literario, literatura y turismo, patrimonio español fantasioso, identidad mestiza. identidad fantasioso, español patrimonio yturismo, literatura literario, Palabras clave intenciones. buenas asus pese yeconómicas sexuales raciales, desigualdades las aafianzar abocada estaba sexismo, y el racismo del opresivos ypor discursos los ycapitalista imperialista por sistemas los lastrada Jackson, de la como visión que una demostrará artículo el definitiva, En nativa. población su de posterior genocidio yel desplazamiento el también sino turística, industria yla rias inmobilia inversiones las ferrocarril, de compañías las de no solo avance el consigo trajo xix siglo del afinales blanca California la de desarrollo del cómplice en eso, de lugar en convirtió, yse estado del indígena población la de situación la hora cambiar de la a fracasó California, de nativo-americanos los afavor de literario activismo de forma una Ramona que romance su por las razones las por objeto explicar ytiene Helen Hunt Jackson estadounidense yactivista escritora la en centra se artículo Este Resumen indigenous population and, instead, ended up as an accomplice in the late 19 late the in accomplice an up as ended instead, and, population indigenous state’s of the situation the in change actual to effect failed Americans, Native of California’s Ramona why her romance to explain aims and Helen Hunt Jackson activist and writer on American focuses study This Abstract and Tourism, Spanish Fantasy Heritage, Mestiza Heritage, Fantasy Tourism,and Spanish Literature Activism, Literary Indians, Mission California’s : Helen Hunt Jackson, Keywords intentions. good despite its inequalities racial and sexual economic, to entrench bound was sexism, and of racism discourses oppressive the as well as capitalism, and imperialism of systems by Jackson’s, the down like weighed vision political and asocial prove that will paper the all, in All inhabitants. of Native its genocide consequent and displacement the poignantly, but, most industry, tourist the and investors real-estate companies, of railroad advance not the only development along brought Said California. development of Anglo Revista Canaria de Estudios Ingleses Estudios de Canaria Revista GUIDE ATOURIST BECAME THAT ROMANCE THE TURÍSTICA GUÍA EN CONVIRTIÓ SE QUE ROMANCE EL : Helen Hunt Jackson, indios de las misiones californianas, activismo activismo californianas, misiones las de indios : Helen Hunt Jackson, HELEN HUNT JACKSON’S RAMONA JACKSON’S HUNT HELEN AND SILENCED THE MESTIZA THE SILENCED AND DOI: https://doi.org/10.25145/j.recaesin.2020.81.13DOI: (1884), originally intended as a form of literary activism on behalf on behalf activism of aform literary (1884), as intended originally RAMONA Carolina Fernández Rodríguez Carolina Y SILENCIÓ A LA MESTIZA ALA Y SILENCIÓ Universidad de Oviedo* de Universidad , DE HELEN HUNT JACKSON: HUNT , HELEN DE , 81; November 2020, pp. 193-215;, 81; 2020, November e-2530-8335 ISSN: Identity.

(1884), como concebido : th -century , el cual cual , el -

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 193 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 194 revealed to me the existence of Ramona existence methe to revealed who friend Berkeley to Sue the Friday, goes gratitude my (FFI2016-75130-P).foremost, and But first UE byMINECO/AEI/FEDER, supported Romance,” and Women’s Exoticism History, Fiction: in Popular Formulae Literary of Marketing and Aesthetics Politics, “The project research the in participate me to invited who (Spain), Islands Balearic of the Calleja, Fresno Paloma professor to and Group, Research Bain Beatrice the into integrated Iwas where Berkeley, at of California University the at of Scholar 2017 aVisiting summer the as spend to necessary funds methe granted which California that does not boast of a street, hotel, garden, park, or public place named hotel, or public of park, not named astreet, garden, does place boast that California onetoo. person put As 1920s, it the in Southern “I in town doubt any is there if to say, kids, products; needless Ramona number of are there Ramona endless an and shops, Ramona Libraries, Ramona Schools, Elementary Ramona but are there two; Ventura, in for example as or Palo to Alto, state, in name western of cities this and towns the crisscross Francisco, one from the San in Isaw apart Streets, of Ramona Valley, dozens Ramona Grill; Ramona Inn or a Valley a find where oneValley can aRamona whole sites the of in aplethora state California: is there of Ramona Indeed, attest. Bay Area the in my experiences as of California, Northern that also by Jackson’s affected Ramona landscape not southern Californian the only is indelible region (DeLyser 886). is the today” To even in that add well Icould this Ramona heroine She fictional she Nor the yet died. is of has Helen Hunt Jackson’s 1884 novel never lived. of southern California “Oddly, history the in woman most important the Ramona It was experiences. my shocking previous about explained work talking the she was titleHelenthe andof called Hunt Jackson, was mind writerin The she had Bank. Paso El founded the and Co Railway he Grande worked for Denver Rio the and Colorado, Colorado in Springs, where arenowned Quaker Jackson, was S. William and secondher The author,husband, twice, she like. did she toldmarried had me, one novel romance was there that but genre, that of romance not the she afan was told on me toromances, that do some research planning I was me say that hearing of Friends, Sue of Society Friday, the amember Meeting of Berkeley that the after California more in afew days but only after not It Idid what. know was something, Street.” to mean had “Ramona read: Now plaque by this that astreet aback taken once again Francisco, Iwas of San city the around do, strolling will tourists as while, and anecdote, surprising this considered terribly Soon after old-fashioned Spain. in is despite which, Spanish, being deeply name, by the shocked was and Ramona, called old was daughter whose three-year woman Berkeley,in Anglo Imet an arriving aVisiting Scholar. Soon after as at Berkeley Universityat the of California * These personal anecdotes certify what most Californians know for sure: Californians what most certify anecdotes personal These of 2017, summer Group the In Research Bain Beatrice by the admitted Iwas , and her mark on southern California’s landscape, and on social memory memory on and social on her southern California’s, and mark landscape, , of course. Research for this paper has been carried out thanks to the University of Oviedo (Spain), (Spain), of Oviedo University the to out thanks carried been has paper this for Research 1. CALIFORNIA, HOME OF RAMONA OF HOME 1. CALIFORNIA, . , but said of Northern California as well. as of California Northern said ‘Ramona’” (qtd. be much might as nearly DeLyser 889). in Iwould that add Again, back in the 19 the in back contemporaries her and Hunt Jackson byHelen employed labels the were they as incorrectness, their offered in Mathes, “Helen Hunt Jackson and the and Ponca.” “Helen Jackson Hunt Mathes, in offered 1885 (Mathes, “Helen Hunt Jackson and the Ponca” the 53). and Hunt Jackson “Helen 1885 (Mathes, in death her before period abrief for amember was Jackson of which (WNIA), Association Indian Women’s out the stands National there these, among associations; and movements reform Indian women’s Women” York “New of 19th-century and Women”) context Century the in (“Nineteenth acknowledge how such labelling serves as a colonial representational strategy to symbolically symbolically to strategy representational a colonial as serves labelling how such acknowledge Icritically of Jackson, my discussion in era of the terminology hegemonic the avoid using scarcely Ican Although system. mission Spanish colonial the in Christianized forcibly California southern of nations tribal the together lumped moniker Indians’ ‘Mission “The read: critically be should Indians 1881-1882 Mission on so-called the material gathering she toured southern California of Native US. In on the peoples mistreatment in the evidence continued gathering Magazine for significant reform in government policy toward Native Americans. governmentin reform toward Native policy for significant called and policy Indian were toconditions live in, made she they denounced federal the from documenting apart which, in of of plight Native the Americans exposé an the for editor to the of New letters York the Tribune articles Herald fund-raising, and ofHer Ponca misconduct. the work said took form of on the tribe petitions, behalf to denounce subsequently and began to Native Americans, regards in misconduct 272), into government investigation out (Nevins an she carried Oklahoma in to areservation Dakota southeastern in of Poncaremoval the reservation from their Southern” and Jackson 263). Bear’s Moved description of forcible by the Standing “Helenof Ponca the (Mathes, Hunt Tribe, Native interested in Americans she grew Bear, Boston Standing by in Chief 1879, In alecture activist. hearing an life after (Dobie 93).Name” of laterandadult her forpoet, a on a part novelist first She was too, complete of to the “No she resorted anonymity cases, 56); many in (Whitaker pseudonyms: “‘Marah,’ Vanunder various ‘Rip Winkle,’ ‘H.H.’ Holm’” ‘Saxe and Helen Hunt (1830-1885), Jackson called she published some of although her works well into 21well the New York Independent . 3 3 2 1 of repercussions her work, ofHelenUnabated significant lack byJackson the The author of the novel that triggered the Ramona craze that continues that craze Ramona the The authortriggered the that novelof for a series of articles commissioned by Richard Watson by Gilder Richard of commissioned Century for of articles aseries

I feel compelled to use the terms “Mission Indians” and “Indians” in this paper, despite paper, despite this in “Indians” and Indians” “Mission terms the use to compelled I feel An in-depth analysis of Jackson’s involvement in the so-called Ponca Controversy is is Ponca Controversy so-called the of in Jackson’s involvement analysis in-depth An Jackson’s reformist activities have been thoroughly studied by Valerie S. Mathes Mathes by Valerie S. studied thoroughly been have activities Jackson’s reformist (Mathes, “Helen Southern”(Mathes, Hunt the and 263). Jackson Her Quaker th century. I nonetheless quite agree with Gonzalez’s conviction that said expressions expressions said that conviction Gonzalez’s with agree quite Inonetheless century. ACTIVIST AN JACKSON, HUNT HELEN 2. st century was a woman writer from Amherst, Massachusetts, Massachusetts, writer from Amherst, a woman was century ON BEHALF OF NATIVE AMERICANS OF NATIVE ON BEHALF 1 Besides, she published published she Besides, A Century of Dishonor of Dishonor A Century 2 (1881),

