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FROM LA FLORIDA to LA CALIFORNIA Collections of Books in the Franciscan Missions of Northern New Spain, Manu- Als and Missals Appear Frequently in Mission Inventories

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FROM LA FLORIDA to LA CALIFORNIA Collections of Books in the Franciscan Missions of Northern New Spain, Manu- Als and Missals Appear Frequently in Mission Inventories CHAPTER 17 Cycles of Celebration: High Holy Days in the Franciscan Missions of Northern New Spain1 Kristin Dutcher Mann hen Franciscan missionaries, soldiers, Hispanicized Indians, and set- W tlers moved into the northern reaches of Spanish claims in the Americas, their daily and devotional lives were punctuated by the liturgical seasons and required celebrations of the Catholic calendar—particularly Christmas, Holy Week and Easter, Corpus Christi, and the feast days that hon- ored Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the saints. After the Council of Trent, the Catholic Church codified the rituals of the liturgy in missals and manuals, with specific instructions for leading the faithful in celebrations for special occa- sions.2 In Spain’s American colonies, Franciscan missionaries incorporated the faithful into these celebrations as participants, instead of relegating them to positions as spectators. High holy days were important occasions in the lives of mission commu- nities. On these days, Franciscans, soldiers, settlers, and mission Indians did not work in mission fields or buildings, but instead attended worship and celebra- tions. Manuals for the administration of sacraments, such as the 1762 Manual para administrar los santos sacramentos by Fray Diego Osorio, contained instructions and prayers for special occasions.3 Despite the absence of extensive 1 Some of the major themes in this essay appear in The Power of Song: Music and Dance in the Mission Communities of Northern New Spain, 1590–1810 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press and Berkeley, CA: Academy of American Franciscan History, 2010), particularly chapter 7. 2 Clifford Howell, “From Trent to Vatican II.” In The Study of Liturgy, rev. ed., edited by Cheslyn Jones, Geoffrey Wainwright, Edward Yarnold, and Paul Bradshaw (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 287. 3 Manual para administrar los santos sacramentos, arreglado al ritual romano, con el orden de bendiciones, Exequias, Procesiones y otras cosas necesaria. Dispusolo el r.p. Fr. Diego Osorio, Ex-Lector de Teología Moral, Predicador General, Calificador del Santo Oficio, Notario Apostolico, Chronista 271 272 FROM LA FLORIDA TO LA CALIFORNIA collections of books in the Franciscan missions of northern New Spain, manu- als and missals appear frequently in mission inventories. Franciscans were trained in the rituals of the liturgy and recitations of the prayers, and the Christian calendar’s obligations structured their daily and yearly lives. In contrast, indigenous peoples from California to Florida marked their time by natural cycles of the sun, moon, and Venus, and agricultural cycles of gathering, planting, and harvesting. Ritual specialists, as well as singers and dancers, led groups in ceremonies to mark these occasions, as well as to ensure their success. For example, circular dances, often with masks or body paint, imi- tation of animals, ingestion of hallucinogens, and large bonfires characterized the dances of Coahuiltecan bands in the Texas hills and plains.4 Ritual calendars sometimes coincided on holidays such as Christmas/ Epiphany (at the winter solstice), Holy Week/Easter (spring equinox), and the feast day of St. John (summer solstice). Celebrations in the northern missions included elements of both pre-Hispanic and European Catholic festivals: exchange, dancing, feasting and drinking, ritual performance, games, singing, processions, and revelry. Detailed studies of the role of ritual and cultural cel- ebrations in articulating and shaping identity in colonial Latin America provide insights about the mechanics of power and cultural exchange. Evidence of activities surrounding these celebrations in the seventeenth- and eighteenth- century Franciscan missions of northern New Spain reveals negotiation over culture, sacred time and space, and religious beliefs. Blending of cultural practices in shared ritual celebrations began long before European missionaries arrived with the goal of converting and civilizing the large indigenous population of the Americas. Indigenous groups borrowed ball games, pole dances, and songs from each other in much the same way that folk dances, plays, and melodies spread throughout the European continent.5 However, the political, economic, and social pressures caused by migration, disease, labor demands, and expansion of the Spanish frontier forced closer General de todas las Provincias de Nueva España, cura Ministro por sy Magestad de la primitiva Parroquia de Naturales de este Reyno, y Vicario de la Capilla del Señor San Joseph en el Convento de N.P. San Francisco de Mexico, 1762 Calatayud, Imprenta de Juan Aguirre, copy in Biblioteca Franciscana, Centro de Investigaciones Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, Cholula, Mexico. This manual appears on inventories of all of the Franciscan missions of New Mexico in 1776, as well as other northern Franciscan missions in the late eighteenth century. 