FES Mozambique

February 2017

FES Briefing Papers

Feminism in : Trends and Prospects Report of the International Workshop on Political in Africa

Despite the advancement of women`s rights witnessed in the past few decades, we are currently experiencing a regional and international context in which not only are women's human rights disputed, but the historical achievements of the women’s movement are being undermined. The fragility of democratic institutions, a conservative backlash and an economic crisis exacerbate the precarious situation of and worldwide and weaken the opportunities of feminist movements for self-expression in their struggle for human rights.

Against this background, the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, the World March of Women and the Mozambican Women's Forum (Forúm Mulher) organised in October 2016 an encounter that brought together activists, academics and representatives of feminist organisations across the continent in order to jointly analyse these new contexts, discuss the trends and coordinate the creation and/or strengthening of regional action platforms for joint actions. This document is intended to present the main findings of the debate.

1. Situation of the human rights of Education women in Africa Progress can be seen in the access of Some data about the situation of women women and girls to education. In primary in Africa compiled from the African Human education, for instance, gender parity has Development Report 2016 (UNDP, 2016), practically been achieved (while Central with additional information from UNESCO Africa is somewhat behind). (2010), are presented below. Although these are positive trends, the average schooling period indicates that there are large gender gaps in different regions.

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The Central region, in last position, stands fact they are mainly responsible for out, with women attending educational housework and caring. On average, they institutions on average for 2.5 years, spend twice as much time as men do on compared to 4.4 years for men. Next is the care, cooking, cleaning and collecting Eastern region, with 3.6 years for women water and firewood. The amount of time and 5.1 years for men. The Southern spent on these tasks leads to reduced region shows 4.9 years for women and 6.6 possibilities of education and years for men, while the Western region employment, as well as physical and has schooling averages of 6.2 years for mental overload. women and 6.9 years for men. In the Central region, access to education According to UNESCO data, the pro- seems to be worst overall, especially for portion of women in tertiary education on women. In addition, this region has the the continent is 4.8%, compared to 7.8% biggest difference in schooling years of men (UNESCO, 2010), despite the fact between men and women. This indicates that there are increasing gender parity that there are several obstacles trends in all regions, as shown by the preventing girls from benefitting from following figure. Although parity has equal opportunities and that there is still almost been reached in the Eastern significant gender inequality, mainly in region, and the percentage of women has secondary and tertiary education. even exceeded that of men, it has not in the Southern region, and the Central One problem associated with this region again stands out in last position, situation is the social norms and beliefs followed by the Western region. that women and girls are taught, and the

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Employment and subsistence Inter-relations with the gender division in tertiary education are assumed, Gender dynamics in education have been especially in the areas of science and reflected in women’s employability. While technology. the number of employed women rose to Given the inequalities in their level of 61%, these jobs were not necessarily education and professional skills, women well-paid or productive. The overall are more likely to be found in vulnerable average of the unbalanced division of jobs with poor regulation and limited men's earnings compared to those of social protection. It is estimated that 66% women is estimated at 30% (this means of female employment in sub-Saharan that for each $1 earned by a man, a Africa is in the non-agricultural informal woman gets 70 cents). This division is sector. also influenced by other parameters, such as age, type of occupation, education, Access, ownership and rights to land are kinship and marital status. Women face important in the agrarian sector. These inequalities in access to economic become significant economic tools not resources, participation in the workplace, only in the cultivation of foods, but also in opportunities for entrepreneurship and the access to credit and other forms of use and benefit of natural resources and productive means. However, data show the environment. Even though it is that in many countries the percentage of increasing, the percentage of female women with agricultural possessions is business leaders on the continent ranges low. from 7% (Sudan) to 30% (Liberia).

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In general, only one third of women in public and private sector, civil service and poorer households have land for agricul- trade unions. Sixteen countries surpassed tural activities. Factors such as priva- the 30 per cent mark of representation in tisation of land, degradation and the national parliaments established at the extension of multinational companies into Beijing World Conference, mostly from the agricultural sector, amongst others, Southern Africa and East Africa. negatively affect the land ownership rights of women. Despite the greater visibility of female leaders in parliaments, their presence has These gaps in income-generating possi- not translated into direct impacts on bilities and subsistence aspects result in gender equality in the different countries. lower human development among women The following table shows the level of than men. On average, African women legal and social discrimination against reach only 87% of men's HDI (Human women in different countries. Development Index).