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 195 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 196 claims” (458). claims” territorial and present past their delegitimize to thus and nations tribal specific deterritorialize her for of a portion tour. the prominent the Jackson, accompanied husband, S. Colorado entrepreneur William Jackson’s 1883 report and her 1884 novel, pointing out the similarities between the descriptions of descriptions the between similarities out the 1884 her Jackson’s pointing novel, 1883 and report spent most of her last five years in California” (Arlt (Arlt 106). California” in years five of last her most spent actually she on, although then from residence legal her as regarded Jackson Mrs. which Springs, 110). Colorado in home (Marsden their They “made of 1875 Hampshire October New in in ceremony aQuaker in married was couple the health; her improve and try to Colorado, Springs, Colorado to of state’s the 18 the Native peoples between Alook population decline at the claims. occupancy Mission Indian US disregarded ranchos from their (the California) residents“Californios” of colonial Spanish 1848), (after expelled often US in California Anglos fact, contending In nations. two the dispute between the settled that Treaty the and of Guadalupe-Hidalgo War the Mexican-American after deteriorated further conditions. Their situation ranchos worked established on newly the tosubsequently non-Natives. or gave sold of Mission Indians lands the the Many and missions the but 1833 in continue lands, mission to occupy secularized Mexico government provided to for Mexican resident the Indians California, of Mexican (1769) (1776), Francisco to San Real. Camino so-called the Diego work to from San live and homelands at 15 stretching missions Franciscan and villages, dwellings, forced to move had traditional colonizers from their Spanish to refer to California’s peoples, whom used Indigenous often the label the Indians, of her deepened Mission Jackson knowledge California, around travels to these 157). (Smith-Baranzini lived” deplorable Thanks Indians conditions under which the observing and settlements 1883in Indian or by mule, wagon visiting travelling Thus, observe. “[w]ith and [Jackson]travel Kinney, spentAbbot months coagent six to positionopportunities a that additional provided with her California, in Affairs by US authorities, who of commissioner appointed Indian acknowledged her special ( Togetherin report July Indians. a Kinney, Abbot she56-page filed 1883 with attention problems to the to attract of resolved to Mission Jackson do something some with 15,377left 839-840). (Padget Native individuals been incomers has Euro-American with saturated 1900, in to aCalifornia 30,000; number peoples of the reduced Indigenous had birthrate, homicide adeclining and starvation, of Gold 1848, the independence Rush and brought disease, which Empire; by 1860, aconsequence of Spanish the to reduced as 100,000 been Mexican 1769 In California. Native peoples; were by there 1821, about 300,000 had they rule over US finally and then Mexican, Spanish, of first impact proof of fatal the Report on the Condition and Needs of the Mission of of California the Indians Needs and Condition on the Report 5 4 After gaining independence from Spain (1821), independence from Spain gaining After years later on the and in On realizing the unacceptable situation of California’s Native unacceptable the population, On realizing

John R. Byers (“The Indian Matter”) has thoroughly explained the close relation between between relation close the explained thoroughly has Matter”) Indian (“The Byers R. John Helen Hunt Jackson met William S. Jackson in the winter of 1873, when she travelled of 1873, travelled winter she when the in Jackson S. William met Hunt Jackson Helen 4 In 1882 her concern with Native Americans was was 1882 In Native her Americans with concern with little improvement little with living their in th and the 19 the and th centuries offers appalling appalling offers centuries ) 5 including and the the and her report and subsequently in her novel. her in subsequently and report her in transmitted first was California Southern around travels her out in carried Jackson research the that proves He thus characters. Indigenous her and Americans Native real both befall that situations in settings of fictive and report her from locations real-life 158). Tom’s Uncle what Indian Cabin “Jackson hoped which to do with for southern the Californian Southern California in “emotional (1884), plea” AStory of took shape Ramona: the anovel life about Indian 157; (Smith-Baranzini Indians” the toward sympathy added). emphasis Her popular attract “only to would her plea that clear emotional an it became impact, little had had editor, to the reports letters Given and that her essays tactic. modify the to need didshe realize though unfaltering, remained change resolve to effect improvement. about actual However,in bringing Jackson’s ineffectual similarly was (1881) done to had improve little situation of Ponca the the Tribe, her 1883 report A Just as ears. it on deaf fell all, in appropriatebe all to say that, House It US of the but Senate the Representatives. in would therefore died passed her recommendations embodying Abill schools. of more establishment Indian the and for reservations of lands new purchase the including forrelief Mission Indians, 68).Huntexample,extensive Official” government Jackson: recommended itFor “Helen (Mathes, Indians about recommendations California eleven points the and Mission” 341). Mission” California “The Mathes, in (qtd. modifications” some with Jackson, of Mrs. bill “the as Smiley K. Albert byQuaker described of California,” State the in Indians 1891 Mission of the “Act Relief the for the to here referring Mission” 339). specifically is She California (“The work” [Jackson’s] to directly traced be can and exist still that reservations–reservations on thirty over of land of acres thousands aside setting of legislation foundation the 1883 “became the in report given recommendations the that argues Mathes particular, In results. expected the obtain to failed explained, be will as Ramona than reform of legislation terms in legacy amore enduring left have may report that she signed her full name to (Dobie name 94). she her signed full that two of the her works Southern”are only and those why 272). explain might This now” (qtd. Ihave done glad “Helen Iam of Mathes, Hunt in which things Jackson ‘a concern’ to work for of it. Dishonor’ only My the ‘Century are ‘Ramona’ and say, Quakers the Ihave felt, as cause–how of Indian the full been has whole heart my years four how for last the “You realized Nativeto the cause: have never fully have mayhad on her dedication Quaker to a marriage her influence at the hinting produced, she while had of pieces writing at the her satisfaction expressed Jackson publication the of Ramona after a year 6 Regardless of the fate that awaited her oeuvre on behalf of Native Americans, of Native Americans, her on awaited oeuvre behalf that of fate the Regardless 6

Valerie S. Mathes has called attention to the irony that, in the long run, Jackson’s 1883 run, long the in that, irony the to attention called has Mathes Valerie S. had done for the African-American slave” (Stevens done had for African-American the , in 1885,, in to Thomas aletter in Higginson, W. Ramona , as well as highlighting the unfair unfair the highlighting as well , as Century ofCentury Dishonor , which, , which,

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 197 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 198 Helen of Colorado, never” (qtd. Byers, in “Helen Hunt Jackson” 143). To day, this “Helen that of Troy declared corresponded for but die, anumber of years, will whom with friend Jackson her.childhood a latter, The admired particular, in also andEmerson Dickinson, like the period, of figures literary someand of greatest the 107). (Arlt enjoyed of masses, Jackson the success” her praise time, own the During plentyher of and ahome children. Mexico in her giving and by marrying Indians Cahuilla among ignominy and of poverty a life Californio the for ultimately and Alessandro, herthe and love, for Native first counselling, constant seeks from whom priest benevolent the Ramona Franciscan Salvierderra, of her Father piety, rarely, sources: only from character two by and the reinforced encroachment comes respite For from Anglo-European Ramona, of horse-stealing. him accuses who falsely settler shot who Anglo is by an himself, on, of Alessandro and,later baby hunger, first of their death the disease, uprootedness, displacement, couple’s the in results which land-takings, and brutality advancement, by Anglo couple the ranch, forced to is move from one location to another, plagued constantly Moreno the On lovers leaving the condemns to and exile. of miscegenation grounds on the Señora Moreno marriage the opposes Alessandro, her to marry desire expresses Luiseños by Spanish missionaries. bySpanish Luiseños called be to began mission of the vicinity the in living 1798, in Natives Francia de Rey Luis San of Mission establishment the After California. of southern area coastal the inhabited who Americans young Luiseño young a Assis, love in Alessandro with falling blood about soon after her Indian learns blood by her heritage foster mother, only sisterly she love feels and for Felipe. She kept of been ignorant her mixed- has for remember. her part, he can Ramona, as longson, for as Felipe Moreno. love in Ramona been with has Ironically, latter the forced to her become Ramona’s her own with together fosterto mother raise and she was that fact resented the Ramona’s and origin, always mixed-race has descent, on whose owner, Moreno the widow stern Ranch, Señora the Moreno, of Castilian abused first andShehardship. is discrimination 19-year-old racial who suffers beauty blue-eyed adark-haired, Ramona, girl, orphan American Scots-Native mixed-race War, of a life the it portrays Mexican-American the after Southern California in November Boston Helenin in Hunt Southern” (Mathes, and Jackson 270-271). Set “Helen 75); Hunt laterwas Official” Brothers Jackson: on it published by Roberts Union Christian the form in published serialized in heritage fantasy and adaptations media The novel, 3.1. The novel soon became immensely popular, “an instant and tremendousand popular, instant immensely The “an novelsoon became Jackson’s Jackson’s 7

