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Front Matter Template Copyright by Cristina Salinas 2011 The Dissertation Committee for Cristina Salinas Certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Contesting Mobility: Growers, Farm Workers, and U.S.-Mexico Border Enforcement During the Twentieth Century Committee: Laurie B. Green, Co-Supervisor Emilio Zamora, Co-Supervisor José E. Limón James Sidbury Anne M. Martínez Contesting Mobility: Growers, Farm Workers, and U.S.-Mexico Border Enforcement During the Twentieth Century by Cristina Salinas, B.A.; M.A. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin December 2011 Dedication To my parents, Delia Becerra Salinas and Armando Salinas Jr., for their devotion to family and community. To my husband, Marcel Rodriguez, for his boundless support and love. Acknowledgements This final stage of dissertation writing has crystallized two important truths for me: many people’s efforts and passions have gone into the making of this project; and two, I have benefited greatly from wonderful friends, family, and colleagues. I would like to begin by acknowledging the institutional support I have received that allowed me to complete my dissertation. The Clara Driscoll Fellowship awarded to me by the department of history at the University of Texas at Austin provided funding for research trips to Mexico City and Washington, D.C. Graduate coordinators Mary Helen Quinn and Marilyn Lehman provided much-needed guidance through the often- bewildering UT bureaucracy. The Center for Mexican American Studies has been a crucial space of support and community formation at the University of Texas. I especially want to acknowledge José E. Limón, Dolores Garcia, Luis Guevara, and Domino Perez for their support. The dissertation fellowship I received from the Center during my final year made it possible for me to stay in school and finish writing. A summer fellowship from Texas State University in San Marcos just after I advanced to candidacy allowed me to develop my dissertation research plan. For me it was important that my dissertation committee be composed of scholars whose work was admirable, but who were also admirable people. The members of my committee were extraordinarily generous with their time and their support. José E. Limón and Anne Martínez gave me substantial feedback, providing fruitful avenues to advance my project. I want to particularly acknowledge James Sidbury. From the very first historiography course I took with him early in my graduate career, he impressed me as my model scholar and intellectual. He has since served on my exam and dissertation v committee and has greatly shaped my work. I could not have asked for more committed and generous mentors than my co-advisers Emilio Zamora and Laurie B. Green. Emilio has always encouraged me and carefully read every chapter of my dissertation to make sure I produced my best work. He has also encouraged me to think about the value of my work to the communities I represent. Laurie has been absolutely crucial to my development as a scholar and to the completion of this dissertation. She has been there from each chapter’s earliest stages of conceptualization, to their finish. She has pushed me to deepen my analyses and broaden my thinking. Because of her committed mentorship, I am prepared for the next stage in my career. I have been fortunate to be part of a large, diverse, and interconnected graduate student community at UT. I have shared so much with my companions over the years: fun and memorable days and nights, shared political work, collective intellectual projects, and moments of difficulty and struggle, that many of them have become like family. I want to acknowledge the work of the Advanced Seminar in Chicano/a Research, particularly Manuel Callahan, Luis Alvarez, Steve Azcona, Emmet Campos, Rebecca Gamez, Alan Gomez, Pablo Gonzalez, Veronica Martínez, Toni Nelson Herrera, Isabella Quintana, Russell Rodriguez, Gilbert Rosas, Lilia Rosas, and Geoff Valdes. Our work on collective mentorship and collective forms of knowledge production has given me hope for the possibilities in academia. I would also like to recognize other past and present members of the CMAS community: Alex Chavez, Jackie Cuevas, Christina Garcia, Irene Garza, and Brenda Sendejo. Many thanks to the Happy Hour crew of Santiago Guerra, Crystal Kurzen, Nancy Rios, and Teresa Velasquez. Thanks also to Melissa Forbis, Bianca Flores, and Eddie Campos. vi I wish to acknowledge the dissertation-writing group whose members have read, and provided valuable feedback on all my chapters: Sarah Steinbock-Pratt, Kyle Shelton, Deirdre Doughty, Eric Bush, Erica Whittington, and Leah Deane. I want to especially thank Leah for being my writing buddy. Sitting together every day at the Benson has mitigated a lot of the loneliness of the writing process. I do not even want to imagine what graduate school would have been like without