Political participation and legal framework

There has been significant progress in advancing women's participation in elec- ted office and leadership positions in the

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The high / very high rate of discriminatory The challenge is often not to refine standards in the Western and Central existing legal standards, but rather to regions is striking. ensure that these standards are fully defended, implemented and enforced. A Related reasons could be political challenge to the implementation of legal structures that still proscribe the potential instruments is their coexistence with of female leaders from influencing traditional law systems. Numerous social national and local agendas and public norms play significant and positive roles in policies. For example, a comparison of 12 building strong family and community ties, countries on the continent shows that as well as in establishing trust and support there is generally a low representation of conditions in times of crisis and women (between 5 and 23%) in higher deprivation. However, there are also positions in political parties. Another negative institutions and social norms for related problem may be the low level of gender equality advancement and the fund allocation for the implementation of empowerment of women. gender equality policies and measures. In connection with this, women face African countries have adopted inter- deprivation in their health and human national and regional legal frameworks on rights due to factors such as early human and women's rights, but there is a marriage, sexual and physical violence, significant gap between intent and action.

5 and maternal mortality. This makes throughout the world, enshrined in women / girls of reproductive age (15 - 49 international and regional conventions years) the highest risk group. For and treaties, as well as in most national example, in countries such as Niger, laws. The consensuses reached on Chad, DRC, South Sudan, Burkina Faso, gender violence, sexual and reproductive Guinea and Mali, the rate of early rights, and civil, social and political rights marriage varies between 50% and over are equally relevant, but they coexist with 70%. the patriarchal system's hostile practices pertaining to women's human rights, with The rate of early marriage, as spread emphasis on sexual rights. across the regions, is highest in Central Africa (41.5%), followed by On the other hand, there is no belief that (38.4%), East Africa (34.7%) and there is a ‘feminist movement’ in Africa, Southern Africa (9.9%), which appears to either at regional or sub-regional level, suffer less from this problem than the but, rather, that feminist women’s groups other regions. are pursuing diverse agendas, albeit with some themes in common. Networks of A quarter of respondents to a survey by organisations typically emerge around Afrobarometer in 2015 did not accept the thematic areas, such as gender-based concept of gender equality. violence and sexual and reproductive rights. However, sensitive issues such as

abortion may not achieve consensus, and 2. State and prospects of feminism can be divisive. in Africa Different have emerged in When referring to women’s organisations specific places and are built in local terms. or movements, whether classified as There are characteristics common to ‘feminist’ or not, is important to distinguish these currents, such as the analysis of those which are co-opted by power. oppression mechanisms, the need to Various countries have experience of this adopt their own agenda and the demand type of organisation: one used by for equality from the community. Coopera- governments or political parties to speak tion exists, but in an isolated and non- on women's rights, but which in fact systematic way, not enough to allow a defend patriarchal institutions. sustainable exchange of experiences.

Since the 1980s, there have been ad- It is difficult to get a consensual definition vances in the situation of women and of feminism, as there is no single opportunities for action. Feminist-oriented approach to the concept and action, and women's organisations were established, women's experiences and pathways are despite the stigma that was (and still is!) too differentiated. Therefore, the purpose attached to the word ‘feminism’ in many cannot be that all activists conform to a African countries. Many people are still single vision or school of feminism, as reluctant to accept the feminist both geography and decolonisation designation because of this stigma. processes affect identities in different ways: hence the diversity of women’s Feminist movements identity, shaped by diverse principles, cultures, traditions and religions, trans- There have been advances to the feminist lating into the multiplicity of demands and movement and to women’s rights

6 forcing the contemplation of these vari- Forms of organisation and work ables in the analysis of the situation of women.1 The dynamics of feminist movements are mostly national-based, with the possibility The coexistence of different currents of of partnerships and alliances around feminism is not an obstacle, insofar as it common topics, although the situation is takes into account: the guarantee of the entirely one of fragmentation of the defence of women's freedom of choice various feminist groups. It is considered and the negation of institutions that limit important to unite the different forms of human rights; and the acknowledgement struggle to strengthen the work. Regional that feminist activism is always political and international cooperation takes place and implies a clear position against social on a timely basis, but has not yet injustices,2 and that solidarity must be integrated work practices. nurtured as a value, and a principle to guide actions. Most organisations rely on outside funds, which may entail alienating their agendas Another topic of discussion concerned to the interests and priorities set by feminist theories, the relationship international agencies and cooperation between academia and activism, and the sectors. This is a matter of concern to need for an education that empowers feminist movements as, in extreme cases, women. In relation to feminism, the need we find examples of organisations that are for a re-discussion of concepts to dissociated from national and regional contemplate was realities, working to imposed agendas that mentioned, although there are do not promote the interests of women. reservations about this position, which is The performance of women's usually associated with criticism of organisations, as already mentioned, is academic feminists. However, the often guided by their supporting role in production of knowledge to inform the national projects, aimed at filling the gaps work of activism was said to be important.3 created by structural adjustment programmes in our societies. They