The term “Luiseño” is commonly used to refer to the Payómkawichum, a group of Native group of Native a the Payómkawichum, to refer to used commonly is “Luiseño” term The Felipe Moreno. her from rescue Felipe be who, But end, will the it in will 3. 3. RAMONA 7 sheepherder who was often hired by Señora sheepherder Moreno.hired often who Ramona was When Ramona , THE BATTLE CRY THAT WENT AWRY WENT THAT CRY BATTLE , THE , written at the Berkeley Hotel York Berkeley New at the in , written City, first was beginning in May 1884 in (Mathes, beginning in its numerous editions or its transmedia adaptations, notwithstanding their their notwithstanding adaptations, its numerousin or editions its transmedia of state California. the stateplay outdoor of official United the play the and in States running longest and (DeLyser since” 889), largest the year becoming every thus nearly run novel has that of the outdoor dramatization afull-scale 1923in Pageant, Ramona the to launch 352): of (Rawls Commerce” Chamber unitedandJacinto of San towns “The Hemet outdoors Angeles “under of Los the auspices the annually performed been play has that since pointing out is Ramona adaptations, worth it 1923list of a media this off telenovela more recently, aMexican 2000, in Víctor and Urruchúa’s broadcast, radio Ramona film Theater Young Guild a produced Screen the by Don Loretta Ameche; and 1945 Warner 1936 the while Baxter, version, Ramona 1928the Ramona take, Crisp’s Donald Pickford; by 1916 Mary short starred Ramona film 1910, In numerous occasions. D.W. Ramona directed Griffith andon other media into adapted film been it has fact, In genres. various across butof obstacle, elusive simply enticement. an sort onto never one any implies romantic aura land, and that the quaint exotic, an or confers either her but her Native that impersonation, European aghost nothing is in absent them in Ramona, and settlement, for Anglo imply land’s readiness the an empty would one,which coversis these in chosen thelandscape Significantly, 2010 Signet Classics the edition and version. Kindle 2002 Signet Classics the both do as scene, to depict alandscape one instead, way or by choosing, another ancestry avoid morethat perhaps the problematic Ramona’s decision of picturing mixed-race anumber of covers one. exist there Lastly, over European the favor Native the thread they California’s past, when it and to comes imagining land, the with connection her in force Indigenous lies Forbraid. Ramona’s editions, editors the of these mythical or upper-part Ramona’s showing body, full than rather along, dark simply pictures edition, 2005 which Classics butLibrary The doModern more so as symbolically, 2010 Press Ramona, Halcyon the Native the American choose others edition, while offered is by of which example an woman, Indian opt forthat unapologetically the other arecovers, There however, would find more appealing. California in settlers thus shaping the Ramona myth in a way that late 19 a way that in myth Ramona the shaping thus character, aEuropean mostly who is aRamona to prefer seem to of imagine these All edition. 2002 of Signet Classics the case the is decent, as of Spanish woman young Independentby CreateSpace a Pub; other however, covers, as Ramona prefer to cast for 2016 the selected image the is which edition Ramona, Scottish-like youngish Independent 2014 Platform for their Publishing edition, show or a covers that by chosen CreateSpace image the like descent, Caucasian of unmistaken Ramona girlish a feature that fivefavored. approaches be seem to covers are There speaking, generally deemedappropriate though, house has toeditor publishing instigate, and each that multiplicity to of the readings attest of covers that 146), avariety with Jackson’s But the phenomenal success ofBut Jackson’s phenomenal the success Ramona novel the in format, Ramona its popularity Besides Ramona has had more than 300 printings (Byers, “Helen printings Hunt 300 Jackson” more had than has , directed by Edwin Carewe, features Dolores del Río and and Dolores Río del features Carewe, by Edwin , directed called Ramona called , directed by Henry King, is starred starred is King, by Henry , directed th came out a year later, out ayear 1946; came in and early 20 early and has enjoyed great success enjoyed success has great saw the light. To light. the saw round is not only measured not is only measured , a17-minute silent th is partially lost; lost; partially is century Anglo Anglo century

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 199 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 200 contributed to establishing a unique cultural identity for the state of identity for state California. the aunique cultural contributed to establishing life colonial of Mexican novel’s the that portrayal sentimental argued been it has (Padget 3), 835).Heritage” butFantasy Castillo more a “Spanish fact, In specifically, Southwest” (del American the in presence Spanish white European, the mythify and 1949 in McWilliams propensity to “the romanticize to Anglo-American’s describe heritage,” by coined aterm Carey not to spawn simply its a“fantasy capacity in to lie said been has novel’s the legacy of fact, amatter greatest As numbers. large tural production,” and “escape from the missions” (73). missions” the from “escape production,” and tural of agricul subversion strikes, “labor others, among included, which colonization, Spanish to gies strate resistance steadfast Californians’ Native not inscribe to Jackson’s choice denounces Venegas (73). effort” Moreover, colonization the during supplies other and food the byproviding military the subsidized “Franciscans military: the and church the between relationship complicit the ledge acknow to failing thus system,” labor forced of afeudal-like components “integral as period” nial colo the during complex mission the and compound presidio “the portray to refusal tion,” its and (67). California” racialized anewly in of stability asense and antiquity with Euro-Americans provided Indians,’ ‘humble and priests, pious missions, its with complete heritage, Spanish ‘pure-blooded’ “California’s York.” New and Besides, Boston in centers cultural traditional nation’s the as European) (and pure-blooded ancient as Rock Plymouth aCalifornia antiquity, epic “an California in settlers Euro-American uprooted offered words, her in which, myth,” Spanish-heritage (Padget 852) (Padget California” in effort missionary the of Franciscan out a“beatification book carried hacendados or land-owners, the and Father Salvierderra protected like benevolent by well priests the and Spanish were happy Mission Indians the by promoting that idea the system mission colonial Spanish the it book For mythologized fostered. the them, it that to seemed matter that California for genteel Spanish nostalgia the novel in to the revel and gave, that vision of Californio romanticized the eyes own their with to experience thethe eager of locations novel.see to were They fled SouthernCalifornia to tourists Anglo region, the countless in lines of railroad arrival the publication coincided with enraptured with. In the words of the In Glen Gendzel: with. enraptured became tourists of Anglo thousands 840) that (Padget pastoral” form of “California 834). (Padget novel to the a doing, so shape gave society” In American century turn-of-the- in prevailed that economic and inequalities War social the but also elite Californio 9 8 rancheros dashing were the historiography. Here California in characters of cast of a new appearance first Ramona mythology. for acompeting material raw the with writers Angeles Los supplied unwittingly Jackson nostalgia, Spanish-themed with By her story embroidering the California coast. (66) down up and missions of elegant achain built and kindness loving with Indians padres noble the Spanish all,

Yolanda Venegas has similarly criticized Ramona criticized similarly has Venegas Yolanda i.e., “the idea, same the encapsulate to phrase different aslightly uses Venegas Yolanda 9 and validated “not only the social and economic inequalities on which on which economic “not and inequalities validated social only the and society was based before and immediately after the U.S.-Mexican U.S.-Mexican the after immediately before and based was society ’s depiction of Edenic bliss before the American conquest marked the the marked conquest American the before ’s bliss of Edenic depiction , of Castilian descent like Señora Moreno. like descent the Indeed, , of Castilian , courtly caballeros , courtly , represented as devoted missionaries who lavished lavished who missionaries devoted as , represented ’s “nostalgic presentation of missioniza presentation ’s “nostalgic , enchanting señoritas , enchanting , and most of most , and livelihood 8 As its its As - - - - - bias, and fabrication on the part of a number of agents, among which of which among a number of agents, on part fabrication the and bias, selection, distortion, entailed that aprocess through heritage, into fantasy translated of decisions that negatively influenced her authorial intention, making go intention,it awry. her authorial influenced negatively ofmaking decisions that 271). a number intomake she fiction had to life from real transposition But the in (qtd. Ramona” “Helenwife’s was Mathes, Hunt Southern” in name and Jackson his is–and Alessandro as exactly ago, years shot two was Indian ACahuilla true. that “[e]verystates she Aldrich, herself Ramona incident in [...] Bailey Thomas is to aletter In southern California. in her about travels or during seen learned had (Monroy 139). of occupation California” their and of Americans the lawlessness the understand us to make and southern California over of of ex-mission treatment the the Indians angry and sick to stomachs our us 271). Ramona Southern” With and (qtd. “Helen Cause” Mathes, in Hunt for stroke Indian a good the be Jackson will asecond Unclehave written Tom’s which astory Ihave written Ido think Cabin–but she at her hinted intention to Stowe’s follow Mrs. I precedent: “I to do think not dare Stone Quinton,Amelia president the of Women’s the Association, Indian National (qtd. DeLyser 891). in thankful” be Similarly, for to Negro,did aletter the Iwill in Tom’sUncle Cabin by set of California’s example the Native peoples, following on behalf her activism Independent to why aletter W.H. in form, explains which told if audience a wider fictional would in reach of Mission Indians the story the that (qtd. DeLyser 891). in of her nonfiction her had success convinced work limited The move not books” serious people’s read anovel People will read when they will hearts. away to in experiences some Indian forth set be to anovel,going write will which in “emotional her to the write to: desire referred plea” expressed “IJackson am already Angeles, Los in to friends aletter In results. when up she dismal to set it, the write and author’s the between gap noble due abysmal publication, to the intentions it part in is genres literary and context Historical 3.2. Ramona sights” (Rojek 53) tourist and to of apply exquisite seems precision with case to the travel of all construction role social the in large unusually play an fantasy and “myth mestizo the ignoring mostly while heritage, fantasy rejoiced people, itsits Spanish Indigenous in simultaneously wiped out virtually and century the of turn the the at state flooded that tourists and of Midwesterners, them many settlers, Anglo 76). same Gendzel very in the Indeed, (qtd. or “morning nostalgia,” destroyed” for one what has “imperialist calls Rosaldo unwittingly, played amajor Renato to epitomize role, anthropologist it what came as of 19 the Jackson based her story loosely on real people, places and events that she that events and people, places loosely on her real story based Jackson Jackson’sIf Ramona Thus was born the exotic fantasy that countless of Anglo migrants at the end at migrants Anglo of countless that exoticthefantasy born was Thus and Southern California. Southern and th century were to take solace in while settling in California. Thus was history history was Thus California. in settling while in solace were to take century , she similarly stated her intention stated to, she anovel would write similarly encapsulate that : “If I can do one hundredth part for the Indians that Mrs. Stowe Mrs. that for Indians the do one part hundredth : “If Ican population who strove against their encroachment. their That population who strove against has fascinated dozens of readers and critics ever since its its since ever critics and of readers dozens fascinated has , it seems unequivocally clear, she meant “to make clear, she “to meant make unequivocally , it seems Ward, editor the York of New the Ramona , if , if