4 Frederick Ruecking, Jr., “Ceremonies of the Coahuiltecan Indians of Southern Texas and Northeastern Mexico,” Texas Journal of Science 6, no. 3 (1954), 336. 5 For example, see Jane C. Desmond, “Embodying Difference: Issues in Dance and Cultural Studies,” Cultural Critique 26 (Winter 1993–1994), 33–63. CHAPTER 17 CYCLES OF CELEBRATION 273 contact among cultural groups, and celebrations for special occasions provide unique glimpses of acculturation and religious change. HOLY WEEK AND EASTER The most extensively celebrated season in the Franciscan missions of northern New Spain occurred in the spring, with the dramatic procession of Palm Sunday, confessions, and repentance of Holy Week, and the triumphal resurrection of Easter. Holy Week, the week prior to Easter Sunday, was the yearly period during which Indians from surrounding rancherías were required to come to the mission to confess and receive doctrinal instruction, making it the busiest week of the year for Franciscan missionaries.6 Superiors such as Fray Antonio Margil de Jesus instructed friars to place great emphasis on the con- fession of sins in the week leading up to Easter. He recommended preaching sermons on the proper way to confess, showing visual images of miserable indi- viduals who failed to confess, and organizing processions of penitents through- out the communities.7 Some missionaries encouraged penitents to carry crosses and wear thorn crowns in imitation of Christ. While Margil did not promote flagellation as a form of penitence, processions involving self-flagellation were a significant part of Good Friday ceremonies.8 Religious dramas depicting the Passion of Christ were also featured during Holy Week in some northern mis- sions.9 Settings of Miserere or the sequence Dies Irae were performed by the 6 Miguel del Barco, Historia natural y crónica de la Antigua California, edited by Miguel Leon-Portilla (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1998), 398; and Cristóbal de Cañas, “Relación sonorense,” 1730, paragraph 43, in Luis González Rodriguez, ed., Etnología y misión la Pimería Alta (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico, 1977), 301. 7 “Formulario de misionar, que hizo, y dictó N.V.P. Fr. Antonio Margil de Jesús,” Archivo Histórico de la Provincia Franciscana de Michoacán, Fondo del Colegio de la Santa Cruz de Querétaro, Letter I, Legajo 4, Number 46, f. 9r–14r., in David Rex Galindo, “Propaganda Fide: Training Franciscan Missionaries in New Spain,” Ph.D. diss., Southern Methodist University, 2010, 301. 8 These processions were common throughout the north in both Franciscan and Jesuit mis- sions. See the report of José Pascual, June 29, 1653, on Mission San Felipe, Archivo General de la Nación, Historia 19, exp. 144, f. 204–204v; Dunne, Lower California, 151–52; Jesuit carta anua of 1599 concerning Sinaloa, Zubillaga, Monumenta Mexicana, vol. VII, 220–21; Pérez de Ribas, History of the Triumphs of Our Holy Faith, book 6, chapter 19, 422; Molina, Estado de la provin- cia de Sonora, 1730, 14; Benoist and Flores, Guidelines, 3. 9 Merrill, Rarámuri, 178–80, discusses the liturgical drama introduced for Easter by Jesuits among the Tarahumara. Spicer, The Yaquis, 114–15, discusses the origins of the Yaqui passion play, or Waehma. Franciscan Yaqui missions also included elaborate celebrations for Holy Week and Easter. Services in Alta California for Tenebrae, on Good Friday, involved elements of liturgical 274 FROM LA FLORIDA TO LA CALIFORNIA choir for services on Good Friday or Holy Saturday. The Alta California mis- sions produced an extensive collection of music for this season; mission choirs and instrumentalists must have spent hours in rehearsal to master the music.10 In his work in the Sierra Gorda, Fray Junípero Serra re-enacted Christ’s last days with the mission neophytes. According to his biographer Palóu, on Maundy Thursday he washed the feet of twelve senior men of the community, ate with them, preached on foot washing, and ended the evening in procession with an image of the crucified Christ. Good Friday’s morning sermon con- cerned the Passion, and a choir performed hymns in the afternoon. Fray Junípero had a lifelike image of Christ made, and it was nailed to the cross to demonstrate the crucifixion in the afternoon. Serra removed the figure from the cross, and placed it in a casket, after which a burial procession snaked around the pueblo. On Good Friday evening, the community held a procession in honor of Nuestra Señora de Soledad. Holy Saturday was highlighted with baptisms of those who had received instruction and been prepared for the sacrament. Easter observances
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