assume the responsibilities pertaining to

1 For Landaluze and Espel (2014-2015), “Intersectionality 3 In this regard, A. Mama (2013) affirms: "As women we argues that different oppressions are intertwined in are in no position to deprive ourselves of the intellectual womanhood - class, race, gender and sexuality, amongst tools that can assist us in pursuit of gender justice. The others - which cannot be examined as independent arena of the intellect has been used to supress us. We variables. Each of them is inherently interconnected with cannot afford to ignore the importance of intellectual work, the others - is constituted by and constituent of the others. especially in the 21st century, when knowledge and All authors agree on the relevance of intersectional information define power more than ever before. (...) I analysis, within the milestone of African feminisms. don’t believe that this goal of knowledge, of working in the However, there are substantial differences on which university, is a non-African or non-feminist symbol. On the variables to prioritise”. contrary, they are areas that we must incorporate into our 2 According to McFadden, “African women still do not concerns; transform them into spaces that serve our recognisze that we are a political movement. We still collective interests, instead of allowing them to continue behave like ladies at a tea party, and we are often perpetrating theoretical and practical violence against shocked when men are brutal and violent towards us. We women”. need to understand the true nature of politics so that we can change it” (1997).

7 the state, without reflecting whether this is conveyed in the media cannot be fought if their own agenda or an imposed one their presence is not made known in the (McFadden, 1997). Thus, departing from same media, to produce images and the economic dependence that conditions alternative messages.4 It is important not the agenda is a priority. only to work with journalists, but also to take ownership directly. One aspect that deserved consensus among the participants was the need for The pressing need to form alliances at innovation in the forms of work various moments of struggle with specific organisation and in the use of new groups, such as unions, was reaffirmed, information technologies to deal with opening space to intervene in other areas. hostility towards the demands of feminism An example of this was the World March and the growing hate speech in the media of Women, which has a partnership with and social networks, exacerbated by the La Via Campesina (International Peasant anonymity these provide. Examples of Movement), among others. new technologies to be used are Twitter, Whatsapp and blogs. The setting up of men's organisations that fight for alternatives in the construction of Social networks and media are opportuni- identities and for equality signifies an ties to be explored in various dimensions. advance in the defence of rights and Firstly, they may be used to react to and opportunities for the establishment of argue against misogynist and broader alliances. Therefore, a sensitive conservative views, causing alternative point was the argument on the partici- voices to be heard in a medium so far pation of men in the feminist movement. seldom used by feminists. Secondly, they On the one hand, it is argued that men are may be important channels for reporting allies that should be included, whilst on violations of women's human rights, for the other, the need to have spaces example by disseminating data on exclusively for women is maintained, to violence against women or premature guarantee autonomy and because, marriages. This information is not usually strategically, this may represent a setback provided by official bodies, but may have for the women's movement.5 an impact on the public. Finally, like the bloggers who participated in the meeting, Although the repression of LGBT organi- social networks can be used to challenge sations (potential partners) has been women’s subordinate position and to mentioned, the repression suffered by defend their rights. these movements has not been sufficiently valued, which is not without It is equally important for the women's consequences for women's movements. movement to invest in the media, a still predominantly male environment, which New and old feminist stakeholders plays a key role in perpetuating patri- archy. Women's prejudiced images or the In recent years, young people have joined conservative messages that are feminism, which brings new dynamism,

4 In this connection see F. Aidoo’s interview (2013). Women’s Movement globally; it is also a serious 5 See P. McFadden's article). The author affirms: “The expression of the backlash against women’s attempts to issue of male presence, in physical and ideological terms, become autonomous of men in their personal/political within what should be women-only spaces is not just a relationships and interactions”. matter of ideological contestation and concern within the

8 emphasis on certain demands, but also impunity. This includes both domestic some tension. This issue was considered violence and sexual violence against vital for the growth and empowerment of women in areas of military conflict. feminist movements. Sexual and Reproductive Rights - On the one hand, the integration of young Possibly the most contested type of rights feminists has emphasised the struggle for and considered as non-legitimate, due to rights pertaining to sexuality, bringing in a interference from culture, tradition and perspective that considers their specific religion (Christian and Muslim religious needs and demands. On the other, this fundamentalisms). Abortion is new generation, more familiar with the undoubtedly the most controversial issue, new information technologies, will initiate but reproductive planning, bodily integrity other forms of communication and and the right to decide on one's body were struggle, bringing new vigour to social also mentioned as being part of the networks and feminist movements. agenda.