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 201 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 202 produced novels that some might consider as “sickly sweet or sentimental” (95). or sentimental” sweet “sickly as consider might some that novels produced doing, so in and, (94) oppressed” racially the with visions, national their and themselves, “aligned [Birds without a Nest] (1889)” aNest] of 19 without examples [Birds as nido sin Aves Avellaneda’s abolitionist Sab abolitionist Avellaneda’s de Gómez Stowe’s Tom’s Uncle Beecher (1852) Cabin Gertrudis Harriet to “Cuban to refers also and direct Anglos’ attention people’s to Indigenous Anglos’ to attract direct mush as so dispossession, behalf. on action their political and social attention of plight to California’s the trigger Native would then peoples, and call Ramona Native American. position the in of abject the themselves for people to imagine to acall novel be was other’s position” 102). her conviction, (Havard believed Jackson by this Reassured that to or occupy herself for him another, someonesympathy that imagine must order for “in someone that other authors novels, of to believed exercise sentimental 105). tocomparable sun” brook “a the (Havard in rippling along clear Jackson, like “simple, or thought, study deep serious in of feeling,” joyous, uninterested gentle,” 105); (Havard sympathy” who exercise she “a is characters woman young female of tradition along in American heroine, sentimental standing “aas quintessential form of a sentimental travel narrative” (107). narrative” travel of asentimental form Jackson’s work uprootings, various their and couple protagonist placed under the genre of regional fiction, which in the in fiction,which of genre regional the under 19 placed Ramona thethenovel,and First, sentimental fiction,romance. out question of novel’s the the stands there generic to regional adscriptions various people to save. itself it same set had of very the dispossession further the in novel well-timed ended up participating unfortunately this to its success, contributed novel’s to the Ironically, thanks phenomenal success. context (DeLyser 888). historical growth the Thus urban and change social immense and underwent it Anglicized thenrapidly home-seekers. The was region and tourists Together, wave speculation. of incoming to acolossal rise gave real-estate facts both followed by massive was turn, in this, fares; of railroad aplummeting triggered which south of state, the the reached had Various companies competing railroad. development of the spectacular the sees mentioned, 1880s the in already California As derailing. this for to also wrotesheblame which in is period it historical The Jackson’s novel qualifies as a sentimental Jackson’snovel,sentimental as a novel qualifies (DeLyser 891). attractions” tourist of canonical list to the Second, landmarks Ramona as such shrines literary adding numbers, large increasingly in country own explore to their began affordability, Americans thenin and popularity in first rose domestic tourism as foundAnd of tremendous ‘remnant’ appeal. cultures portrayals “regional travel: fiction’s to domestic tourist stimulant important an picturesque written in the 18 the in written But novel’s the did to fiction notserve of genre adscription to regional the As for the literary decisions Jackson made in writing the story of Ramona, of Ramona, story the writing in made decisions Jackson for literary the As 11 10

For example, in her article on José Martí’s reading of Jackson’s Ramona reading Martí’s on José article her in For example, For John Havard, given that Ramona that given For Havard, John th and the 19 the and (1841),” Turner’s de Matto pro- Clorinda Peruvian “the and would be, she hoped, a sort of battle cry that would first would first that cry she would be, hoped,of asort battle th centuries. 11 portrays the recurrent dispossession of the of the dispossession recurrent the portrays Ramona, in fact, has been described described been has fact, in Ramona, 10 in line with other similar texts texts other similar with line in th is, in effect, a novel that “takes the “takes that a novel effect, in is, -century women intellectuals who who intellectuals women -century th century served as as served century can be adequately adequately be can , Susan Gillman Gillman , Susan indigenista

agreement that they look like Europeanized look like they that agreement hero); Beta than rather besides, caring and heroine; sensitive he, the beautiful stunningly and (she, uncomplaining the characters romance “fantasy” (Monroy are 143). Alessandro and Ramona other words, In both for women,Victorian figure man” “a domesticated afantasy him make tender nature and virtuous, added). religiosity, for sensitive, refined, talent music, his his His and and somewhat somewhat and words of the In “Alessandro, John educated who Havard, is traits. unusual of these because precisely him respects tribe own Paradoxically, his Indian. not an look like he does that color light so is one. skin His Italian but an name, Native nor aSpanish surprisingly, neither has, a and play violin, the read, he can Mission Indian: average (Monroy want?” 143;a man added). emphasis more could uncomplaining–what devoted, and strange, beautiful, her. is Ramona Europeanized her and blue help for white: her beauty “She eyes pass physical is great she possesses but across, she amix, is other Californians, many like that, fact the is importance equal Of kind. namely, and extremely piousshe is that appealing, find could California chambers of commerce and tourist bureaus” ( bureaus” tourist of and commerce chambers California [ Indians, upon California the society California of Anglo of assault indictment the an her in abound story. words ofthe In Valerie perceived as of being “Instead Mathes: exclusively on romantic elements the that almost to led focus them she actually Jackson’s Native Americans, with to empathize to heroine move meant Anglos was (qtd. 65),outrage” Gendzel in undercut Jackson’s which intention. authorial Though put it, Ramona has in Starr Kevin force. As of political any Ramona’s Indeed, action. simple, her stripped character pious, gentle nature and political direct through to unable achieve been she what had literature through prevented from accomplishing long Jackson heroines of tradition sentimental further (Stevens 161). lived” had novel’s characters Ramona’s For a in its part, belonging Ramona injustice, out social prompt to search its than readers “Rather to Southern California: herds of tourists start with, Ramona is part-white, and she has traits that 19 that traits she part-white, has is and Ramona with, start authentic. To who ring Mission Indians are Alessandro, and Ramona characters, Thus, audience. neither simultaneously, of main her Anglo “palatable” for an and, Mission Indians “real” but them not she could make California, peoples in for Indigenous sympathy to feel readers who Anglo would inspire Mission Indians to be seen, them she wanted to her acceptable As audience. her characters to make Americans are “unfit for the modern world, inevitable victims of Manifest Destiny” (74).Destiny” Manifest of victims inevitable world, the modern for “unfit are Americans Native that suggests Venegas, Yolanda to according which, dies, and insane goes him, before father Ramona For his part, Alessandro is a full-blooded Indian, but he superior Indian, is to the afull-blooded is Alessandro For part, his For her novel to converted intobe had Jackson a conventional romance, 12 ] was seen as a romantic love story that became a stock symbol of Southern symbol astock became aromantic love that as story seen ] was

Despite his being Europeanized, it should nonetheless be noted that Alessandro, like his his like Alessandro, that noted be nonetheless it should Europeanized, being his Despite and, in her case, her mysterious Indian origin only serves to exoticize to exoticize only serves origin her Indian mysterious her in case, and, European in his ways, is an atypical Cahuilla Indian” (105; Indian” Cahuilla emphasis atypical an is ways, his in ’s success sent them looking for the places where the ’s for places the sent looking them success authentic Indians. Mission Indians, there is general general is there Mission Indians, 12 The main characters’ lack lack of characters’ main The th Helen HuntHelen Jackson x). -century Euro-Americans Euro-Americans -century , “sentiment overcame

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 203 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 204 the San Gabriel Mission, said to Ramona’s Mission,be Gabriel By said end San the ofthe 19 birthplace. the 162). (Stevens southern of in California” tourism of culture the part became places real and persons “[t]he novel the in that correspond must locations to real and characters that belief thus it was And etc. married, born, been raised, had where characters the settings exact to the have were been said sold that of and of photographs places were taken (Stevens 162). aconceivable story” to have the had connection could that Thousands of person, any object, or Photographers location recorded images attraction. eagerly problem tourist social novel the the into Ramona Ramona transforming tools in of photography place residence “found and to one be most important of their destination atourist as promoters Indeed, of capitalism. California with compliance wonders, in money-wise, working make while could aloveentrenched that as story novel end, the the In was favor in to of action Native Americans. acall as potential Ramona helping to while cancel industry tourist supported California’s nascent were doing.communications Photography,ultimately, and, commodification film, development railroad of and real-estate businesses the way as much same the as in to came profit soon from the novel modeledindustry on. it The was genres tourist literary the and written novel the was which in context historical attributable to the California in 1883” (Gonzalez 447). 1883” in (Gonzalez California The tourist industry, photography and commodification and photography industry, The3.3. tourist for aconventional love (Stevens exotic 161). story” characters and setting interesting simply provided an Mission Indians the and Southern California most Americans, the of problemsexposé Foran California’s of as Indians. undercut its effectiveness (Stevensto describe” 161). aromance “Ramona’s as this, success with keeping In it purported that reality the and book’s the story between of boundaries “track the it heroic made possibleauthenticity romance-like to lose readers and for status many endow Spanish California with ‘romance,’ with isolation, conditions, given the rough California endow Spanish put 69). it, has “[o]nly Gendzel qtd. in Gendzel could As imagination avivid (McGroarty, of modern life” commercialism and strenuous the materialism with world,” the “people days those all in in were not as happiest concerned country the was “California system, mission under the and era Spanish the during that idea the (Gendzel 69), were nonetheless chosen tothey impersonate “padre the is, myth” that consideredthebe peoples’ thesitesIndigenous genocide,can of they Though heritage. of solid California’s reminders ironically, fantasy as and, destinations tourist potential of crumbling down, crumbling of on verge for been the some had decades Real of Camino missions El century, the Of the novel’s settings, one of the easiest places to recognize in real life was was life real in to recognize places one novel’s of the easiest Of the settings, Ramona 13

