthan where Dr. Rao receives the telegram informing him of his transfer, he tells his wife- “Tumhare liye khush khabri hai Shanta. Head Office se orders aaye hai...... hum ghar ja rahe hai” The dialogue alone would appear to be a ‘happy’ one but combined with the video track, it paints the true picture of Irony- cheerful sounding words defining an inner state of turmoil which is visible through Dr. Rao’s facial expressions. John Ford’s ‘How Green is my valley?’ is another example of dialogues creating ambience. The dialogues capture the relationship that the sons share with their parents- a mixture of love and affection with respect. It depicts good upbringing despite a poor background. It also captures typical society inWales with its depictions of tough coal miners, upright preachers, stiff necked teachers, etc. For instance, “For singing is in my people as sight is in my eye.” “For if my father was the head of the house, my mother the heart.” “Mr. Gruffydd, if the right is mine to give, you may have it.” There are also references like “my good mother” and “my old beauty”. Historical and Period films put emphasis on verbal language as it brings out the mood of that era. Similarly, war movies include a lot of jargon which lends an aura of authenticity. Dialogues help reflect a character’s inner state of mind even when their expressions cannot. Dialogues help bring out bliss, happiness, envy, pathos and a variety of other emotions. The above can be illustrated with the help of an example from Gone with the Wind. Rhett Butler’s famous reply in response to Scarlett O’Hara’s- “Where shall I go?What shall I do?” “Frankly, my dear, I don’t give a damn” It is reflective of a state of indifference as well as an acute sense of irony. And it is perhaps one of the most famous dialogues in the history of cinema. Coming to documentaries, dialogue plays a very important role here as well. Generally, documentaries have a narrator doing the voice over to substantiate the visuals. The language used in the voice-over helps to set the mood for the documentary. A documentary on the mystery surrounding the assassination of Kennedy would have powerful narration which induces a sense of enigma and mystery. It leaves the viewer curious and asking for more. Film criticism has been particularly harsh to verbal language in films by choosing to ignore its importance. Ralph Stephenson and J.R. Debrix’s The Cinema as Art devotes only 5 out of 270 pages to verbal language inspite of the fact that most films are full of words- dialogues, voiceovers, intertitles, words on sets and props, foreign language subtitles, song lyrics and credits, to say nothing of the verbal bases(treatments, scenarios, screenplays) of almost all films. The book also treats ‘words’ as threats to filmic visuals and seeks to diminish their signifying power by subordinating them to nonverbal film elements, particularly images. Words, according to them, “interfere with and disturb the image”. Director Rouben Mamoulian has a similar view, “The less dialogue the better the film...... when you cannot express it visually, then you put it in words.” But the word vs. Image debate has been raging for years. Not everybody supports the view that dialogues can be relegated to the background when it comes to film making. In 1939, Hollywood producer Irving Thalberg had said that “The writer is the most important person in Hollywood.” Today, the scenario is such that scriptwriting is considered secondary compared to the other aspects of film making. Even if the director is the scriptwriter of a film, it is his/her role as the director of the movie rather than as the scriptwriter that defines him/her as the film’s author. Nevertheless, verbal language is an important constituent of film making and holds a position of its own.
MUSIC
The marriage of film and music can be traced back to ancient cinema. As Hegel described an absolute necessity and as Zizek interprets, it is a necessity in the form of contingency. David Raksin has written that music's avowed purpose in films is "to help realize the meaning of a film." Aaron Copland has said that a composer can do no more than "make potent through music the film's dramatic and emotional value."
It has been said that film music originally appeared largely to cover up the sound of the clanky machines that projected the earliest of the silent films. But the deeper meaning behind associating music with cinema was only found in the late 1800s. The origins of the Western musical-dramatic style; the role of music in the inappropriately-called "silent cinema"; the breakthrough of synchronized sound-film systems from 1926 and 1927; the development of the Hollywood studio sound system and the age of the "classic Hollywood sound films" during the 1930s and 1940s; musicals; science fiction and horror films; avant-garde and experimental cinema; and the artistic and business relationships at play in music and film production-all have relied heavily upon music in cinema, more aptly termed composition.
The characteristic of music in cinema is invisible. If we notice, the function of is cinema is secondary to visuals. It provides a backing to visuals on the screen, enhancing/strengthening it’s impact. For Example, In The Good, The Bad And The Ugly, the valor of the character is established by the music primarily while Clint Eastwood is just staring in one direction.
Music can create a more convincing atmosphere of time and place: Atmosphere is a characteristic created by the colour of the music. In a broad sense, musical color may be taken to represent the exotic or sensuous aspects of music, as distinct from musical structure, or line, which might be considered the intellectual side. Simply put, this distinction has a good deal of validity in terms of film music. Film music is overwhelmingly coloristic in its intention and effect. Musical color can be achieved in a variety of ways. One is to use musical material indigenous to the locale of a film. Eg. Lagaan’s music score is based on aristocratic feel.
Music can be used to underline or create psychological refinements--the unspoken thoughts of a character or the unseen implications of a situation: Frequently, music can imply a psychological element far better than dialogue can. This use of film music is perhaps most effective when it is planned well in advance--when the film is in the scripting stage. Far too often, however, this possibility is passed over and music is not allowed to speak.
The ability of music to make a psychological point in film is a subtle one, and perhaps its most valuable contribution. Yet film theoreticians appear not even to recognize music's possibilities in this area.
Film music must thus enter directly into the 'plot' of the film, adding a third dimension to the images and words. It is an attempt to establish the supra-reality of a many-faceted portrayal of behaviour. Music can serve as a kind of neutral background filler: At times one of the functions of film music is to do nothing more than be there, "as though it would exist as sound rather than as 'constructed' music." Even though it is filling a rather subordinate role to other elements in the picture, "filler" type music is in fact a very conscious dramatic device. For examples, Friedhofer's from Broken Arrow is music accompanying a wedding ceremony. There are times when music accompanying dialogue can take on a definite foreground character. Sometimes music will come to the foreground momentarily to comment on the dialogue and then drop back into the background when the next line is said.
Music can help build a sense of continuity in a film: Music can tie together a visual medium that is, by its very nature, continually in danger of falling apart. A film editor is probably most conscious of this particular attribute of music in films. In a montage, particularly, music can serve an almost indispensable function: it can hold the montage together with some sort of unifying musical idea. Without music the montage can, in some instances, become merely chaotic. Music can also develop this sense of continuity on the level of the film as a whole.
Music can provide the underpinning for the theatrical buildup of a scene and then round it off with a sense of finality: Music has a way of bypassing the human's normal, rational defense mechanisms. When used properly, music can help build the drama in a scene to a far greater degree of intensity than any of the other cinematic arts. It is of little significance whether the scene involves an intimate love relationship or a violent fight; music evokes a gut reaction unobtainable in any other way. On the other hand, this can be one of the least effective uses of film music if not handled properly. In fact, many producers and directors seem to feel this is film music's only function in a film--especially if the film is inherently weak. We tend to react to music whether we desire to or not and if we don't wish to be moved by it, we resent its presence for making us begin to lose control of our rational, "sophisticated" defenses.
Another aspect of music in cinema is Leit Motif. A leitmotif/leitmotiv; (lit. "leading motif") is a recurring musical theme, associated with a particular person, place, or idea. Most recognized example is the Star Wars Imperial March associated with Darth Vader in the Star Wars series of films composed by John Williams.
The music created by Ravi Shankar for Satyajit Ray’s Pather Panchali is the most recognized example of Leit Motif used in Indian films. Various versions of the same piece of music is used throughout the film, for different situations.
Music is an integral part of cinema. However, it is evident that its significance is undermined. An interesting study of this would be hearing a film without watching the visuals and then trying to understand the it!
COLOUR IN CINEMA
When the movie industry began, its artisans only had the capability to film in black and white. Thus cinema began with only these two colors, first broadcasted by the Lumiere brothers. The history of the mechanic reproduction of images seems to be marked by a "resistance" towards colour: lithographic printing, photography, cinema as well as television began in black and white and only later was colour used.