Las Girlfriends: Olga Herrera, Veronica Martínez, Jennifer Najera, Laura Padilla, Isabella Quintana, and Virginia Raymond. These women have been truly great friends, sharing the best and most difficult times of my life. Our friendships have deepened over the years despite being scattered all over the country. Thanks also to Tom Kolker and Michael Matsuda. I especially have to thank Veronica Martínez. I can honestly say that there is no way I would have made it through graduate school without her. We started graduate school in the same cohort, and she reached out to a very shy and intimidated new graduate student. Over the years I have relied on her for friendship and almost daily advice. She has been a fiercely loyal and generous friend, and has become a like a sister to me. I would like to acknowledge my friends and colleagues at the Llano Grande Center for Research and Development whose work transforming public education through youth empowerment has been an inspiration to me: Edyael Casaperalta, Olga Cardoso, Francisco Guajardo, Miguel Guajardo, Juan Ozuna, and Delia Perez. I would especially like to acknowledge Francisco Guajardo for his caring mentorship since I was a high school student at Edcouch-Elsa High School. My family has always been my deepest source of inspiration. I want to thank los Rodriguez, for their good wishes and support. My father and mother-in-law Cecilio and Becky Rodriguez welcomed me into their family as a daughter. Angela, Cecil, Robert, vii Patty, John, Lizzie, David, Becca, and Tina have made holidays in San Antonio so enjoyable, and thanks as well to Connie, Grace, and Mari for being part of the sister-in- law crew. The histories of my parents’ families has animated this entire project. Los Becerra and los Salinas have lived in the frontera, on both sides, for many generations, and it is that experience I sought to capture in this dissertation. I thank all my family for their support, especially Manuela, Eloisa, Francisca, and Marco. I thank my brothers Orlando and Carlos for their steadfast love and friendship. Thanks also go out to Sandy, Jennifer, Adrian, Lucien, and Amelia for the delight they bring to my life. My parents, Armando and Delia Salinas have provided such strong support and love, that it has allowed me to carry on with this endeavor over the years. My husband Marcel Rodriguez has shared this journey with me from the very beginning. Neither of us knew just what we were getting into when I began graduate school, but he continued to believe in me and believe that I would succeed. He has made many sacrifices, great and small, to ensure that I would complete my degree. He spent many late nights at the library with me during this last year of writing, so that I would not be working alone. He has been a partner in this process in every way and I cannot thank him enough for his love and support. viii Contesting Mobility: Growers, Farm Workers, and U.S.-Mexico Border Enforcement During the Twentieth Century Cristina Salinas, PhD. The University of Texas at Austin, 2011 Supervisors: Laurie B. Green, Emilio Zamora This dissertation examines an important, but understudied period in Mexican-U.S. migration history during the 1940s and early 1950s. The joint introduction and sanctioning, by the U.S. and Mexican governments, of the bracero program also initiated a large illegal migration of agricultural workers to the United States. This was a period characterized by high levels of temporary legal migration and illegal migration, as well as intense levels of immigration enforcement. These simultaneous processes confound a simplistic view of U.S. history as a sequence of alternating periods of immigration expansion and restriction. U.S. immigration law and policy does not resemble a pendulum swinging first one way then the other; rather, both expansion and restriction characterized the 1940s and early 1950s. This study focuses on South Texas and El Paso, both border regions with dominant agricultural economies as well as a significant presence of Border Patrol officers. By focusing on these border regions, this dissertation examines the relationship between immigration laws and policy and the agricultural labor relations between growers and workers on the ground. This dissertation is concerned with state formation on the U.S.-Mexico border, and its relationship with labor mobility. The process of state and border formation did not originate in the central seats of federal authority, Washington, D.C., and Mexico City, to ix be applied and exerted on the furthest reaches of their territories. Growers and workers created, negotiated, and experienced and challenged the power and meaning of the border in the agricultural fields during daily interactions. Individual Border Patrolman made the border every day in the choices they made about where and where not to patrol, and which friendships to make and maintain.
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