It was considered important to empower Women's access to justice – This young people, to provide them with remains unsatisfactory, and the way the opportunities for intervention and to various forms of violence are dealt with support them in developing their reveals prejudice by justice system staff. capacities. Conflicts with Muslim Laws - A problem However, the integration of feminists from mainly posed by the organisations of the younger generations is not a frictionless West African countries with greater process, but one that involves manifest Islamic influence. tensions with older generations in the movements and, sometimes, lack of Women’s situation in areas of solidarity. The challenge remains: how to exploitation of natural resources - integrate young women so that there is no Extraction and mining (including forestry discontinuity in the struggle, how to exploitation, fishing and agriculture) have ensure their empowerment, and how to been characterised by what may be open a continuous and profound dialogue termed ‘neo-extraction’, where the logic of between the generations of women. profit and its maximisation, and mining, as an activity linked to neo-colonial capitalism that profoundly impacts women and nature, are stressed. The multiple The feminist agenda in women’s harmful effects of these processes on movements women's health have not yet been fully mapped. Despite the disparities between the various regions, the agendas of feminist Political successes organisations have certain main items in common, as shown below. The great breakthrough is unanimously recognised as the fact that feminism can Gender violence - This is an endemic now be assumed without much conse- problem and, although in some countries quence, although the stigmas that there are specific laws to frame this crime condemn and isolate women who legally, in most cases they are not recognise themselves as such remain. enforced and there are high rates of The emergence of feminist organisations,

9 however challenged and confronted, has that discriminate against women should forced debate and questioning on be denounced. There are radical aspects women's human rights, and has shown that must be eliminated. On the other that women, by conquering the right to hand, culture is often a weapon used choose, can freely decide what they want whenever one wants to oppress women to be. and deny them rights. This constant tension between culture and women's Major challenges of the movements human rights ends up being imposed in the political struggle.6 The first challenge of feminism in Africa is ownership of the gender concept. After The third challenge concerns the more than two decades, gender has ‘depoliticisation’ of some women's become the language of the United organisations in response to strong Nations and of the powers, at the risk of repressive measures against civil society. losing its subversive character. From a Indeed, in some countries, realising the concept designed to deconstruct and potential for dissent, governments seek to question the oppression of women, it has infiltrate the organisations in order to become a source of breaking the control them and direct them to supporting identification by silencing women. Most agendas. African governments have institutiona- The fourth challenge is to encourage lised ‘gender policies’, which have largely more feminists to participate in the been used to rebuild and reinvent political sphere, to engage in the process patriarchy. It is therefore crucial to recover of political demand and partisan the concept of gender and keep a critical struggle. In fact, feminists, especially eye on gender and development policies. younger women, show a lack of The second challenge is to continue and motivation and desire for the political field, deepen the struggle against conser- either because the stakeholders and vative elites who adopt, through political parties have no attractive culture (or tradition and religion), the proposals, or because of fear, or because violation of women's rights, for they live a feminism restricted to the field example, genital mutilation, domestic of women's human rights. The violence or early marriages. As regards involvement of women in political life is culture, it was pointed out that although very important to influence policies and working with culture should be considered advocate for parity in decisions, the as an opportunity, there are aspects that struggle for quotas in parliaments and cannot be avoided, namely the partnerships to be made for political assumptions that perpetuate and agendas. It is necessary to deepen the reproduce inequality. It is important to present quota system that is manipulated oppose the defence of a culture that by the party apparatuses which manage violates rights, particularly women’s to place, in government authorities, human rights. Culture cannot be above women who are loyal to the party and not human rights. Harmful cultural practices to an agenda that respects the interests

6 As C. Pereira points out, “The modes in which ‘custom’, between such practices and women’s experiences of ‘tradition’ and/or ‘culture’ have been used specifically citizenship is not often made. More work is needed on against women, have been documented under the rubric the construction of customary laws and their role in the of harmful traditional practices. However, the linkage practice of violence”.

10 and needs of the feminine population, and and the monitoring of already approved who are later subject to party discipline policies? that, in parliament, controls the votes of the benches. The question is: how do A fifth challenge is to reinvent strategies women use their power in the areas they that, in the context of infringement of can conquer? The way the present quota rights, put an end to victimisation, which is system works masks, in fact, the a trap, and to build intervention patriarchal nature of power. modalities that help redefine feminist solidarity. Similarly, how can the State be more involved in the establishment of policies The following is a synopsis of the that respect women's citizenship rights, challenges presented by region.