Black and white photography worked on a concept called “verisimilitude”. Verisimilitude in its literary context is defined as the fact or quality of being verisimilar, the appearance of being true or real; likeness or resemblance of the truth, reality or a fact’s probability. As black and white pictures lacked the truth of colour it remained true to the shape and form of its subject. This was the the most truthful representation of subject. The realism impressed people so much that they forgot to question the trivia called colour. Yet colour had to be included as technology developed as many expressions went unnoticed with the lack of colour. Color was really only used in early films as a novelty. There are also some early films with sepia sequences or green negatives or dyed or hand-colored scenes. Color movies started nearly as early as film itself in 1895 with Thomas Edison's hand-painted Anabelle's Dance made for his Kinetoscope viewers. George Méliès was utilizing a similar hand-painting process for his films, including the visual effects pioneering A Trip to the Moon (1902), which had various parts of the film painted frame-by-frame by twenty-one women in Montreuil[1] in a production-line method.[2] Between 1900 and 1935, dozens of color systems were introduced, although only a few were successful.[3] Among the early dye-coloring processes, Pathé Frères invented Pathé Color (renamed Pathéchrome in 1929), one of the most accurate and reliable stencil coloring systems. A more common technique, Film tinting was a process in which either the emulsion or the film base is dyed, giving the image a uniform monochromatic color. This process was popular during the 1920s, with specific colors employed for certain narrative effects (red for scenes with fire or firelight, blue for night, etc.) A complementary process, called toning, replaces the silver halide particles in the film with metallic salts or mordant dyes. This creates a color effect in which the dark parts of the image are replaced with a color (e.g., blue and white rather than black and white). Tinting and toning were sometimes applied together. The principles on which color photography are based were first proposed by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1855 and presented at the Royal Society in London in 1861.[1] By that time, it was known that light comprises a spectrum of different wavelengths that are perceived as different colors as they are absorbed and reflected by natural objects. Maxwell discovered that all natural colors in this spectrum may be reproduced with additive combinations of three primary colors - red, green and blue - which, when equally mixed together, produce white light.[1]
Additive color The additive color systems were practical because they could be incorporated with black-and-white film stock. The various additive systems entailed the use of color filters on both the movie camera and projector. Additive color adds lights of the primary colors in various proportions to the projected image. Because of the limited amount of space to record images on film, and later because the lack of a camera that could record more than two strips of film at once, most early motion picture color systems consisted of two colors, often red and green or red and blue. Subtractive color Subtractive color largely started with the inventions of William Van Doren Kelley. The first successful subtractive color process was Kelley's Prizma Color, an early color process that was first introduced at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City on 8 February 1917 with the short film Our Navy. This system used a beam splitter in a specially modified camera to send red and green light waves to separate black-and-white film negatives. From these negatives, two prints were made on film stock with half the base thickness than normal, which was toned accordingly: one red, the other green.[4] Then they were cemented together base-to-base into a single strip of film. Originally, using color was much more expensive, so if a studio couldn't afford do the entire film in color, they used a little bit. One example that was not to be is RKO's Astaire-Rogers film, Carefree (1938). RKO was a little studio and didn't really use technicolor, which was an expensive process. One song-and-dance number of the film, featuring the Irving Berlin song, "I used to be color blind," was originally intended to be in color, but the studio changed its mind to keep costs down. The segment still calls out for color. The pre-eminent era of colour films was 1939-1949, when the name Nathalie Kalmus as Technicolor consultant guaranteed the genuine three-tone article before Eastman Color greatly reduced the visual quality of films. Today, most films have the same look and texture. Colour is seldom used with imagination.
SIGNIFICANCE OF COLOUR Colour signifies more than the hue of an object. It represents feelings, emotions, stark differences, alternate realities, beliefs and different concepts. In films like Pleasantville and The Wizard of Oz, color differentiates two universes. In The Wizard of Oz, Kansas in the same decade of the dust bowl appears in black-and-white and that someplace over the rainbow, that someplace far, far away where there isn't any trouble is the Technicolor world of Oz. this signifies the difference of Dorothy’s perception of these two places. Here too black and white is related closely to reality as Kansas is black and white while oz is fantasy and coloured. Color and black-and-white can be used to differentiate fantasy or an alternate reality and black-and-white can be used to show a different historical period or for memory or flashbacks, changes in states of reality, subjective reality and idealized plane of existence. In many films, color represents the pain, sensuality, conflict, beauty, evanescence, mortality of human life. Black-and-white (and gray) represent ethereality, repression and the spiritual world. One of the black-and-white characters on the silver screen in Woody Allen's The Purple Rose of Cairo says "We're not human..." A more macabre way of putting this is that when people die, they actually become gray (as their blood ceases being pumped through their bodies.)
In another recent film about heaven, What Dreams May Come, intensely saturated color and fantastic matte shots are used to create a heightened unreality. The juxtaposition of seeing in color and black-and-white also give the sense of overlapping co-existent dimensions.
Color can also convey subjective states of perception or time. This is the case in American History X (1998) in which the present is always in color, giving the viewer a greater sense of immediacy and some nagging illusory sense that one could change it (if it were the here and now and not merely the now) There is also one final scene of childhood done in color, all the more poignant because the rest of past has been in black and white.
Color is also used to convey point of view or identity as in Rumble Fish, in which it arises from the subjective representation of the colorblindness of the protagonist's older brother. Interestingly, Rusty, the protagonist's name, is also a word for a color (a shade of red) and the implication is that his older brother can't see him. In the final scene, after his brother is dead, he sees himself in color in a reflection in the window of the police car and he goes into a rage. Another observation about this film is that like the films about angels and heaven, there are two worlds: the gritty world of New York streets and the fabled world of California.
Nicholas Roeg, who made a film called Don't Look Now (1973), a gripping and macabre film about a couple in Venice mourning the accidental death of their young daughter. The film is not a black-and-white film that uses color sequences, but color, especially red, is used highly symbolically to foreshadow the moments of horror. Some films also use color highly symbolically, like The Last Emperor, in which the imperial China is shown in golden light; communist china is awash with red and post-communist China is khaki.
Whether in color films or color and black-and-white films, red is used most frequently to grab the viewer's attention. It symbolizes sex, sensuality, pleasure, sin and is the color of blood and red roses. It is the color of the sun the angels can't see when they gather at sunrise and sunset to hear the music of the spheres in Wim Wenders' Wings of Desire and this year's remake, City of Angels. It is blood that the angels see when they fall. It is the color Antonioni's first color film, Red Desert, and it is the red sand in the hourglass in and the poison red poppies in The Wizard of Oz. It is the color of the red rose after the first sex in Pleasantville and the red rose that the foppish angel sees in Stairway to Heaven and he comments rather self-referentially, "One is starved for Technicolor up there." It's also the first colors that creep into the black-and-white world of Pleasantville -- in the form of pink bubble gum, red tail lights and pink tongues. (Characters know what color is, as opposed to Damiel in Wings of Desire, who sees it for the first time when he chooses to fall.) An aside -- red is usually the color used to designate obsession, with the notable exception being Greed (1925), the Erich von Stroheim film which featured hand- coloring of the gold coins with which McTeague becomes obsessed. Red is the only color in Schindler's List an as such it is used to engage attention.
Another example of colour signifying a core concept is Krzysztof Kieslowski’s “Three colours blue”. Here the colour blue stands for liberty. The use of color - and one color in particular is important. In addition to blue filters and blue lighting, any number of objects are blue - a foil balloon, a tinted window, awnings, a folder, the walls of a room, coats, skirts, scarves, blouses, jeans, shirts, trash bags, crystals, a lollypop and its wrapper, binders, graffiti, a pool, a van, and a pen. Each use of the title color underlines the central message.
Another example of effective use of colour is Sin city.Sin City is the most visually inventive comic book adaptation to make its way to a movie screen. Black-and-white is the best format for film noir, and Rodriguez recognizes that - not that anyone would mistake this picture, with its kinetic energy and restless camera, for a relic of the '40s or '50s. However, what the director offers here is b&w with bells and whistles. Sin City is full of color flashes - the red of a dress or a woman's lipstick, the blue or green of someone's eyes, the blond of a hooker's hair, the orange of fire, or the yellow of a lowlife's skin. Then there's the blood - and there's a lot of that. Blood is either represented as a florescent white or, more frequently, in its natural color. In fact, it wouldn't be too much of a stretch to describe Sin City using the old cliché, "black and white and red all over."
Yet another innovative and good usec of colour in cinema is in “Dick Tracy”. Beatty and Madonna are at the top of the credits, but they aren't the stars of Dick Tracy. The color scheme is. From first shot to last, the movie is a succulent rainbow of primary reds and blues, lurid greens and pinks and oranges, and (of course) raincoat yellows. The whole film looks good enough to eat. Much of the action is swathed in velvet shadow, but that just makes you notice all the more how Tracy's coat matches the yellow trashcan in an alleyway, or how the impossibly tall big-city buildings seem to glow from within, or how the streetlights and fairy-tale moonbeams bounce lovingly off rain-swept streets. It's as if a '30s gangland melodrama had been colorized by Andy Warhol. Beatty and his team of collaborators have heightened the vibrantly tawdry urban night world of Chester Gould's classic comic strip. Only seven colours are used in this film to mark the simplicity of the comic strip.
Thus, from the above given examples of the use of colour in cinema, we see that clour has more use than just signifying an object. It denotes the subtle changes of moods, the melodrama in a scene or even a state of being. It is one of the tools which can truly be creatively used to make a film better.
EDITING
Film editing is an art of storytelling practiced by connecting two or more shots together to form a sequence, and the subsequent connecting of sequences to form an entire movie. Film editing is the only art that is unique to cinema and which separates filmmaking from all other art forms that preceded it. On its most fundamental level, film editing is the art, technique, and practice of assembling these shots into a coherent whole. However, the job of an editor isn’t merely to mechanically put pieces of a film together, nor is it to just cut off the film slates, nor is it merely to edit dialogue scenes. A film editor works with the layers of images, the story, the music, the rhythm, the pace, shapes the actors' performances, "re-directing" and often re-writing the film during the editing process, honing the infinite possibilities of the juxtaposition of small snippets of film into a creative, coherent, cohesive whole. Of the three components which make up film-making, editing is the third component. Editing can manipulate both the aspects of space and time, and serves as a tool to change the composition. Shots are edited keeping in mind the continuity of action. The three main devices constituting a cut are: 1. Dissolve 2. Fade (In and Out) 3. Wipe Other types include: 1. Bleach (In and Out) 2. Superimposition Audio components are also edited the same way except for the fact that there is no ‘wipe’ function.