“The missions had long since fallen into ruin by the time Jackson toured southern southern toured Jackson time the by ruin into fallen since long had missions “The ’s deviation from battle cry into romance is not is into exclusively romance ’s cry from battle deviation 13 but they were now beginning to receive renewed interest as to interestrenewed receive as were but now they beginning th ’s ’s

instead to stick to the romanticized myth. romanticized to the to stick instead chose and system, mission the under peoples Indigenous of genocide historical the to California’s Franciscan missions, from the discrediting reports of Spain’s imperial rivals in the 18 the in rivals of Spain’s imperial reports discrediting the from missions, Franciscan California’s to regards in had have and others journalists historians, travelers, that attitudes different of the evolution the of panorama a offers article This 1992 and Myth.” as Symbol Mission California “The Rawls’s 71). Regardless of the myth, many late 1971). many of myth, the Regardless (Gendzel mythology” of Spanish communes happy to religious the than camps continues, [t]he to concentration comparison probably closer in missions stand time.” at he the fact, prevailed In that rates death Native American shocking and effects on the native peoples” (358)peoples” the on. from native the 1980s on effects destructive mission’s of the system “indictment American’s Indigenous forgetting without century, 19 late the in age state’s golden of the asymbol as missions of the romanticization the to century, locations that closely matched descriptions in the novel; the descriptions matched closely in moreover, that locations was ranch this were on place Guajome Ranch sheep-shearing the and place washing the chapel, it which promoted “real ranch, home the (Stephens as ofthis Ramona” 165). The Southern The Santa Pacific’s in Fe interest the Route,Ranch. took special arival, promotedcompany that Moreno the it as Ranch. therailroad and considerableto to offer thetheranch revenue owners of to both ultimately, and, to fiction, confervalidity to came other words, in fiction setting; chosen to representthe commercially novel’s been had that on a location filmed without it” gained “authenticity” (DeLyserbeing 900).by Ironically, film then, the authenticity lackedwould film have Griffith’s Home that the as of Ramona important become so had location: “Camulos creditto screen the giving thus was director prominently. featured in motion-picture time Camulos history, For film first a the 896).(DeLyser D.W. In by-now-famous of their image an south veranda” featured which label, Ramona’ theunder ‘Hometheircitrus rancho’s of their benefit,marketing notoriety to their they “used eventually but of tourists, the avalanche by wereoverwhelmed first ‘Boston’ their residents (Stevens with manners” 164). Ranch of Camulos Owners offending andgenerally the house, invading souvenirs, stealing fruit, andflowers picking over grounds, the aprivate swarmed home, was sightseers Camulos that fact of editions Ramona illustrated brochures, tourist of photographs were later which on reproduced magazines, in Valle del byowned the hundreds made family. Photographers and ranch the visited ranch to this country beautiful through took tourists Angeles ride from Los train two-hour A mere Railroad. of of Southern Pacific astation the distance walking “Home conveniently within of Ramona,”was Ranch. orIt Moreno fictive the located contenderfirst the for became forinstance, Ranch, Camulos novel. The real-life just tojust El it not related be since position could missions, the among aspecial to occupy was 14 Greed for profitcontender secondto a gave rise Ramona’s for home: Guajome the with connection to their prominence thanks acquired settings Other Camino Real Camino

For more information on the so-called “Mission Myth,” it is advisable to read James J. James read to advisable it Myth,” is “Mission so-called on the For more information , but also to Jackson’s, but also Ramona Griffith’s film versionRancho1910 of thefirst novel, , and as individual prints: “With little regard for the regard prints: “With little individual as , and 14 In this context, the San Gabriel Mission Mission Gabriel San the context, this In th -century Anglo tourists disregarded disregarded tourists Anglo -century . th th

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 205 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 206 create “its own truth,” in a process perfectly summarized by Errol W. Stevens: summarized perfectly truth,” own aprocess “its in create of power the of of photography examples one countless among was to Estudillo Casa design. or autochthonous techniques, landscape construction architectural for Indigenous respect accuracy, out for without concern historical any carried was Jackson’s in novel, Estudillo of building rehabilitation the the reference to and Casa it convenient not seemed specific of on somebecause any account to boost businesses, move: chosen been adobe had the adoubly in paradoxical to asetting verisimilitude its garden”in (Monroy 137).confer to used Thus, again photography once was America from South begonias the and from Africa agapanthus imported and trees 1910 in building (DeLyser 889). “recently displayed planted palms postcards Picture restored the and Place” “Ramona’s as known Marriage popularly adobe already developer light-rail John137). and D. run-down the bought Spreckels Real-estate thethe Coronado”owners of of Hotel del lore efforts the (Monroy and popular acombination of “through place wedding Alessandro’s and Ramona as chosen home. supposed to Ramona’s on proximity the capitalize Rey, likewise Luis could of San mission, that another other ranch, this through besides, consequences; unintended from these shot thethebest patio” to of find company (Stevens profited 166), therailroad but up photographers climbing to re-roofhad broken tiles had house because the many Rey). “[t]he Luis that ItSan true is owner [of he Guajome that complained Ranch] home the novel, the in Mission not is near unlike novel the in Ranch, (Camulos Mission, frequently mentioned a place Rey Luis San from the a half and only a mile locations was taken one step further when photographers and tourists alike decided when alike photographers tourists one and further step taken was locations heritage. fantasy of their Ramona more House,“authentic” and, generally, the with view, one, Estudillo their in with connection, probably intimate an an to feel began tourists and places, and objects in invested notes, etc.) (DeLyser 898-899). gradually way, was this In meaning well, (coins a wishing behind in of themselves to leave but something also business, particular of contribute this thus to buy success and to souvenirs, the encouraged their vows. taken have to weresaid were Tourists Alessandro and Ramona fictitious where the restored chapel the in marry even Couples could curios. other Ramona of countless among notebooks, pocket and rings, napkin salt-and-pepper shakers, toothpick postcards, teaspoons, holders,from courtyard, the letter-openers, trays, ash Estudillo House or La Casa Larga in San Diego’s San in Old Larga Town Casa House or La subsequently was Estudillo The widespread obsession to relate the novel’s fictive settings to actual actual to the widespread obsession novel’sto relate The settings fictive asouvenir shop sold flowers with which dried “upgraded” was Estudillo Casa story. of the (167) authenticity the validated images resulting the truth, own its photography creates that way odd of the it. In pictures take could photographers entity, aphysical it was Because attraction. atourist site world, became the real the in place toa location fromfictional transformed or went Thus to school. married, got lived, Ramona where places special one of those but became old building, arun-down or even adobe, it aranch, merely No was longer a transformation. story, underwent Ramona it the of part as identified been had aplace such Once have capitalism’s lamented to profitfrominjustice: capacity included, too, lost others have opportunity, mourned the myself Many and greed. tool for capitalist into apowerful turned cry her towould see have battle mattered Tom’s Uncle what Native American Cabin author to “an plea,” write emotional striven who had would awork do for that the (qtd.wondered, DeLyser all?” 900). “And in it, But after novel’s to matters the what way, he careless though, and alighthearted unreal.” In from the real the false, the from true the it impossible is until to on discriminate fabric of the fact itself weaves history,” on elaborated how “the colors old romance he the further and chronicle and of actual things living as palpable as presence form and assumed Alessandro and when to came Jackson’shistory it and fiction Ramona novel:“Thebetween legend of people’s underlined H. Clough Edwin confusion journalist Place, Ramona’s Marriage 1910 in (qtd. writing terms, DeLyser 890).history” in similar In of for opening the real with confused too, from elsewhere “have of tourists thousands add rightly it, Jackson’s generations “a of novel that Angelenos,” romance became one and could of Ramona on built basis heritage the fantasy peculiar rigorous history need not need apply. history rigorous forCalifornia’speoples andIndigenous respect or justified, were all means their development,andindividuals, etc.)of real-estate places or commodification the of Jackson’s Ramona (qtd. 861). Padget in culpability” thefrom success profiting for those It that seems of amount my the her her and people towards balancing in of my heart kindliness consider the will angel her recording husband’s the grave], shevisiting and Itrust yet aphotograph moment of to make her at this asacrilege [while she is almost seemed words: own “It his In good. greater of asupposedly on basis behavior the unethical condoning his her and husband, mourning she was her while even molesting respect, author the ofJames, 861). (Padget fellow Cahuillas” with relations Moreover, photographer W. George her of value outsiders’ strain helped once, “the her interest commodity in figure For it consequences. only such, brought undesirable that her and was negative of herher ethnicity. The murdered also attention husband’s and she death, received on of and match, her both account name therefore aperfect was Lugo Ramona Ramona, foster brother, for “real” the to For comes her searching rescue. those Felipe, her her until look after that Jacinto San mountains the who live in Indians dependent. It totally agroup and is of Cahuilla her leaves listless of that sort coma a Ramona, in of death” “ritual novel, a the kind murder Alessandro’s triggered In murdered Anglo. been by had an Alessandro, who,of Diego, Juan like aman widow the She was whom named. novel the was after woman the or was Lubo Lugo Ramona called Indian aCahuilla that claimed Many Ramona. to for “real” go the Indeed, California’sIndeed, late 19 the fictional places where Ramona lived into real places, the Mission Indians and Indians Mission the places, into real lived Ramona where places fictional the promoters turned as Ironically, California. southern in attractions tourist early for important one most of the basis it the provided that was to history importance its problem novel. Instead, asocial Sadly, as completely Jackson’s failed book , either through commercial enterprises (railroad companies, companies, (railroad enterprises commercial , either through Through Ramona’s Country Ramona’sCountry Through th -century market economy put the to market was boost -century had done for the African American, it American, done had for African the (1913), due her to with treat failed . As Mike Davis has expressed expressed has Davis Mike . As

