Yemataw et al. Agric & Food Secur (2017) 6:62 DOI 10.1186/s40066-017-0146-0 Agriculture & Food Security RESEARCH Open Access Farmers’ knowledge and perception of enset Xanthomonas wilt in southern Ethiopia Z. Yemataw1,2*, A. Mekonen3, A. Chala4, K. Tesfaye5,6, K. Mekonen7, D. J. Studholme8 and K. Sharma9* Abstract Background: Enset Xanthomonas wilt (EXW) was frst reported in 1939 and continues to threaten the sustainabil- ity of farming systems in south and southwestern parts of Ethiopia. The present study was conducted in the central zones of southern Ethiopia to assess farmers’ knowledge and perception about EXW, its etiology and mode of trans- mission, and its implications for the management of EXW. Methods: A survey was conducted in 240 households across Hadiya, Kembata-Tembaro and Wolaita zones of south- ern Ethiopia using focus group discussions and a structured questionnaire to assess farmers’ perceptions of causes and modes of EXW transmission, and their knowledge on symptom identifcation. In addition, EXW prevalence, inci- dence and severity were determined for each zone. Data were analyzed through descriptive statistics. Results: The results showed that a signifcant number of farmers are aware of EXW, its symptoms, etiology and transmission and spread, but they are not able to readily relate modes of spread to control methods. Since 2002, EXW became prominent in Hadiya, with the highest EXW incidence and severity, followed by Wolaita, and Kembata-Tem- baro. Farmers identifed EXW as the major cause for declining production and productivity of enset in the region. Conclusion: EXW has spread widely and rapidly in southern Ethiopia, with signifcant socioeconomic impacts in smallholders’ livelihoods. There is a need for developing knowledge-based strategies and awareness-raising campaign for EXW management. Keywords: Enset, Farmer’s knowledge, Southern Ethiopia, Xanthomonas wilt Background Ethiopia, and is also considered as a food security and Enset (Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman) is a per- cash crop. About 302, 143 ha of land is covered by enset ennial, herbaceous and monocarpic crop belonging to crop [1], and more than 20% of Ethiopia’s population the family Musaceae. Its appearance resembles that of depends upon enset for human food, animal forage, fber, banana, but enset is taller and fatter, with no edible fruits, construction materials and medicines [2]. and is thus named ‘false banana.’ It is propagated vegeta- Te main food product, known locally as ‘kocho,’ is tively from suckers emerging from an underground rhi- obtained by fermenting a mixture of the scraped pulp zome (also called the corm). Over time, a sucker develops from the pseudostem, pulverized corm and the stalk of into a new fruit-bearing plant. It has traditionally ranked the inforescence. Te corm can be harvested at almost as the frst in importance as cultivated staple food crop any stage of the crop; it can be cooked and consumed in the highlands of central, south and southwestern in the same way as other root and tuber crops, relieving hunger during periods of critical food shortages. Kocho can be stored for a long time without being spoiled [3]. *Correspondence: [email protected]; kalpana.sharma@cgiar. Te crop is grown in mixed farming systems, often in org association with cofee, multi-purpose trees, and annual 1 Southern Agricultural Research Institute, Areka Agricultural Research Center, P.O. Box 79, Areka, Ethiopia food and fodder crops [4]. 9 CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB), Despite enset’s importance, production and productiv- International Potato Center, P.O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia ity are constrained by several biotic and abiotic factors. Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s) 2017. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/ publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Yemataw et al. Agric & Food Secur (2017) 6:62 Page 2 of 12 Bacterial wilt, caused by Xanthomnas campestris pv. recommended for EXW and BXW include uprooting and musacearum is an economically important disease of discarding infected plants, planting healthy, disease-free enset, putting the sustainability of enset farming systems plants from less susceptible varieties, disinfecting farm in jeopardy [5–7]. Up to 80% of enset farms in Ethio- tools after every use, crop rotation, avoiding overfow pia are currently infected with enset Xanthomonas wilt of water from infected to uninfected felds, removing (EXW) [8]. Te disease has forced farmers to abandon alternate hosts around plants, and controlling leafhop- enset production, resulting in critical food shortage in pers, aphids and mole rats that may transmit Xcm [10, the densely populated areas of southern Ethiopia [9, 10]. 