Definitions of some edit terms: 1. Cut A visual transition created in editing in which one shot is instantaneously replaced on screen by another. 2. Continuity Editing Editing that creates action that flows smoothly across shots and scenes without jarring visual inconsistencies. Establishes a sense of story for the viewer. 3. Cross Cutting Cutting back and forth quickly between two or more lines of action, indicating they are happening simultaneously. 4. Dissolve A gradual scene transition. The editor overlaps the end of one shot with the beginning of the next one. 5. Editing The work of selecting and joining together shots to create a finished film. 6. Errors of continuity Disruptions in the flow of a scene, such as a failure to match action or the placement of props across shots. 7. Establishing shot A shot, normally taken from a great distance or from a "bird's eye view," that establishes where the action is about to occur. 8. Eye line match The matching of eye lines between two or more characters. For example, if Sam looks to the right in shot A, Jean will look to the left in shot B. This establishes a relationship of proximity and continuity. 9. Fade A visual transition between shots or scenes that appears on screen as a brief interval with no picture. The editor fades one shot to black and then fades in the next. Often used to indicate a change in time and place. 10. Final cut The finished edit of a film, approved by the director and the producer. This is what the audience sees. 11. Iris Visible on screen as a circle closing down over or opening up on a shot. Seldom used in contemporary film, but common during the silent era of Hollywood films. 12. Jump cut A cut that creates a lack of continuity by leaving out parts of the action. 13. Matched cut A cut joining two shots whose compositional elements match, helping to establish strong continuity of action. 14. Montage Scenes whose emotional impact and visual design are achieved through the editing together of many brief shots. The shower scene from Psycho is an example of montage editing. 15. Rough cut The editor's first pass at assembling the shots into a film, before tightening and polishing occurs. 16. Sequence shot A long take that extends for an entire scene or sequence. It is composed of only one shot with no editing. 17. Shot reverse shot cutting Usually used for conversation scenes, this technique alternates between over-the- shoulder shots showing each character speaking. 18. Wipe Visible on screen as a bar travelling across the frame pushing one shot off and pulling the next shot into place. Rarely used in contemporary film, but common in films from the 1930s and 1940s. Seven “rules of cutting” that a good editor should follow: • Rule 1: Never make a cut without a positive reason. "Rule 2: When undecided about the exact frame to cut on, cut long rather than short" • "Rule 3: Whenever possible cut 'in movement'" • "Rule 4: The 'fresh' is preferable to the 'stale' • "Rule 5: All scenes should begin and end with continuing action" • "Rule 6: Cut for proper values rather than proper 'matches'" • "Rule 7: Substance first—then form" PSYCHOLOGY IN AUDIO-VISUAL COMMUNICATION
A language, by definition, is a semiotic process through which thought may be conveyed, but a language system (or linguistic system) enables a response to that thought using the degrees and kinds of signs and signifiers produced by the language. Film uses not only words, but also different kinds of shots, angles and speeds; therefore, while the audience can react to a film's semantic intent, that audience cannot address its concerns regarding the film in the same language the film used to convey its argument.
Psychology in AV communication determines the involvement of a spectator in a film / television series . When the filmmaker uses the camera as his own eye , he freezes the image in time , and this composition is recorded and shown as his perception of the occurrence . Taking a look at the opposite side of this argument , that of the audience – on whom the film maker’s view is forced . These form a major chunk of the audience who are simply spectators to what is being put in front of them . They are virtually transported by the movie maker to where the happening actually is – they are only allowed to participate and not decide ‘what’ they want to watch . This above reasons also make this medium one of the most powerful psychological tools to the mind . A similar experience can be related to the auditory ( audio part of AV ) – we are made to listen to effects , sounds , verbal , music and even silence , all at the discretion of the Film maker . The combination of sounds and visual make a powerful impact on the viewer , forcing him to believe in and emote to what is being shown .
Christian Metz is the leading film theoretician in France. The translation of his Essais sur la signification au cinéma , 1967 has long been awaited by radical critics in this country looking to semiology as a tool for understanding the relationship between ideology and aesthetic expression. The question that oriented Metz’s early work was whether the cinema was Langue (language system) or Language (language) and his well-known conclusion was that the cinema was not a language system but that it was a language Mertz’ argument is that "langue is a system of signs intended for two-way communication, while the cinema allows only for deferred communication. In today’s world, however, this assertion will eventually have to be rethought because it does not allow for interactive cinema or Internet conference calling where role play is being done by either party—either of which can technically be considered film- making, especially if the parts of dialogue and imagery are manipulated to produce a contrived result. Metz further argues that cinema is not a language system because "it lacks the equivalent of the arbitrary linguistic sign," replacing it instead with a ‘motivated’ sign. So, the relationship between signifier and signified differs from literature to film. Metz argues against the idea that the camera/cinematic shot is like the word while the sequence is like the sentence. He states as evidence that: (1) shots are infinite in number (2) shots are the creations of the film-maker (3) the shot provides an inordinate amount of information (4) the shot is an actualized unit [meaning that it generates an exact representation of its intended meaning] (5) shots, unlike words, do not gain meaning by paradigmatic contrast with other shots that might have occurred in the same place on the syntagmatic chain FILM LANGUAGE BY CHRISTIAN METZ
Semiology is the science of signifying practice. That is, the theory of the production of meaning in texts. As such, it is not just a formalistic description of the physica1 material of the text. It concerns itself with the status of the text as a discourse. A sender emits a message which is understood by the receiver because both the organization and reception of the message is governed by a system of socially conventionalized rules (even at the level of the unconscious). Semiotic study attempts an analysis in which there is no separation of the specialized codes of a particular medium and the cultural codes which are inscribed in and mediated by it. Thus, some radical film critics find in semiology a way to think and talk about ideology without “extracting” it from its complex interaction with other codes in the film text. Metz’ notion of a cinesemiotics and of what constitutes a cinematic code is not yet fully formulated in his book and is there even very misleading, it can still be helpful as a beginning for thinking about films in terms of a culturally and ideologically determined heterogeneity of codes rather than as original and unique expressions of certain “human” themes. According to Metz , linguistics have become one of the most rigorous and fruitful sciences of this century. Metz discards a theoretical model for film based on verbal language, although he still believes that cinesemiotics can learn much from linguistics. His primary reason for rejecting rigid analogies to language is based on his claim that the image, unlike the word, is not a discrete unit that can be reduced into smaller basic units and analyzed.
SEMIOTIC ANALYSIS
THE PROBLEM OF MEANING
Meaning , is prevalent in the intrinsic sense , in probably all kinds of a/v communication : Be it films , TV programs , fashion , food etc . The basic concern is how meaning is generated and conveyed , with particular reference to what content is being viewed . How is meaning generated ? The essential breakthrough of semiotics is that it takes linguistics as a model and applies linguistic concept to other phenomena – texts- and not just to language itself .
Language is a system of signs that expresses ideas , and is therefore comparable to a system of writing , the alphabet of deaf mutes , symbolic rites , polite formulae , military signals as well as Commercials , soap operas , situation comedies etc/ A science that studies the life of signs within society is conceivable; it would be a part of social psychology and consequently of general psychology. Semiology shows what constitutes signs , what laws govern them .
Signs :- A sign , according to Saussure (1966) , is a combination of a concept and a sound- image, a combination that cannot be separated. . The relationship between the signifier and signified , is arbitrary , unmotivated and unnatural . There is no logical connection between a word and a concept, a point that makes finding the meaning interesting and problematic a the same time . Eg . The symbol of justice , a pair of scales , are in no way directly related to each other , but there could be no other symbol ( Eg. A Chariot ) to signify Justice . The characteristic of the symbol is vaguely related to it .
Relation:- The property of signs to be have a particular association with a thought process is called Relation . Example 1 , the television program Star Trek in terms of what symbols there signify . It of a well known space adventure – science fiction story . This is known because at the beginning of each episode , the Captain’s Voice over describes the mission of the starship – Enterprise – to explore new worlds and seek out new civilizations ‘ to boldly go where no man has gone before’. Hence it can be said that the genre of science fiction adventure is ‘signified’ using a number of signifiers such as spaceships , futuristic uniforms , ray guns , advanced computer technology , extraterrestrials with magical powers .
Example 2 : Sherlock Holmes and the story of ‘The Blue Carbuncle’, Watson find Holmes examining a hat which he describes old, with discoloured lining, dusty and spotted in places . However Holmes makes the following derivations from it : a) Man in intellectual ( Large size of the hat – large brain ) b) Man has not got a new hat , suggesting decline in fortune ( Good quality hat , suggestive decline in fortunes ) c) Man’s wife no longer loves him (Had not brushed in weeks ) d) Man seldom goes out ( Dust on hat is brown house dust) e) No gas in the house ( Wax stains from candles on hat )
The meanings in signs , and in texts are not always evident ; they have to be elicited .
Truth :- Umberto Eco ( 1976) , a distinguished Italian semiotician has suggested that if signs are used to tell the truth , they cal also be used to lie , and provide false images and mislead viewers . A few examples would be : a) Wigs – Bald person or person with different colour hair b) Elevated shoes – Short person made taller c) Dyed hair – Brunettes made blondes , Blondes made redheads etc d) Impersonation e) Theater – pretend to have feelings , beliefs etc f) Food – imitation crab, shrimp ,lobster etc
SEMIOTICS OF THE TELEVISION & CINEMA MEDIUM:-
Various forms of media carry various genres of the popular arts . Each medium , because if its nature , imposes certain limitations on whatever art forms or genres they carry . Example:- Television is not the ideal medium for presenting huge battle scenes . Television is more of a ‘close-up’ medium, better suited to revealing character than to capture action .