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 207 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 208 worse than Californios worse than Native peoples have it where at work infinitely eventually asociety in all are erasure labor, enforced as genocide cultural well and as Anglos, and by white Mexicans and subsequently the Spaniards by first subversive power.potentially takings, Land peoples’ of Indigenous rights. lost for cause irredeemably the missing, goes centerheroine, underscores, of novel, title symbolic the the the as Jackson’s alliance, all-powerful force of under the Indeed, this relations. class and subversive apotentially as of Ramona of Native for erasure peoples, the and onaction behalf of Jackson’s to for cancelling novel acall the blamed be as combined four can All capitalism. and racism, sexism, formed by imperialism, project, i.e., alliance the of oppression, my in view, Jackson’s that, discourses more explain adequately failed never was. that of apast version aromanticized encumbered paradoxically, Native peoples, and, real-life to for made-up stories, entrenched neglect the verisimilitude gave ironically that itburied under tons of photographic buildings compositions rehabilitated and to help little did Jackson’ssimilarly intentiontourism authorial instead, flourish; state’s the industry tourist nascent quo. argued, As for status the respect large, and and,the by andromance),conventionalisms fiction many their of regional case the in acute it profit-oriented under their crashed have often (particularly nature spirit, revolutionary but any aided have notnovel romance the traditionally and the sentimental fiction, some regional responsibility,ascribed seen, because as developers. The beauthor’s also estate for genres her workcan choice literary of real- presence of the aggressive and companies railroad competing of various arrival to the thanks settlement Anglo California’s up for opening with massive out, coincided novel the which which came context in historical the was importance paper, to novel’s anumber Ihave paramount the attributed Of of factors. derailing (135). self-centered ways?” respond narrowly such stories and in this Throughout the toor action mere roused personalize of even indignation, being instead and, novels, great such tend to misread they that it is about humankind it: “What story. success Or, sunny own Monroy expressed more has generally, Douglas as its concocting on while them to capitalize peoples, and its Indigenous victims, Ramona misread to totally century the of turn at the California into in being it coming possible society for new the victims into its own sunny success story. 167) (Stevens success sunny into own its victims of one of its history version of the aromanticized integrate easily so could century the of turn the at intobeing coming society the new that was tragedy The real society. larger to the irrelevant and invisible increasingly problems became their Undeniably, amajor plays role suppressing Ramona in imperialism and of systems acoalition lies there though, factors, these Underneath all wonderOne Errol W. rightly may with made it that was what Stevens mestiza 4. RAMONA, THE SILENCED MESTIZA SILENCED THE 4. RAMONA, with enough power to unsettle, or at least question, race, gender question, or race, at least power enough to unsettle, with , as they are left with no place to escape to. Helen to no escape place Hunt with left are they , as and consequently romanticize the state’s the consequently romanticize and ’s ’s that “[w]e are all alike helpless” are equally proved wrong in the end. Felipe has proved end. Felipe the has in helpless” wrong equally “[w]e are that alike all are south of border. the lands acquire Morenos to the who like means for have the those outlet, though, an remains Mexico no is longerrule. possible for under Anglo them once California led in family the life the that settlers encroached so have been upon by American lands The former,improve to contrary,the their have on chance do lot. a The Moreno justice. never to met with be are them against committed crimes the while buried or and worse, dead away from water sources, mountains, the hidden in remain or descent For of Native latter,of the ancestry. Spanish no is option there but to for no is place either those California that suggests clearly life, abetter lead and marry will where to Mexico, they escape both Felipe and with reunited is Ramona end violent However, the awidowed of in are cruel. them and that all fact the money,after exclusivelyare that notand Anglos theall that are notproof They occasions. on many Alessandro and helping Ramona eventually and Indians towards Ramona (Jackson, people” from Tennessee, humorous prove California affectionate, to “[g]ood-natured, be in arrived Ri, recently that Auntof the of family,Hyerespecially characters The people. of “some” existence “bad” inescapable, its entirety, one in say and not might but system to the simply occasional, to the awhole, it its shortcomings attributes as as imperialism Spanish to criticize fails but only “some” men” where missions were there “bad power. in the novel Thus Mission system, the disqualify wordsNonetheless, Alessandro’s do not radically prove Jackson’s romanticized. that not totally was vision of Mission system the Ramona when power” men bad had (Jackson, things, athe some “My to quick replies, add: of that were them says dreadful father Missions,” happenedthat the at all version:different Señora“The know does not Ramona (Jackson, peaceful” happyso and working all thousands, and thousands them; of one every in Indians of thousands there werethat and palaces, theMissions like were Señora The says Missions. the country.there the Then be would work all, at for all had Father Salvierderra like were olden “it now, the that time her wish [...] declares naively men when the Ramona (Jackson, dead” the of “not full Temecula,” to in Ramona, to graveyard even our right Alessandro says “We displacement. permanent and have no dispossession condemned to constant have absolutely are they so and in, live and no right, they land prove the own they society, none since to this worse even in of haveNative deeds them peoples fare (Jackson, please” they laws what make can country,theand possess They Alessandro. hands, helpless their in alike all are ofof her acres 15), a considerable meant number reduction presence has the in for whom Anglo the rule,” Ramona Señora denounces Moreno under American (Jackson, safe himself “Nobody feel need to Indians. and descent of to Spanish those both California, brought colonization to Anglo that on injustices the not details did Jackson spare In terms of gender, terms In Father Salvierderra’s Alessandro words admonishing to exonerate it part. in managed likewise Jackson imperialism, for Anglo As hacienda . Father Salvierderra also criticizes Anglo despotism: “We despotism: Anglo criticizes also . Father Salvierderra 278), attitudes racist their even, capable, of abandoning 174). Ramona injustices, these all Confronted with Ramona 223). Alessandro, however, 223). offers a Alessandro, 66). But shows that Jackson 223-224). These statements statements 223-224). These

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 209 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 210 Felipe’s numerous descendants, who will thrive in welcoming Mexico: “The story story “The Mexico: welcoming in thrive Felipe’s who will numerous descendants, foregrounding and grave, to the Alessandro order pushing by literally patriarchal white the reinstated has narrative the that favorite remains fact of the her parents, daughter, not Alessandro’s, eldest the Felipe’s, who was that a advances remained Ramona (Jackson, paragraph last the in name his to bear came daughters “Sons and or European-like: and whiterbe more Moreno-like, will her and second husband’s offspring Ramona that the guarantees novelancestry, her off to Castilian Felipe, of By marrying one. unusual an if all, after Indian an of asuperior such to Alessandro, woman match to somehow unsuitable end seems the the of novel, correct the narrative the [...] Ramona of She them” quite is (Jackson, run superior general to the ponders on Ramona’s “I don’tAssesandro, race: she aTemecula is believe Indian. and Ramona married that priest Franciscan the himself, Father Gaspara case. any in Indian, heroine, never fully mixed-race was the dignity. Ramona, and healthcare, a house, living, of them a offermeans child, and wife to protect novel his the failed who Ramona’s throughout mother, husband, replaced Indian but similarly he has victimized mestiza people. but Not “his” white he only the that, and is estate his over responsibility his taken his mother’s fully controldiscarded andhas finally has (Jackson, excellence Ramona (Jackson, “under he was aspell” on pretense that the heof exonerates which himself his mother’s accepting commands, uncritically wrongin was he admitting by first broken. utterly (358), mestiza” arrogant end by the of book, her when, been the spirit fact, in has 1887, in into Spanish he translated novel’s possibly the could “the see as protagonist ardent defender and of revolutionary Jackson’s Cuban the Martí, Ramona point, renders definitely this her onehelpless. At wonders achild” how José “like role; her more passive even reinstate so, her disposition to act decisions further his narrator’sthe to she question “made that reference failed no fact to inquires” and the by silent, emphasized to remain her willingness Besides, evident. are leadership his Ramona (Jackson, hands” into herself his sheUnquestioningly, resigned child, alittle like to “made Felipe’s for as no her inquires part, Ramona, plans. her comfort. any Ramona (Jackson, her and child” herself found people, aprotector such who rejoice having for “her in Cahuilla from the her away takes But finally itwomen’s Felipe is that role caretakers. as traditional with helps her keeping in and her state, recover from her after feverish looks Ri Aunt (Jackson, of gold beads?” a rosary with of one crazed, hands the like meaninglessly, playing hands scarlet, cheeks glittering, eyes disheveled, form; hair prostrate house: “Was Ramona,–that that aCahuilla inside state unrecognizable an only to find her,spent forthe Ramona, months looking novel’sat denouement,in As the white patriarch, indeed, he has not only superseded his domineering domineering not his he only superseded has indeed, white patriarch, the As novel’s the towards denouement, stature in raised Felipe has Ramona, Unlike 339). of Felipe’s Her her acceptance submission and power to of deliverance par par distress in damsel the theof rescuer 262),becoming by finally and : “A power greater than hers was ordering her way; Felipe was its instrument” : “A its instrument” ordering Felipe her was way; hers was power than greater Ramona 339). who of patriarch the Felipe’s that is power, instance, this in must “[u]nquestioningly” and silently surrender. silently and “[u]nquestioningly” must 353; it added). also emphasis though And 339), were of incapable offering they if as patriarch to whom the patriarch ,” foretells narrator the Ramona 250). At , which , which 331). 331). according to her Spanish upbringing” (Venegas 76). (Venegas upbringing” Spanish her to according acts she Alessandro, love, her with Native goes and family Spanish adopted her leaves she Even after painting. and embroidery,weaving, señorita: of arefined characteristic skills the all learned and Angeles Los in school Catholic private attended has she señorita ‘Spanish’ aproper As señorita. Spanish with which they were welcomed” (Jackson, Ramona (Jackson, were welcomed” they which with interest the enhanced greatly rumored, widely being lives, of their of romance the towards Felipe, and, more problematically, his marriage to amestiza to marriage his more problematically, and, Felipe, towards attitude on Mexico’s welcoming predicated is ending happy of Jackson’s whose novel, verisimilitude the compromises further which Mexico, historical in encountered have would Ramona that racism (559). region” the to points borderlands the This throughout strata social certain in ruled supremacy white in “belief as California,” or Baja Sonora nineteenth-century late in elites byurban favorably upon looked been have hardly “would man Indigenous an marry to and Indian an as identify to Mexican maid, Margarita, who is presented as being “immoral and sexually and racially impure” impure” racially and sexually and “immoral being as presented is who Margarita, maid, Mexican saucy of the and novel, the in silenced completely is mother, who Native of Ramona’s characterization first, that of a supposedly white woman of Spanish descent, a “Spanish señorita a “Spanish descent, white of that woman Spanish of a supposedly first, imposed: been identities she various has the as well as her in life, experienced she has (Jackson, 64) despite its efforts to the contrary.the to despite64) its efforts (Venegas ideology” Destiny Manifest charged “aup fostering sexually gendered and is how Jackson’s This of miscegenation. threat Ramona the and races inferior presence of by the unimpeded southwest, the across to advance proceed it can (218-219),Indian” rid of empire them, has Anglo Once the anon-desirable are mix. of blood,” and of kinds “Spanish that namely of certain “the mixings that suggest Felipe’s and would to Mexico Jacobs, Ramona 454). escape to Margaret According (Gonzalez blood” mixed of influence atavistic only,whites insidious from the “free previously, have been conveniently, and Alessandro out). wiped The is US now for Californios of empty symbolically US the leaving thus ahappy life, lead and miscegenate, to marry, allowed are inter-racial Felipe, an couple, and sent they where are off to Ramona Mexico, that given her.her has second husband that family” ‘Spanish’ “high-caste, that among diluted whitewashed, to Felipe are her and offspring Ramona both in traces Indian the much as as in have gone missing, to said be center of novel symbolic the the can white to patriarch, the capitulation 867).Ramona’s (Padget denied” identity Ramona’s is Through that mestiza suggests family[,] ‘Spanish’ ahigh-caste within she insulated is “the which is, way in that to Felipe, marriage her since final only natural, is HerMexico. identity confusion that of amestiza finally, land; abandon their forced to constantly and (Alessandro) Indian to an married woman living on a living In this new Mexican context, Ramona is said to “doubt her said identity” is own Ramona context, Mexican new this In 17 16 15 In terms of the novel’s racial assumptions, it is also of great significance significance of great it also of novel’s is the assumptions, terms In racial