21]. However, the most labor-intensive practices may not Tis disease directly afects the livelihood of more than always be adopted by farmers, and recommendations like 20% of farmers in the country. burying or burning of infected enset stems have been In Ethiopia, EXW was frst described in 1939 [11]. abandoned by farmers in some enset- and banana-pro- Subsequently, the causal agent was described as Xan- ducing areas. [22, 23]. thomonas campestris pv. musacearum (Xcm) [5]. EXW Efective disease management intervention requires is now recognized as a national problem, as it spread a good understanding of disease epidemiology and the quickly to neighboring regions of SNNPR and Oro- pathogen’s transmission dynamics in time and space mia and on bananas since its initial discovery on enset. [24–26]. Knowledge of the specifcs that surround dis- Forty years after its initial discovery in Ethiopia, Xcm ease development is crucial for identifying risk factors, was reported in central Uganda in 2001 [12], and there- designing efcient surveillance methods and identifying after the disease rapidly spread and developed into a control strategies [26]. Local farmers can provide sub- full-blown epidemic on banana, spreading to neighbor- stantial information about local diseases and practices to ing countries, including Tanzania [13], the Democratic manage the disease as farmers’ traditional knowledge is Republic of Congo [14], Rwanda [15], Burundi [16] and often impressively broad and comprehensive [27]. Farm- Kenya [17], where it reportedly caused 80–100% crop ers’ knowledge of diseases is well documented on many loss, especially in beer bananas (ABB genome). Such crops such as cotton [28], rice [29], beans [30] and vegeta- losses drastically afected poor and vulnerable farm- bles [31]. Similar documentation for enset is scant and not ers who depended on the consumption of the crop and up-to-date. A few studies have documented farmers’ per- where there are already high or medium levels of food ceptions and ethnobotanical knowledge of the enset crop; insecurity [18]. however, there is no systematic information that explicitly EXW invades the vascular system of enset, causing describes indigenous knowledge about EXW in Ethio- permanent wilting and eventual death of the plant. Pri- pia and the impact of farmers’ practices on the spread of marily, EXW is transmitted via insects, contaminated EXW in Ethiopia. It is therefore important to understand tools and infected planting materials [19]. Symptomless farmer’s knowledge about EXW and their perceptions enset and/or banana bunches and leaves used to wrap about crop loss. Tis information could help to guide bunches for transport to markets are another important EXW management practices in a sustainable manner. source of Xcm inoculum that may be responsible for its Te purpose of this study was to investigate farmers’ long distance spread [20]. Te main symptoms of EXW knowledge and perceptions of the cause and spread of are wilting and necrosis of leaves and vascular discolora- EXW, and their indigenous practices in managing EXW. tion. Internally, yellowing and/or brown discoloration of Te specifc objectives were to (1) identify enset produc- vascular bundles can be seen throughout the plant when tion constraints based on farmers’ perception of their the plant is sectioned, but this discoloration is often importance, (2) assess farmers’ awareness of EXW inci- much more apparent in the central tissues of the pseu- dence and severity and (3) document farmers’ knowledge dostem than in the outer leaf sheaths. A cream or yel- about EXW, their damage and indigenous management low-colored ooze exudes within a few minutes of cutting practices. tissue (Fig. 1). Initial symptoms on afected plants vary depending on the point of infection. When Xcm trans- Methods mission occurs via contaminated garden tools, infected The study area plants display a progressive yellowing of leaves from the Te SNNPR is located in the south and southwestern leaf tip toward the petioles. Most infected suckers die parts of Ethiopia, 4.43°–8. 58°N latitude and 34.88°– prematurely [7, 19]. 39.14°E, bordering Kenya to the south and South Sudan Control of EXW is challenging, as there are no resist- to the west and southwest, and the Oromia region of ant cultivars or efective chemical or biological measures. Ethiopia to the north and east (Fig. 2). It has a total area Sanitation and reducing Xcm transmission are the main of ~ 111,000 km2, lying within elevations of 378–4207 m measures to manage this disease. Management practices above sea level. Te annual mean temperature is less Yemataw et al. Agric & Food Secur (2017) 6:62 Page 3 of 12 Fig. 1 a Enset plantation in Hadiya zone, b Healthy enset plants with strong pseudostem, c Xanthomonas wilt infected enset plant, and d yellow ooze from cut pseudostem than 10 °C in the extreme highlands and over 27 °C in the (4–6 years) and their willingness to participate in this lowlands.