In applying semiotics to television , it makes sense for us to concern ourselves with aspects of the medium that functions as signs . What is interesting is how the kind of shots , angles, camera work and editing techniques in Cinema and television function as signifiers .The list is as follows :
Signifier Definition Signified ( meaning ) Close-up Face only Intimacy Medium shot Most of body Personal relationship Long shot Setting and characters Context , scope , public distance Full shot Full body of person Social relationship Pan down Camera looks down Power , authority Pan up Camera looks up Smallness , weakness Dolly in Camera moves in Observation , focus Fade in Image appears on blank screen Beginning Fade out Image screen goes blank Ending Cut Switch from one image to another Simultaneity , excitement Wipe Image wiped off screen Imposed conclusion
The above material represents a kind of grammar of television as far as shots , camera work and editing are concerned. There are other matters to be considered , such as , lighting techniques , use of colour ,sound effects and music .
PSYCHOANALYTIC CRITICISM
Psychoanalysis is a form of inquiry that has been applied to many areas – politics , anthropology and literary criticism and many other interesting fields . Psychoanalytic criticism is a form of applied psychoanalysis , a science concerned with the interaction of conscious and unconscious processes and with the laws of mental functioning . Sigmund Freud did not discover the unconscious , however , he developed it most thoroughly . His idea was that we are not aware of everything that is going on in our minds . It is frequently suggested that an individual’s mental life can be represented by an iceberg . The tip of the iceberg , the part seen above the water is what the person is conscious of . The remaining greater part , lies hidden beneath the water . Ernest Dichter is one of the founding fathers of the field known as motivation research , the goal of which is to discover the unconscious i.e the REAL reason that people do things , also what shapes people’s behavior better , what manufacturers consider to get their consumers to but their products . For example : Dichter explains why people use lighters. The basic psychological reason for using a lighter is the desire for mastery and power . The capacity to summon fire inevitably gives every human being – child or grownup , a sense of power . Fire and the ability to command it are prized because they are associated not only to warmth , but to life itself . A cigarette lighter provides conspicuous evidence of this ability to summon fire . The ease and speed with which the lighter works enhances a feeling of power . The failure of a lighter to work does not just create superficial social embarrassment .
PRODUCTION PROCESS
Film medium has been hailed as one of the most influential Audio-Visual medium. They have played an important role in the fields of entertainment, education and information. Production of such a valuable product requires not only money but also the mind. Film production requires certain special skills like creativity, novelty, management capacity and publicity.
Pre-production In pre-production, the movie is designed and planned. The production company is created and a production office established. The production is storyboarded and visualized with the help of illustrators and concept artists. A production budget will also be drawn up to cost the film. • The producer will hire a crew. The nature of the film, and the budget, determine the size and type of crew used during filmmaking. Many Hollywood blockbusters employ a cast and crew of thousands while a low-budget, independent film may be made by a skeleton crew of eight or nine. Typical crew positions include • The director is primarily responsible for the acting in the movie and managing the creative elements. • The assistant director (AD) manages the shooting schedule and logistics of the production, among other tasks. • The casting director finds actors for the parts in the script. This normally requires an audition by the actor. Lead actors are carefully chosen and are ften based on the actor’s reputation or “star power.” • The location manager finds and manages the film locations. Most pictures are shot in the predictable environment of a studio sound stage but occasionally outdoor sequences will call for filming on location. • The production manager manages the production budget and production schedule. He or she also reports on behalf of the production office to the studio executives or financiers of the film. • The director of photography (DP or DOP) or cinematographer creates the photography of the film. He or she cooperates with the director, director of audiography (DOA) and AD. • The art director manages the art department, which makes production sets, costumes and provides makeup & hair styling services. • The production designer creates the look and feel of the production sets and props, working with the art director to create these elements. • The storyboard artist creates visual images to help the director and production designer communicate their ideas to the production team. The production sound mixer manages the audio experience during the production stage of a film. He or she cooperates with the director, DOP, and AD. • The sound designer creates new sounds and enhances the aural feel of the film with the help of foley artists. • The composer creates new music for the film. • The choreographer creates and coordinates the movement and dance - typically for musicals. Some films also credit a fight choreographer. Production In production the movie is created and shot. More crew will be recruited at this stage, such as the property master, script supervisor, assistant directors, stills photographer, picture editor, and sound editors. These are just the most common roles in filmmaking; the production office will be free to create any unique blend of roles to suit a particular film. A typical day’s shooting begins with an assistant director following the shooting schedule for the day. The film set is constructed and the props made ready. The lighting is rigged and the camera and sound recording equipment are set up. At the same time, the actors are wardrobed in their costumes and attend the hair and make- up departments. The actors rehearse their scripts and blocking with the director. The picture and sound crews then rehearse with the actors. Finally, the action is shot in as many takes as the director wishes. Each take of a shot follows a slating procedure and is marked on a clapperboard, which helps the editor keep track of the takes in post-production. The clapperboard records the scene, take, director, director of photography, date, and name of the film written on the front, and is displayed for the camera. The clapperboard also serves the necessary function of providing a marker to sync up the film and the sound take. Sound is recorded on a separate apparatus from the film and they must be synched up in post-production. The director will then decide if the take was acceptable or not. The script supervisor and the sound and camera teams log the take on their respective report sheets. Every report sheet records important technical notes on each take. When shooting is finished for the scene, the director declares a “wrap.” The crew will “strike,” or dismantle, the set for that scene. The director approves the next day’s shooting schedule and a daily progress report is sent to the production office. This includes the report sheets from continuity, sound, and camera teams. Call sheets are distributed to the cast and crew to tell them when and where to turn up the next shooting day. For productions using traditional photographic film, the unprocessed negative of the day’s takes are sent to the film laboratory for processing overnight. Once processed, they return from the laboratory as dailies or rushes (film positives) and are viewed in the evening by the director, above the line crew, and, sometimes, the cast. For productions using digital technologies, shots are downloaded and organized on a computer for display as dailies. When the entire film is in the can, or in the completion of the production phase, the production office normally arranges a wrap party to thank all the cast and crew for their efforts. Post-production Here the film is assembled by the film editor. The modern use of video in the filmmaking process has resulted in two workflow variants: one using entirely film, and the other using a mixture of film and video. In the film workflow, the original camera film (negative) is developed and copied to a one-light workprint (positive) for editing with a mechanical editing machine. An edge code is recorded onto film to locate the position of picture frames. Since the development of non-linear editing systems such as Avid, Quantel or Final Cut Pro, the film workflow is used by very few productions. In the video workflow, the original camera negative is developed and telecined to video for editing with computer editing software. A timecode is recorded onto video tape to locate the position of picture frames. Production sound is also synced up to the video picture frames during this process. The first job of the film editor is to build a rough cut taken from sequences (or scenes) based on individual “takes” (shots). The purpose of the rough cut is to select and order the best shots. The next step is to create a fine cut by getting all the shots to flow smoothly in a seamless story. Trimming, the process of shortening scenes by a few minutes, seconds, or even frames, is done during this phase. After the fine cut has been screened and approved by the director and producer, the picture is “locked,” meaning no further changes are made. Next, the editor creates a negative cut list (using edge code) or an edit decision list (using timecode) either manually or automatically. These edit lists identify the source and the picture frame of each shot in the fine cut. Once the picture is locked, the film passes out of the hands of the editor to the sound department to build up the sound track. The voice recordings are synchronised and the final sound mix is created. The sound mix combines sound effects, background sounds, ADR, dialogue, walla, and music. The sound track and picture are combined together, resulting in a low quality answer print of the movie. There are now two possible workflows to create the high quality release print depending on the recording medium: In the film workflow, the cut list that describes the film-based answer print is used to cut the original colour negative (OCN) and create a colour timed copy called the colour master positive or interpositive print. For all subsequent steps this effectively becomes the master copy. The next step is to create a one-light copy called the colour duplicate negative or internegative. It is from this that many copies of the final theatrical release print are made. Copying from the internegative is much simpler than copying from the interpositive directly because it is a one-light process; it also reduces wear-and-tear on the interpositive print. In the video workflow, the edit decision list that describes the video-based answer print is used to edit the original colour tape (OCT) and create a high quality colour master tape. For all subsequent steps this effectively becomes the master copy. The next step uses a film recorder to read the colour master tape and copy each video frame directly to film to create the final theatrical release print. Finally the film is previewed, normally by the target audience, and any feedback may result in further shooting or edits to the film. VARIOUS ITEMS AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF PRODUCTION
Pre-Production Production Post-Production Script Staff and crews Film Editing Title Actors Electronic Editing Producer Film Sound Effects Writer Video Tape Optical Effects Director Actual Shooting Titles Casting Editing Mixing Production Design Developing/Printing Negative Cutting Set construction & Decoration Answer Print Looking selection Publicity Shooting Schedule Censor Preparation Release Budgeting
Stages of Film Production
Film production involves lot of mechanical, chemical and digital processes. The unique nature of the finished film is that it can be viewed any number of times any number of copies can be printed and the negatives can be preserved for many years. The stages are: a. Scripting: involves idea stage, developing idea into a simple outline of a story, then developing the story into more detailed treatment and then dialogues are added to become master scene script. b. Shooting schedule: after the script is finalised, the artists are confirmed and the technicians get ready for their work. The details of the shooting programmed decided which is brought out as shooting schedule. It contains all the details for conducting the shooting smoothly. The location of shooting, the details of the scenes to be shot, the date and time of shooting, the details of artists, their make up, costumes, special requirements are all given in detail.