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WEST AFRICA EAST AFRICA • Fighting the accusations of witchcraft against • Breaking the silence and giving more visibility to women women’s opinions • Motivating women to participate in the political • Eliminating the gap between generations of arena, so they can occupy key places activists, creating channels of cooperation • Overcoming the dispersion of feminist • Building a regional cooperation network organisations, strengthening the bonds of • Ensuring resources at the level of grassroots solidarity and coordinating feminist theory with organisations activism • Countering the negative cultural impact on • Fighting taboos as a method of defence of sexual women's rights, challenging sexism and fighting the and reproductive rights rape culture • Fighting religious fanaticism • Building capacity to counter-attack hate attacks in • Creating safe areas for women’s intervention social media (FB, Twitter, ...) • Commit the government to women’s rights, • Eliminating discriminatory inheritance laws and reversing the current lack of political will ensuring equal access to land, natural resources • Seeking alternatives and new forms of resistance and the labour market in the face of hostility against the affirmation of • Ensuring that women's movements are clear about women's rights who the oppressor is and promoting mutual support and solidarity

CHALLENGES

CENTRAL AFRICA • Reinforcing the dialogue between generations of SOUTHERN AFRICA feminists, engaging and giving space to the younger • Fighting racism generation, and intensifying the debate on the • Encouraging the building of pluralist and cohesive meaning of being a feminist feminist movements, involving women from various • Deepening the discussion on the elitist character of levels of society feminists and women's organisations, which have • Strengthening work at grassroots level few grassroots links • Fighting against the exclusion of LGBT movements • Finding alternatives to dependency on donor • Fighting against the exclusion and discrimination of agendas and establishing their own agenda women in prostitution • Counteracting the culture of silence, making • Strengthening people’s education women's voices heard and building the capacity to • Including access to land and exploitation of natural deal with gender-based violence at discourse level resources on the agendas of organisations • Designing innovative strategies in the fight for women's rights

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Regional and international cooper- feminism and activism, to establish a ation and networks mutual relationship of development; and to study different categories of women Following the previous discussions, parti- and their interventions, and also what cipants recommend that alternatives to unites them: for example, the political attacks on women's rights be found by agenda for sexuality, exploitation of the strengthening and exchanging experien- female body, and the best understanding ces among feminist movements and of the various experiences. organisations. This cooperation should have both regional and international At this stage, it is essential to form an scope. The idea is to encourage the African feminist movement by sub-region formation of an African feminist move- and at a continental level, which over- ment at regional and continental level that comes differences in an intersectional surpasses differences and opens to all perspective and uses all spaces, not just areas. comfort spaces. Investing in new information technologies may push the The establishment of opportunities such movement to be more responsive and as those provided by this conference is comprehensive. recommended to continue the debates and ensure greater openness of feminist Alimata Abdul Karin of the World March of movements to the diversity of experiences Women, in Ghana, summed up the tone and demands. of the discussion on the perspectives of feminism:

“We will establish alliances with people Conclusion that defend the same cause, but not stop there. We will have to make the alliances There are two connections that can foster work in terms of the relevant issues and the development of feminist movements: spaces, using also the new technologies, 1) the creation of an autonomous space which we have to make our own tools”. for feminist studies - knowledge production for feminist activity; and 2) the formation of organic links between

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References: Alloo, Fatma in (2013) Africana: Aportaciones para la descolonización del feminismo. Barcelona: oozebap. Landaluze, Iker Zirion; Espel, Leire Idarraga (2015): Los feminismos africanos. Las mujeres africanas “en sus propios términos”. In: Relaciones Internacionales, 27. Mama, Amina in (2013): Africana: Aportaciones para la descolonización del feminismo. Barcelona: oozebap. McFadden, Patricia: Why Women’s Spaces are Critical to Feminist Autonomy. In: ISIS International http://www.isiswomen.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id =630:why-womens- spaces-are-critical-to-feminist-autonomy&catid=127:theme-mens-involvement-in-womens- empowerment). McFadden, Patricia (1997): The Challenges and Prospects for the African Women's Movement in the 21st Century. In: Women in Action, 1. (access: http://www.hartford- hwp.com/archives/30/152.html) Pereira, Charmaine: Understanding women’s experiences of citizenship in : from advocacytoresearch. In: CODESRIA (access: https://www.codesria.org/IMG/pdf/PEREIRA-1.pdf). UNDP (2016): Human Development Report: Accelerating Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in Africa. http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/librarypage/hdr/ 2016-africa- human-development-report/) UNESCO (2010): Trends in Tertiary Education: Sub-Saharan Africa. UIS Fact Sheet, No. 10. Montreal: UNESCO Institute for Statistics.

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