Ramona Robert McKee Irwin has argued that given Ramona’s mestiza Ramona’s given that argued has Irwin McKee Robert Of equal relevance in this racialized construction of a Manifest Destiny ideology is the the is ideology Destiny of aManifest construction racialized this in relevance equal Of “Despite Ramona’s Indian blood, Jackson constructs her culturally as a fully assimilated assimilated afully as culturally her constructs Jackson blood, Indian Ramona’s “Despite Californio 353), so, multiple be given the well uprootings as just may which ranch in Anglo California; second, that of a mixed-race of a mixed-race second, that California; Anglo in ranch married to a white man (Felipe), to awhite man married residents in both like Felipe and crosses like Ramona (Natives like like (Natives Ramona like crosses Felipe and like 17 353). . 15 identity, her decision decision her identity, ends ends ” 16

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 211 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 212 which further justifies Anglo rule in California. in rule Anglo justifies further which Douglas Monroy put it: has Douglas schools, and train stations around the state” (Rawls 352). (Rawls state” the around stations train and schools, building, office hotels, of houses, thousands “copied in were which missions,” of the towers and gables, Californios i.e., victims, dispensable required transactions should emptied. be business These if necessary, if not that, empty, were to was accept ready land they the though that were consequently to and admit reluctant California to buy sunny in apiece of land uprooted mostly who were Midwesterners eager consumers, uncritical and of gullible (hotels, souvenir shops, etc.) businesses tourist owners took ofand various advantage companies, developers, railroad estate real is, that of capitalism, agents California, ‘Spanish’ but in reality they were almost all mestizos, having a mixed cultural and racial heritage” (3). heritage” racial and cultural amixed having mestizos, all almost were they reality but in ‘Spanish’ themselves “considered have may governments,” Mexican and Spanish by the of land grants large given Californios that concurs (75). Castillo Del ethnicities” African and American, Native European, combined who descent–mestizos of mixed byMexicans outnumbered novel that that novel of the readers Anglo to proves and nostalgia” and romance in shrouded text upa“hidden builds of 79).(Venegas representation Moreover, the apprentices with the “consent” of their parents (Dobie 95). (Dobie parents of their “consent” the with apprentices become to or dons, owners, by ranchero forced be could children Indian and person, of a white petition the upon vagrants declared be might Indians court; in testify could no Indian Americans: and continuing through the early 20 early the through continuing and in an attempt to link Southern California to its romanticized Spanish past. Spanish to its romanticized Southern California attempt to link an in techniques building Mediterranean in inspired purportedly was that architecture the even and it verisimilitude, granted paradoxically photographs the that as well form of the Ramona in to this justice, became accessory in imperialist and capitalist ruthless practices. In this way, this In practices. ruthless capitalist and imperialist in accessory became justice, despite Jackson’s arts, the and literature intention her to novel use to promote social Meanwhile, Native California. the in presence erased virtually system capitalist the end a number the of At of in 19 ways. system capitalist combined the to aid Americans, who were more even vulnerable. Americans, 20 19 18 racism, and sexism of imperialism, Supported inter-locking by the discourses (Monroy 137-138) estate. real to sell society Californio recall that architecture Mediterranean faux with names Spanish whimsical use developers day To generate. helped Ramona this that stories place, new of the myths captivating theadopted they as California in rootedness find could Midwest the from people uprooted that was Thus it to newcomers. tickets train plots and house to sell of old California days halcyon the about it contained myths compelling the used and of Ramona story the captured companies railroad and developers estate Real conveniently are Jackson’s seen, racism in and As sexism novel imperialism, Californios

According to Glen Gendzel, among the the among Gendzel, Glen to According American rule in California resulted in three statutes that vitally affected Native Native affected vitally that statutes three in resulted California in rule American The popularity of “Mission Revival architecture” in California, beginning in the in 1880s beginning California, in architecture” Revival of “Mission popularity The , most of whom descent, were of mixed-race “were surely unable to develop the land to its full potential” (Venegas 80), (Venegas potential” full its to land the develop to unable surely “were th , the novel, the myths and stories it gave rise to, as stories to, it and rise gave as novel,, the myths the century, gave rise to the wide-spread use of “the stucco, tiles, tiles, stucco, of “the use wide-spread the to rise gave century, Californios Californios 19 A necessary accomplice was added added was accomplice Anecessary as “idle, illiterate, semi-savage Mexicans” Mexicans” semi-savage illiterate, “idle, as , “fullblooded Spaniards were greatly greatly were Spaniards , “fullblooded , “wealthy families who had been been had who families , “wealthy 18 and, above all, Native above all, and, th -century -century 20 As As US-Mexican border her mestiza and own US-Mexican Heart of the Native Country concludes her writer Cherríe in Moraga 2019 Chicana what be well could memoir from Jackson’s to alesson learn is there If under California’s skies. Ramona sunny Ramona’s and body dead Alessandro’s mestiza abated way as 893), much same in the one voices margins to condemned the Indigenous which Ramona surrendering her mestiza surrendering followed she had Toypurina’s if for women of ancestry of instead mixed example a role surely, as model upgive identities.better on their Ramona, would have fared to non-Western by so resorting did todomination, they by refusing and strategies 1785 the colonial Spanish Mission who Gabriel organized of San revolt against of Toypurina case the (1760–1799), aTongva vicinity from the woman medicine (73),“Native activities” women proved played role apivotal as resistance by in and, state, and of church the tyranny the to when confronting it came Venegas argued, has would Yolanda have been, presumably, as results Indeed, the disappointing. less mestiza the of silencing the to say, needless and to inequalities, racial and entrenchment of economic, sexual or, quo, at all, her if status to contribute worse, the allowed scratch to barely to the the author of permitted oppression.systems These discourses and systems with laden to inevitably be said be hers well may intentions, like others good and her perspective Jackson’s, like vision that, from “the comes center.” political and a social Despite her of limitations the uponNative peoples, it, but one before embarking should realize There is, indeed, much need for reckoning in the history California’sof history the in indeed, There for is, much need reckoning reckoning... (238)for need so is much there but is no There justification, descendants. of “Mexican” its bodies the in still it walks as even California, of Native history entire the whitewashed has that greed last and it first is century, mid-nineteenth the in gringo of the arrival the Since greed. is only There Cahuilla... the Tongva, Chumash, the the against Independence Mexican of the promises of betrayal the for is no There justification greed. is only There followed. that of obscurity Native centuries two for the groundwork the laid and Californians, Native against rape and disease, of slavery, dislocation, practice a genocidal effected which system, mission theSpanish for justification is no religious There was turned into “a boosterist device, rather than a battle cry” (DeLyser cry” abattle than rather into “a device, turned boosterist was spirit to empire romance. and spirit. Jackson’s Had latter, by project the fueled been , a poignant reflection reflection on , apoignant her mother’sthe across life revised paper accepted for publication for accepted paper revised identity: Reviews sent to author to sent Reviews spirit buried were both : 13-3-2020; : 10-7-2020 , it