Shooting Stage: this is the most important stage. All the artists and technicians come together to shoot the scene. The set is already been erected, the camera crew is ready with their equipments. The artists are ready with their make up and costumes. The script is ready with dialogues rehearsed with the artist. Now the actual shooting takes place. Here the assistant director uses a clapper board to identify each shot. The sound recordist records the dialogue on location to be used as a pilot for the post synchronisation. c. Rushes: this name is given to the print received from the lab immediately after the exposed negatives are developed after everyday shoot. Director views the rushes and the cameraman immediately to take the decisions on the quality of the images recorded. d. Editing: it is the stage where the shape of the film takes place. Rushes shot at different times are assembled and placed in the proper order. Also the reels are ready for post synchronisation, which is known as dubbing. During dubbing the dialogues are recorded in acoustically treated theatre. e. Sound recording: now the sound effect, which give authenticity to the scene, and the background music, which adds to dramatic and aesthetic effect, are scored and recorded in synchronisation. Then mixing is done where all the different tracks of sound are mixed together.
Technicians involved in production work: Producing Crew 1. Producer: Is the boss, he is one who usually controls the money he buys the story, hires the writer and directors and makes the big decisions. His primary aim is making and this comes ahead of making what he thinks will be good picture, he needs a peculiar combination of business sense and aesthetic discrimination. 2. Production Manager: He carries out the detailed tasks of the producer, in a small production he may actually be the producer he is responsible person for the entire production.
Camera Crew 1. Director of Photography: is responsible for the content and quality of pictures photography and decisions about camera and lighting. 2. Camera Operator: he works on the camera and is responsible for filming the scene in a professional manner. 3. Camera Assistants: he stands by the camera operator and aids in every possible way. 4. Sound Crew: our basic tasks are necessary in recording sound on stage or on location. 5. Mixer: he is in charge of the sound. He determines what equipment is to be used, how it is to be placed and also advises the director about what needs to be done to get good sound. 6. Boom Operator: they are in charge of physically locating the microphone and holding it during the take, keeping the microphone in the proper location. 7. Sound Assistant: their job consists of handling and taking care of the equipment. 8. Grip Crew: it is in charge of all physical operations on the actual shooting. This includes materials, tools, sets, tricks reflectors ,ropes,scaffolds,rigging and crones. He is more than an ordinary labourer; he is master of all trades and has sufficient physical stamina, knowledge of film production and ingenuity to solve the many incredible that arise. 9. Electrical Crew: on a feature production the electrical crew is often large during shooting in sound stage and in setups where many lights must be used.
Hair dressers, make-up artists, prop crew, wardrobe people, special effect, first aid, drivers,draper,painters,laborers,carpenters,plumbers etc
CREDITS: Forget the film watch the titles!
What are credits? In general, this term refers to the list of technical personnel, cast, and crew of a film; specifically, it refers to the list of names and functions of persons and corporations contributing and responsible for the artistic or intellectual content of a film, such as: "Story by...” "Screenplay by...” "Photography by...” etc.; sometimes distinguished from the cast (the performers in front of the camera). The closing credits, in a film or a television program, come at the end of a movie or show and list all the cast and crew involved in the production. They are usually shown on the screen in small characters, which either flip very quickly from page to page, or crawl from bottom to top of the screen. Credits which crawl either left to right or up and down are also known as rolling credits, which comes from pre digital days when the names were literally on a roll of paper and wound past in front of the camera. Credits are important to programme-makers, but are usually of limited interest to the audience. The BBC's credit policy balances desire to reflect significant creative contributions with the reality that lengthy credits make viewers switch over or switch off. As research shows that up to 80% of viewers can leave a programme at the start of the end credits.
The introduction of the new credit packages and durations makes it even more important that there is consistency in the editorial use of credits across output. Producers are reminded that credits are solely to recognise significant creative contributions to programmes and shouldn't be offered in return for reduced fees as is done in many cases.
History The use of closing credits in films to list complete production crew and cast was not firmly established in American film until the 1970s. Before this decade, closing credits usually consisted only of a list of the major cast members, and in many cases, particularly silent movies were released with no closing credits at all. As in motion pictures, most television programs until relatively recently did not list the entire cast and crew. Now, the closing credits do tend to be quite long, and to list literally every single person who had been in or who had worked on the production. Practices Some closing credits include out-takes from the show for humour. Sometimes, a parting scene is edited in after the credits to conclude as a final joke. For example, in ‘Ferris Bueller’s Day off’, Ferris appears and says "Are you still here? ... Go home!" while; The Monty Python series has included credits for ridiculous and non-existent production staff. On some occasions, the filmmakers will have a character come back and pop in during the credits. (A noted example is ‘Finding Nemo’ in which several characters interact with the credits like they are physical objects.) Sometimes the closing credits include bloopers. Many films show takes gone wrong. This was spoofed in the closing credits of ‘A Bug’s Life’, with shots of the animated characters fumbling their lines or knocking over the scenery. This tradition has carried over to other Pixar films, including ‘Toy Story 2’ and ‘Monsters Inc.’ Many films employ the use of animation, motion graphics and 3-D to make the credit sequence more interesting and involving for the audience. The elimination of the full opening credits sequence from many films has resulted in some films showing the major acting and production credits that would previously have been seen at the start of the film as part of the end-credits (sometimes preceded by the main title, which no longer appears at the start of every movie). Notable movies that omit opening credits include the ‘Harry Potter’ and ‘Star Wars’ series. In such films the main credits are shown at the end in a page-by-page format followed with the bulk of cast and crew credits as a crawl. These credits would have ordinarily been shown at the start of the movie or within a specially created opening credits sequence, such as those made famous by the James Bond film series. There are legal ramifications of not including or carelessly missing out giving due credit to any person involved in the production of a film. The Writers Guild of America (WGA) has a well-defined process for determining credits on projects produced under its jurisdiction. These productions are generally USA-controlled live-action film and TV projects, produced either by studios or major independent producers. In general, the credits determination process works as follows: When the film is finished shooting, the producer sends a notice to the guild and the writers proposing the writing credits. If any writer disagrees with those credits, or if the proposed credits require mandatory arbitration (e.g., a producer or director sharing a writing credit), a WGA arbitration committee reads all drafts of the script and various supporting materials and determines the actual/official credits. If there is no source material (novel, play, article, etc.) and the same writers receive credit for both the story and screenplay, the credit is "written by". The "story by" credit is used when the basic narrative structure was originally written with intent to be used for a movie (as opposed to a short story) and the actual screenplay had different authors. A shared "story by" credit is the minimum awarded to the author of an original screenplay. If there was previously existing source material but the writer creates a substantially new and different story from the source, then the "screen story" (or "television story") credit is used. Finally, the "screenplay by" (or "teleplay by") credit is used to denote the screenplay (teleplay) authorship if the story credit had to be separated as above. In rare cases, "adaptation by" can be awarded to a writer who shapes the script without qualifying for one of the above credits. There are other specialized credits used for television programs such as documentaries and audience participation shows.
‘Division of Labour!’ There are various heads under which the authority and responsibility of tasks fall. Explained below are the general heads that are mentioned in credit lists of cinematic content:
Executive Producer A title often abused in the film industry. Ideally the executive producer arranges for the film's financing and tries to keep the project on budget. Increasingly the executive producer credit is given as a perk to a powerful actor's agent or spouse, or some other person who made the project possible.
Producer The producer finds a script and develops it into a film project. He or she oversees the hiring of the director, actors and technical personnel. The producer also oversees script development and tracks the movie's financial condition during filming.
Director The director is responsible for all creative aspects of a movie. The director usually helps hire actors, decides on locations and plans the shots before filming begins. During filming the director oversees the actors and crew, sets up shots and keeps the movie on schedule and on budget. A producer usually hires the director, unless he or she is also producing the film.
Writer The term "Written By" in the credits is a designation meaning "Original Story and Screenplay By." The writer creates and shapes an original story, or adapts a book, play or other work for use on the big screen. A script may go through many writers, so the Writer's Guild must often determine who gets screen credit as the Writer.
Cinematographer The cinematographer, or director of photography (D.P.), helps create the look of a movie. The D.P. directs the lighting for each scene, helps frame shots, chooses lenses, selects film stock and ensures that the visual look of the film conforms to the director's vision. The cinematographer usually does not operate the camera on set (this is the duty of the camera operator).
Art Director The art director, or production designer, designs and supervises the construction of sets for a movie. This person needs to be well-versed in a variety of art and design styles, including architecture and interior design. He or she works with the cinematographer to achieve the right look for the production.
Editor The editor works with the director in editing the film. The director has the primary responsibility for editing decisions, but the editor often has significant input in the creative decisions involved in putting together a final cut of a movie. The editor often starts work while the film is still being shot, by assembling preliminary cuts from the daily footage. Increasingly, editors work on computerized editing consoles without touching the actual film.
Associate Producer In most cases an associate producer is the producer's top assistant, though this job varies from production to production. He or she is often a liaison between the production team (everyone helping to shoot the film) and the post-production team (those who work on the film after shooting). Sometimes this credit goes to the project's financier, or the person who brought the project to the producer.
Stunt Coordinator The stunt coordinator lines up professional stunt people to take the risks that make the movies so exciting. The stunt coordinator makes sure that all safety regulations are followed and that all safety equipment is on the set and ready for action!
Production Manager The production manager (P.M.) makes business deals with the crew and arranges for the production's technical needs. This includes everything from obtaining the right technical equipment to renting accommodations for actors and crew.
Unit Production Manager The unit production manager (U.P.M.) reports the daily financial operation of a production to the production manager. Sometimes the U.P.M. will scout for locations and help the production manager with overall planning.
Line Producer The line producer supervises the movie's budget. This includes unique expenses like a star's salary as well as daily costs like equipment rentals. The production manager reports his or her expenses and needs to the line producer.
Assistant Director The assistant director (A.D., or First A.D. in larger productions) works to make the director more efficient. The A.D. plans a shooting schedule by breaking the script into sections that can be filmed in a single day and in the most efficient order. During filming the A.D. manages the set, helps line up shots for the director, calls for quiet on the set and coordinates the extras.
Continuity Person The continuity person tries to prevent embarrassing gaffes in the final film, such as an actor wearing a hat that mysteriously disappears in one shot then reappears in another. The continuity person logs how many times a scene was shot, how long the shot lasted, which actors were in the scene, where they were standing and any other intricate details -- like that disappearing hat!
Camera Operator The camera operator is a member of the camera crew and runs the camera as instructed by the director and the cinematographer. The camera operator is responsible for keeping the action in frame, and responding quickly to the action as it unfolds.
Assistant Cameraman Often there is a first and second assistant cameraman. The first assistant cameraman is generally responsible for the maintenance of the camera. The first assistant cameraman also changes lenses, maintains focus during shots, marks the spots where actors will stand and measures the distance between the camera and the subject matter. The second assistant cameraman fills out camera reports and is often responsible for loading and unloading camera magazines, which contain the film. (Also see film loader.)
Visual Effects Director The visual effects director's job varies according to the needs of the production. Sometimes the visual effects director helps with effects on the set. But he or she could also be called upon to supervise separate teams of effects technicians working away from the set.
FX Coordinator FX is film shorthand for special effects. The job of the FX coordinator differs from film to film. Special effects range from complicated computer animation to helping Superman fly to simple on-set logistics like making a shower work. Post-Production Supervisor The post-production supervisor oversees the finishing of a film once shooting ends. He or she attends editing sessions, maintains quality control, and coordinates audio mixing, computer graphics, and all other technical needs.
Property Master The property master finds, maintains and places on the set all essential props for a scene. A prop is a moveable item that is essential to a scene.
Set Designer The set designer takes direction from the art director about the look of the set, and then plans its technical construction.
Costume Designer The costume designer creates all the costumes worn by the cast on a production. This person contributes to the overall look of the film, as well as the style and interpretation of the film's characters.
Make-up Artist The make-up artist is usually a licensed professional who applies any make-up to an actor.
Hairdresser The hairdresser is licensed to cut, colour and style the hair of actors in a production. He or she also styles and cuts wigs when necessary. Usually the hairdresser provides all the necessary equipment and rents it to the production on a weekly basis.
Production Assistant Often called a gofer or a runner on the set, the production assistant (P.A.) performs small but essential tasks for the cast and crew.
Unit Publicist The unit publicist makes sure the media are aware of a production by sending out press releases, arranging for interviews of cast and crew, setting up on-set visits and organizing media kits, which include publicity pictures, video and audio clips and plot summaries.
Second Unit Director The second unit director heads the second unit – a separate production crew that shoots sequences not involving the main actors. These can include background shots at remote locations, shots used for special effects and scenes that are not essential to the plot.
Story Editor The story editor supervises several story analysts who work for the studios. The analysts read screenplays, books and other literary efforts looking for potential movies. The analyst then writes "coverage" (a synopsis) of the material. The story editor reviews the coverage and passes on promising prospects to the studio bosses for possible development into a motion picture.
SCRIPTWRITING Stories are often classified by type, such as mystery, romance or adventure. Or, you can gather them under the headings of dramas, comedies or tragedies. Dramas are basic stories about some interesting or exciting events. Comedies are stories that take a humorous or lighthearted approach. Tragedies are stories in which the hero valiantly battles forces too powerful to overcome. Tragedies have an unhappy ending. However you think of them, all are about someone doing something; they are a combination of character and plot. "Characters" are the someone, the people in the story. They may be the people around you or people that you invent. While there may be other characters, every story has a protagonist and an antagonist. The protagonist, or hero, is whom the story is about. The hero can be a man, a woman, a child or even an animal. The antagonist is the opposing force; usually a villain but it could be a force of nature or even the hero’s internal conflicts. "Plot" is the something that these people do. If you think of a story as a journey, plot is the road map that keeps you from getting lost along the way. In this article, we will help you develop your road map. Basic Building Blocks Every story has three parts: a beginning, a middle and an end. In live theater, these parts are called "acts." Each of these parts has an important function: The beginning serves to introduce the characters and establish the problem the hero must solve. The middle is the most involved, and usually the longest part. The hero must overcome increasing difficulties. Just when it looks like the antagonist is going to win, the hero pulls through. The end in which the hero puts out a supreme effort and reaches his or her goal - usually. Most stories have happy endings. The audience does not want to cheer for a hero through all her trials only to see her go down in flames at the end. If the story has an unhappy ending, the hero (or at least the audience) should gain something, like a better understanding of herself or the world. You often hear that a story requires conflict. This does not necessarily mean gunfights or fisticuffs. "Conflict" is another name for the difficulties that the hero has to overcome. "Boy meets girl, boy courts girl, boy gets girl" may be the way it usually happens in real life, but audiences don’t watch videos to see the kind of life they are already living. Storytellers learned long ago that "boy meets girl, boy loses girl, boy gets girl" is more interesting. Examples Lets look at some familiar stories and see how they fit the basic pattern. As you watch stories, look for the three-act structure. See who is established in the beginning and what the protagonist’s goal is. The transition to the middle can usually be identified by a dramatic change in the hero’s situation. In the middle, observe the obstacles or problems that are placed in the way of the hero. These difficulties often increase in severity until it seems that there is no way the hero can gain the goal. The transition to the end may be another radical change in the situation. In the end, the protagonist manages to best the opposition and reach the goal. The story quickly winds down after that, tying up loose ends.
Case Study : Little Red Riding Hood. In the beginning we meet Little Red Riding Hood who is tripping through the woods on her way to Grandmas’. On the way she meets the Big Bad Wolf. We have met the characters and learned Red’s goal. In the Middle, the Wolf takes a shortcut to Grandma’s, disposes of her, and slips into bed disguised as the old lady. When Red comes in, she begins to get suspicious. Tension rises and the situation degenerates until the Wolf chases Red around the house, and in older versions of the story, eats Red. In the end, Red’s screams bring in a brave woodsman, who kills the Wolf with his axe and saves the girl (in the versions of the story where Red gets eaten, the woodsman saves Red by splitting open the Wolf’s stomach). Note: Russian Playwright Anton Chekhov said that if a gun is seen in the first act it must be fired in the last act. The reverse of that is especially true. If you intend to have the hero use some prop to help solve the problem (like Red shooting the Wolf) then that prop must be established early on in the show - but done casually so as not to draw attention to itself. The Plot Kit Having observed how stories are constructed, you can easily put together one of your own. Below are some elements that you can adapt to make a story: Beginning Here you have an infinity of choices. Some of them are: • "Once upon a time," still a good way to start the telling of a fable or any story set in an indeterminate time. • Dawn, or the beginning of someones day. • Boy meets girl. • Someone commits a crime. • A ghost appears and demands revenge for his murder. I know, I know, this one has been used already. But Shakespeare wasn�t the first to use it, nor the last. It is perfectly alright to take an existing story line and put your own spin on it as the very best have done so.
Middle Here are some ways to keep your story exciting and moving forward: Use a "Rule of Three." As in the story of the Little Pig, the hero tries two things that don’t work before figuring out one that will. Three seems to be a magic number; more failures make the hero look like a real loser, fewer do not build up sufficient tension. The hero continues to fail until he hits bottom; then begins with small successes to work himself back up to where he can take on the villain once again. Or, the hero loses the big battle, then retires to lick his wounds and prepare for the final confrontation. Some examples of things that keep the plot moving are: • The protagonist goes to an unfamiliar place. • A natural disaster occurs. • The hero gives in to some temptation. • A mysterious stranger appears.
End Here are a few choices for endings:
• The hero triumphs and lives happily ever after. This is the most common and generally the most satisfying ending. • The hero fails to achieve the goal but gains some valuable understanding. • The hero dies, perhaps after achieving the goal, perhaps after failing. A tragic ending takes real skill to keep it from being depressing. • The twist or surprise ending. If you use this ending, make sure that the surprise is based on the material that went before. If it is totally unrelated (i.e., the killer is someone we never heard of) your audience will boo. After solving the problem, the hero rides off into the sunset (on his horse, or bike, or skateboard).
All successful stories have common characteristics. They show someone, that we care about, striving against difficulties to achieve a worthwhile goal. The way to organize your story is to give it a proven beginning, middle, and end. The beginning introduces us to the main characters and what they are after. The middle shows the hero’s progress against whatever threatens to keep him from the goal. The end shows how the hero finally triumphs. By organizing your video’s storyline around these elements, you will understand the secret formula to good story writing and you will keep your audiences’ interest to the very end.
SCREENWRITING Screenwriting is the art and craft of writing scripts for film, television or video games. Screenwriting in the entertainment industry The act of screenwriting takes many forms across the entertainment industry. Often, multiple writers work on the same script at different stages of development with different tasks. Over the course of a successful career, a screenwriter might be hired to write in a wide variety of roles. Common forms of screenwriting: Spec script writing Spec scripts are feature film or television show scripts written on speculation, without the commission of a studio, production company, or network. The vast majority of scripts written each year are spec scripts, but only a small percentage make it to the screen. A spec script is usually a wholly original work, but sometimes can also be an adaptation of an existing source. In television writing, a spec script is a sample teleplay written to demonstrate the writer's knowledge of a show and ability to imitate its style and conventions. Feature assignment writing Scripts written on assignment are screenplays created under contract with a studio, production company, or individual. Assignment scripts are generally adaptations of an existing idea or property owned by the hiring company but can also be original works based on a concept created by the writer or producer. Because assignments are created for hire, the writer typically has less creative freedom than on a spec script, and must meet specific criteria dictated by the producer. Rewriting and script doctoring Most produced films are rewritten to some extent during the development process. Very frequently, they are not rewritten by the original writer of the script this is known as re-writing the script. When a script's central premise or characters are good but the script is otherwise unusable, a different writer or team of writers is contracted to do an entirely new draft, often referred to as a "page one rewrite." When there are only small shortcomings, such as bad dialogues or poor humor, a writer is hired to do a "polish- up" or "punch-up." Depending on the size of the new writer's contributions, screen credit may or may not be given. When an established and successful writer is called in to rewrite portions of a script late in its development process, they are commonly referred to as script doctors.Subhash Ghai started his prolific career as a script doctor. Television writing A freelance television writer uses spec scripts or their previous credits and reputation to get contracted by an existing tv show to write one or more episodes. After the episode is written, the teleplay is submitted to the network and rewriting or polishing may be required. Subsequent drafts of the script may be done by the freelancer or by the show's staff. A staff writer for a television show generally works in-house writing and rewriting episodes for the show. Staff writers - often given other titles, such as story editor, or producer - work both as a group and individually on episode scripts to maintain the show's tone, style, characters, and plots. Television show creators, also known as show runners, write the pilot episode and bible of a new television series. They are responsible for creating and managing all aspects of a show's characters, style, and plots. Frequently, a creator or a creative director remains responsible for the show's day-to-day creative decisions throughout the series run. Writing for soap operas The process of writing for soap operas is different than that used by prime time shows, due in part to the need to produce new episodes five days a week, fifty-two weeks a year. Video game writing With the continued development and increased complexity of video games, many opportunities are available to screenwriters in the field of video game design. Video game writers work closely with the other game designers to create characters, scenarios, and dialogue. Theories on writing a screenplay Fundamentally, the screenplay is a unique literary for, it is intended to be interpreted on the basis of other artists' performance, rather than serving as a "finished product" for the enjoyment of its audience. For this reason, a screenplay is written using technical jargon and tight, spare prose when describing stage directions. Unlike a novel or short story, a screenplay focuses on describing the literal, visual aspects of the story, rather than on the internal thoughts of its characters. In screenwriting, the aim is to evoke thoughts and emotions through subtext, action, and symbolism. There are several main screenwriting theories which help writers approach the screenplay by systematizing the structure, goals and techniques of writing a script. The most common kinds of theories are structural. Three act structure The first, most basic theory of screenwriting is the Three Act Structure. The Three Acts are Beginning, Middle and End (or, more specifically, setup [of the location and characters], confrontation [of the problem], resolution [of the problem]). The first act is generally used to establish the dramatic situation and introduce the main characters. At the end of the first act, an inciting incident complicates the story and moves the screenplay into the second act. The second act, commonly described as "rising action", typically depicts the protagonist attempting to solve the problems caused by the inciting incident. The Climax, which ends the second act, is the scene or sequence in which the main tension and dramatic questions of the story are brought to their most intense point. Finally, the third act features the resolution of the story and its subplots. The Hero's Journey The Hero's Journey, also referred to as the Monomyth, is an idea formulated by noted mythologist Joseph Campbell. The central concept of the Monomyth is that a universal pattern can be seen in stories and myths across history and cultures. Campbell's insight was that important myths from around the world which have survived for thousands of years, all share a fundamental structure. This fundamental structure contains a number of stages, which includes 1. A call to adventure, which the hero has to accept or decline 2. A road of trials, regarding which the hero succeeds or fails 3. Achieving the goal or "boon," which often results in important self-knowledge 4. A return to the ordinary world, again as to which the hero can succeed or fail 5. Application of the boon, in which what the hero has gained can be used to improve the world Syd Field's Paradigm Screenwriting guru Syd Field wrote the seminal book Screenplay, and posited a new theory, which he called the Paradigm. Field noticed that in a 120-page screenplay, Act Two was notoriously boring, and was also twice the length of Acts One and Three. He also noticed that an important dramatic event usually occurred at the middle of the picture, which implied to him that the middle act was actually two acts in one. So the Three Act Structure is notated 1, 2a, 2b, 3, resulting in Aristotle's Three Acts divided into four pieces. Field also introduced the idea of Plot Points into screenwriting theory. Plot Points are important structural functions that happen in approximately the same place in most successful movies, like the verses and choruses in a popular song. Opening Image: The first image in the screenplay should summarize the entire film, especially its tone. Often, writers go back and redo this as the last thing before submitting the script. Inciting Incident: Also called the catalyst, this is the point in the story when the Protagonist encounters the problem that will change their life. This is when the detective is assigned the case, where Boy meets Girl, and where the Comic Hero gets fired from his cushy job, forcing him into comic circumstances. Plot Point 1: The last scene in Act One, Turning Point One is a surprising development that radically changes the Protagonist's life, and forces him to confront the Opponent. In Star Wars, this is when Luke's family is killed by the Empire. He has no home to go back to, so he joins the Rebels in opposing Darth Vader. Pinch 1: A reminder scene at about 3/8 the way through the script (halfway through Act 2a) that brings up the central conflict of the drama, reminding us of the overall conflict. For example, in Star Wars, Pinch 1 is the Stormtroopers attacking the Millennium Falcon in Mos Eisley, reminding us the Empire is after the stolen plans to the Death Star R2-D2 is carrying and Luke and Ben Kenobi are trying to get to the Rebel Alliance (the main conflict). Midpoint: An important scene in the middle of the script, often a reversal of fortune or revelation that changes the direction of the story. Driving the story towards the Midpoint keeps the second act from sagging. Pinch 2: Another reminder scene about 5/8 through the script (halfway through Act 2b) that is somehow linked to Pinch 1 in reminding the audience about the central conflict. In Star Wars, Pinch 2 is the Stormtroopers attacking them as they rescue the Princess in the Death Star. Both scenes remind us of the Empire's opposition, and using the Stormtrooper attack motif unifies both Pinches. Plot Point 2: A dramatic reversal that ends Act 2 and begins Act 3, which is about confrontation and resolution. Sometimes Turning Point Two is the moment when the Hero has had enough and is finally going to face the Opponent. Sometimes, like in Toy Story, it's the low-point for the Hero, and he must bounce back to overcome the odds in Act 3. Showdown: About midway through Act 3, the Protagonist will confront the Main Problem of the story and either overcome it, or come to a tragic end. Resolution: The issues of the story are resolved. Tag: An epilogue, tying up the loose ends of the story, giving the audience closure. This is also known as denouement. In general, films in recent decades have had longer denouements than films made in the 1970s or earlier. The sequence approach The sequence approach to screenwriting, sometimes known as "eight-sequence structure", is a system developed by Frank Daniel. In the sequence style the story is broken up into eight 10-15 minute sequences. The sequences serve as "mini-movies", each with their own compressed three-act structure. The first two sequences combine to form the film's first act. The next four create the film's second act. The final two sequences complete the resolution and dénouement of the story. Each sequence's resolution creates the situation which sets up the next sequence.
Screenwriting formats Screenplays and teleplays have set of standardizations in place, beginning with proper formatting. These rules serve the practical purpose of making scripts uniformly readable "blueprints" of movies, and also a way of distinguishing a professional from an amateur. Feature film Motion picture screenplays intended for submission to mainstream studios, are expected to conform to a standard typographical style known widely as studio format which stipulates how elements of the screenplay such as scene headings, action, transitions, dialog, character names, shots and parenthetical matter should be presented on the page, as well as the font size and line spacing. One reason for this is that, when rendered in studio format, most screenplays will transfer onto the screen at the rate of approximately one page per minute.. There is no single standard for studio format. Some studios have definitions of the required format written into the rubric of their writer's contract. Screenplays are traditionally 90-120 pages long. Comedies and children's films tend to weigh in at the lower end. Screenplays are almost always written using a monospaced font, often a variant of Courier. Television For TV shows, the format rules for hour-long dramas, like CSI, and single-camera sitcoms, like Scrubs, are essentially the same as for motion pictures. The main difference is that TV scripts have act breaks. Multi-camera sitcoms, like I Love Lucy and "Seinfeld", use a different, specialized format that derives from radio and the stage play. In this format, dialogue is double-spaced, action lines are capitalized, and scene headings are capitalized and underlined. Drama series and sitcoms are no longer the only formats that require the skills of a writer. With reality-based programming crossing genres to create various hybrid programs, many of the so-called "reality" programs are in a large part scripted in format. That is, the overall skeleton of the show and its episodes are written to dictate the content and direction of the program. Creating reality show formats involves storytelling structure similar to screenwriting, but much more condensed and boiled down to specific plot points or actions related to the overall concept and story.
Documentaries The script format for documentaries and audio-visual presentations which consist largely of voice-over matched to still or moving pictures is different again and uses a two-column format which can be particularly difficult to achieve in standard word processors, at least when it comes to editing. Many script-editing software programs include templates for documentary formats. Physical format of Screenplays Screenplays are printed single-sided on three-hole-punched letter sized (8.5 x 11 inch) paper, and held together with two brass brads in the top and bottom hole. The middle hole is left empty. Screenplays are usually bound with a light card stock cover and back page, often showing the logo of the Production Company or agency submitting the script. Increasingly, reading copies of screenplays (that is, those distributed by producers and agencies in the hope of attracting finance or talent) are distributed printed on both sides of the paper (often professionally bound) to cut down on paper waste out of environmental concerns. Occasionally they are reduced to half-size to make a small book which is convenient to read or put in a pocket; this is generally for use by the director or other production crew during shooting. Although most writing contracts continue to stipulate physical delivery of three or more copies of a finished script, it is common for scripts to be delivered electronically via email. Although most production companies can handle scripts in most formats, it is better practice to supply scripts as a PDF file where possible. This is because it gives the writer final control over the layout of the script, which may otherwise vary depending on what fonts and/or paper size the recipient uses to print the script out. The formatting software programs listed at the bottom of this article produce industry formatted standard screenplays in PDF.
Dialogue & description Imagery Imagery can be used in many metaphoric ways. Rain is commonly used to express a character feeling depressed, while sunny days promote a feeling of happiness and calm. Imagery can be used to sway the emotions of the audience and to clue them in to what is happening. Dialogue Dialogue is very important to the film industry, because there are no written words to explain the characters or plot; it all has to be explained through dialogue and imagery.
Plot While the story is what will be told (narrative); the plot is how the story will be told (narration). This vocabulary is not indisputable, though. Sometimes in literature story and plot are used exactly the other way round.
Screenwriting software Various screenwriting software packages are available to help screenwriters adhere to the strict formatting conventions described above. Such packages include BPC- Screenplay, Celtx, DreamaScript, Final Draft, Montage, Movie Magic Screenwriter, Scripped, and Zhura. The first screenwriting software was SmartKey, a macro program that sent strings of commands to existing word processing programs, such as WordStar, WordPerfect and Microsoft Word. SmartKey was popular with screen writers from 1982-1987, after which word processing programs had their own macro features.
DIRECTION Filmmaking is the process of making a film from an initial story idea through the scriptwriting to treatment of the script, then making a story board (often containing drawings to help visualize the key points) to shooting, editing and finally distribution to an audience. Typically it involves a large number of people and can take anywhere between a few months to several years to complete. Within the film industry, the Direction department is a subset of a larger occupational group referred to as Production. Perhaps the most important role within the Direction department is that of Director. Director is ultimately responsible for the creative vision and overall style of a feature film, i.e. the person who directs making of a film. Director can make a good project better or worst. A film director visualizes the script, controls the film's artistic and dramatic aspects, while guiding the technical crew and actors in the fulfillment of his vision. Director, in shot, is the storyteller, who visualizes the script. The Director acts as the crucial link between the production, technical and creative teams. Directors are responsible for creatively translating the film's written script into actual images and sounds on the screen - he or she must visualize and define the style and structure of the film, then act as both a storyteller and team leader to bring this vision to reality. Within this department, the Director is also supported by a number of Assistant Directors, who ensure that the Director's artistic ambitions are achieved during the filming process, by providing logistical, organizational and time-management support. Responsibilities The role of the director is vital right from the pre-production phase through the production phase up to the post-production. Film director is responsible for approving every camera angle, lens effect, shot composition, shot selection, lighting, aiding in editing process. Occasionally he/ she might be required in aiding designing of sets and even taking part in the hiring of key crew members. Director coordinates the actors move and may be involved in financing the film. Directors may write the film's script or commission it to be written; or they may be hired after an early draft of the script is complete. Directors must then develop a vision for the finished film, and define a practical route for achieving it. During pre-production, Directors make crucial decisions, such as selecting the right cast, crew and locations for the film. They then direct rehearsals and the performances of the actors once the film is in production. Director also manages the technical aspects of filming, including the camera, sound, lighting, design and special effects departments. During post-production, Directors work closely with Editors through the many technical processes of editing, to reach the final cut or version of the film. At all stages, Directors are responsible for motivating the team to produce the best possible results. Directors must also appreciate the needs and expectations of the film's financiers. Skills
Directors must have exceptional artistic vision and creative skills to develop a film. Unerring commitment and a deep passion for filmmaking are essential, along with the ability to act as a strong and confident leader. Directors must constantly make decisions, but must also be able to delegate work and collaborate with others members of the unit. Excellent communication and interpersonal skills are vital to get the best from the filmmaking team.
Director must inspire and motivate the team to produce the film that he/she has envisioned. He/She needs an extensive understanding of the entire filmmaking process, from both technical and creative points of view. A capacity for long hours of intensive work, attention to detail, and the ability to remain calm and think clearly under great pressure, are key skills for this role. Directors also need great self-belief and the determination to succeed. Studying the art and craft of directing is important, but the role can only really be mastered through in-depth practical experience. Writing a screenplay, directing one's own short film or an amateur play, are all good starting places. Extensive industry experience is also crucial to this role; up-to-date knowledge of filmmaking techniques and equipment is vital, as is learning how to work with actors to create a performance. Many Directors work their way up over many years from entry level positions. They get work experience as a runner on a film set or in a production office is an ideal starting point. Observing successful Directors at work, can be a vital first steps on this fiercely competitive and highly challenging career path. Methods of film directing Directors have different methods of filming. Some styles include: • Outline a general plotline and let the actors improvise dialogue • Write their own scripts or collaborate on screenplay writing with some writers • Be the cinematographer and/or editor • Control every aspect, and demand that the actors and crew follow instructions precisely Role of Director during the various phases of Film Production: Pre-production In pre-production, the movie is designed and planned. The production company is created and a production office established. The production is storyboarded and visualized with the help of illustrators and concept artists. A production budget is also drawn up to find the cost the film. The producer will hire a director, who is responsible for managing all the creative elements of the movie. The Director will then choose his crew for making of the film. Various Directors working under him include: • The Assistant Director (AD): manages the shooting schedule and logistics of the production, among other tasks. • The Casting Director finds actors for the parts in the script. This normally requires an audition by the actor. • The Director of Photography (DP or DOP) or Cinematographer creates the photography of the film. He or she cooperates with the director, director of audiography (DOA) and AD. • The Art Director manages the art department, which makes production sets. And there are a lot of other artists working in the production crew, supervised by the director viz. location manager, production manager, production designer, costume designer, make up and hair designer, storyboard artist, production sound mixer, sound designer, music composer, choreographer. Production In production the shooting of a movie, on celluloid or digital medium, is done. More crew could be recruited at this stage, such as the property master, script supervisor, assistant directors, stills photographer, picture editor, and sound editors. These are just the most common roles in filmmaking. The production office will be free to create any unique blend of roles to suit a particular film. A typical day's shooting begins with the crew arriving on the set/location before the call-time. Actors may arrive several hours earlier for make-up and costume. Crew will prepare for that day's filming and get the equipments (cameras, track and dolly, microphones, props). The assistant director will follow the shooting schedule for the day. The actors rehearse their scripts with the director. The picture and sound crews then rehearse with the actors. Finally, the action is shot. It might be required to take as many as shot as the director requires/wishes. Each shot is marked on a clapperboard, which helps the editor keep track of the takes in post-production. The clapperboard records the scene, take, director, director of photography, date, and name of the film written on the front, and is displayed for the camera. The clapperboard also serves the necessary function of providing a marker to sync up the film and the sound take. Sound is recorded on a separate apparatus from the film and they must be synced up in post-production. Most recordists have now progressed onto digital hard-drive recorders but some will still record onto DAT (digital audio tape). After each take the director will then decide if it was acceptable or not. When shooting is finished for the scene, the assistant director declares a "wrap." The crew will dismantle the set for that scene. The director approves the next day's shooting schedule and a daily progress report is sent to the production office. For productions using traditional photographic film, the unprocessed negative of the day's takes are sent to the film laboratory for processing overnight. Once processed, they return from the laboratory film positives and are viewed in the evening by the director. For productions using digital technologies, shots are downloaded and organized on a computer for display as dailies. Post-production Here the film is assembled by the film editor. The first job of the film editor is to build a rough cut taken from sequences (or scenes) based on individual "takes" (shots). The purpose of the rough cut is to select and order the best shots. The next step is to create a fine cut by getting all the shots to flow smoothly in a seamless story. Trimming, the process of shortening scenes by a few minutes, seconds, or even frames, is done during this phase. After the fine cut has been screened and approved by the director and producer, the picture is "locked," meaning no further changes are made. Once the picture is locked, the film passes out of the hands of the editor to the sound department to build up the sound track. The voice recordings are synchronized and the final sound mix is created. The sound mix combines sound effects, background sounds, dialogue and music. The Director also participates in the sound mix and musical composition of the film. All roles within the Direction department of the film industry require a high degree of commitment and dedication. The work usually involves long hours and varied work locations, so flexibility and motivation are important. Other important qualities for these roles include excellent communication, interpersonal and organizational skills; a close attention to detail; and the ability to multi-task, to be a team player, and to work effectively under pressure. While the practical aspects of filmmaking, such as finance and marketing, are left to the Producer, Directors must also always be aware of the constraints of the film's budget and schedule. In some cases, Directors assume multiple roles such as Director/Producer or Director/Writer. Being a Director requires great creative vision, dedication and commitment. Directors are ultimately responsible for a film's artistic and commercial success or failure.