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 213 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 81; 2020, PP. 193-215 214 Mathes Martí Jackson Jackson Jacobs Arlt Marsden Byers Byers Dobie del Gendzel DeLyser Gonzalez Gillman Havard Jackson Irwin

Castillo The Historical Society of Southern California California Southern of Society Women.” Historical The Literary O. “California’s , Gustave , John R. Jr. “Helen Hunt Jackson (1830-1885).” Jr. Hunt Jackson R. “Helen , John American Literary Realism , John R. Jr. “The Indian Matter of Helen of Jackson’sHunt Helen to ‘Ramona’: Fiction.” Matter From Fact Indian Jr. R. “The , John , Robert McKee. “Ramona and Postnationalist American Studies: On ‘Our America’ and the the and America’ ‘Our On Studies: American Postnationalist and “Ramona McKee. , Robert , J. Frank. “Helen Hunt Jackson and ‘Ramona.’” Southwest Review ‘Ramona.’” and Hunt Jackson “Helen , J. Frank. , José. Introduction to the 1888 Spanish Edition of Helen Hunt Jackson’s of Helen Edition 1888 the to Spanish Introduction , José. , Margaret D. “Mixed-Bloods, Mestizas, and Pintos: Race, Gender, and Claims to Whiteness Whiteness to Claims Gender, and Race, Pintos: and Mestizas, D. “Mixed-Bloods, , Margaret , John C. “Sentimentalism, Interracial Romance, and Helen Hunt Jackson and Clorinda Clorinda and Hunt Jackson Helen and Romance, Interracial “Sentimentalism, C. , John , Helen Hunt. Ramona Hunt. , Helen the of Some with Dealings States’ United the of Sketches Dishonor. of ACentury Hunt. , Helen , Helen Hunt. “Report on the Condition and Needs of the Mission Indians of California, of California, Indians Mission of the Needs and Condition on the “Report Hunt. , Helen , Valerie Sherer. “Helen Hunt Jackson: Official Agent to the California Mission Indians.” Indians.” Mission California the Agent to Official , Valerie Sherer. Hunt Jackson: “Helen , Dydia. “Ramona Memories: Fiction, Tourist Practices, and Placing the Past in Southern Southern in Past the Placing and Tourist Fiction, Practices, Memories: “Ramona , Dydia. , Glen. “Pioneers and Padres: Competing Mythologies in Northern and Southern California, California, Southern and Northern in Mythologies Competing Padres: and “Pioneers , Glen. , Susan. “ , Susan. Library, 2005. 357-359. 2005. Library, Ramona In Allen. byEsther translation English Martí. byJosé published and 109-112. (1979): West 21/2 the and 1890. 458-514. Brothers, Roberts Dishonor. of ACentury Jackson’s Southern CaliforniaSouthern Quarterly Western It?’” AmericanThought Literature Would Have Burton’s de ‘Who Ruiz Amparo María and Hunt Jackson’s Helen ‘Ramona’ in Indian Tribes. Quarterly (1969): 143-148. (1969): 93/4 (2003): 886-908. 93/4 (2003): Geographers American of California.” Association the of Annals American Indian Quarterly History 59/1 (1980): 2-15. History Duke University Press, 1998. 91-111. Press, University Duke Hemispheric Cultural Studies (New Americanists). Western Historical Quarterly 1850-1930.” Matto de Turner’s Attacks on Abuses of Native Americans in Ramona in Americans of Native on Abuses Turner’s de Matto Attacks History ‘Ramona’.” Literary Intertexts Mexican Borderlands.” American Borderlands.” Quarterly Mexican Affairs,” sent from Colorado Springs, Colorado on July on 13 Colorado July Springs, Colorado from sent Affairs,” of Indian Commissioner the to Kinney, Abbot and Jackson Helen Agents bySpecial made , Michael T. “A Dedication to the Memory of Helen Hunt Jackson: 1830-1885.” Hunt Jackson: of Helen T. Memory the to “A, Michael Arizona Dedication , John M. “The Warp of Whiteness: Domesticity and Empire in Helen in Jackson’sHunt Helen Empire and Domesticity Whiteness: of “The M. Warp , John California California Heritage.” the Fantasy and Family del “The Valle Griswold. , Richard 11/2 (2007): 101-121. (2007): 11/2 36/2 (1954): 36/2 99-114. Ramona University of Oklahoma Press, 1995 Press, (1881). of Oklahoma University José Martí’s “Our America”: From National to to National America”: From “Our Martí’s José In America.’ ” ‘Our in . The Modern Library, 2005 2005 (1884).Library, Modern . The 2/4 (1975-1976): 331-346. (1975-1976): 2/4 WORKS CITED WORKS 16/3 437-465. (2004): 63/1 (1981): 63-82. 32/1 (2001): 55-79. (2001): 32/1 36/3 (2011): 212-231. 55/4 (2003): 539-567. Eds. Jeffrey Belnap and Raúl Fernández. Fernández. Raúl and Belnap Jeffrey Eds. th , 1883. Appendix XV in Mrs. Mrs. in XV , 1883. Appendix 44/2 (1959): 93-98. 44/2 Ramona Aves sin nido sin Aves and , 1870-1910 . The Modern Modern . The , translated , translated 2/2 2/2 .” .” Stevens Whitaker Venegas (2015 Savage (1923 Stephen Holme and update). Garnet adaptation) Dirs. Pageant. Ramona The Stowe Smith-Baranzini Rojek Rawls Ramona Ramona Ramona Ramona Ramona Ramona. Ramona Mathes Padget Nevins Moraga Monroy Mathes Mathes Mathes Mathes Mathes , Chris. “Indexing, Dragging and the Social Construction of Tourist Touring In Sights.” Construction Social the and Dragging “Indexing, , Chris. , James J. “The California Mission as Symbol and Myth.” and Myth.” as Symbol Mission California J. “The , James Ed. Elizabeth Ammons. Norton, 1994 Norton, (1852). Ammons. Tom’s Elizabeth Uncle Ed. Beecher. Cabin. , Harriet , Martin. “Travel Writing Sentimental Romance, and Indian Rights Advocacy: The Politics The Politics Advocacy: Rights Indian and Romance, Sentimental “Travel Writing , Martin. 10/3Scholar (1941): American The Realist.” vs. Sentimentalist Hunt Jackson, “Helen , Allan. . Screen Guild Theater. 1945. Radio broadcast. https://free-classic-radio-shows.com/Drama/ Theater. broadcast. 1945. Guild Radio . Screen . Dir. Víctor Urruchúa. 1946. Promex. Mexico. Film. Mexico. 1946. Promex. . Dir. Víctor Urruchúa. Film. USA. Fox. 1936. Twentieth Century King. . Dir. Henry Film. USA. Pictures. 1928. Inspiration Carewe. . Dir. Edwin Film. 1916. Company. USA. Crisp. Producing . Dir. Donald Film Clune Telenovela. Mexico. Televisa. 2000. Calderón. Cortés . Dir. Alberto California California Indians.” Mission California’s Southern and , Valerie Sherer. Hunt “Helen Jackson , Errol Wayne. Hunt Jackson’s “Helen , Errol Ramona 94/1-2 (2013): (2013): 94/1-2 York History New Reform.” York, Valerie Sherer. “New Women Indian and The WomenIndian Women’s Reform: and National Century , Valerie Sherer. “Nineteenth Magazine The Ponca Controversy.” the Montana: and , Valerie Sherer. Hunt Jackson “Helen , Valerie Sherer. of Helen of 1891:Commission Legacy The Indian Mission California , Valerie Sherer. “The Dir. D. W.Film. Griffith. Company.USA. 1910. Biograph Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2019. Giroux, and Straus Farrar, AMemoir. Heart. the of Country Native , Cherríe. 81/2 (2002): 134-155. You.” ILove History 81/2 (2002): California “Ramona, , Douglas. , Yolanda. “The Erotics of Racialization: Gender and Sexuality in the Making of California.” California.” of Making the in Sexuality and Gender Racialization: of Erotics “The , Yolanda. 77/3 (1998): 156-157. (1998): Author.” its Historyand 77/3 California 25/3 63-89. (2004): Studies Women of A Journal play. Outdoor California. Hemet, (1998): 158-167. History 77/3 California 1997. 52-74. Cultures: Transformation of Travel and Theory. 342-361. 18.7.2019. Screen-Guild-Theater/1945-1946/1945-04-30-ep243-Ramona/index.php Hunt Jackson’sof Helen Ramona. 269-285. 84-110. History Association.” American Indian Quarterly 39/1 (1989): 42-53. History Western of Press, 1997. History California Hunt Jackson.” , Rosemary. “Helen Hunt Jackson (1830-1885).” Hunt Jackson “Helen , Rosemary. Legacy 78/4 (1999-2000): 262-273. (1999-2000): 78/4 , Marlene. “Helen Maria (Née Fiske) Hunt Jackson: An Introduction to ‘Ramona’ ‘Ramona’ to Introduction An Fiske) Hunt Jackson: (Née Maria “Helen , Marlene. University of Oklahoma of Oklahoma University Legacy. Reform Indian Her and Jackson Hunt Helen 72/4 (1993-1994): 338-359. 4/4 (2000): 833-876. ” Journal of (2000): the Southwest 4/4 14/1 (1990): 1-18. Eds. Chris Rojek and John Urry. Routledge, Urry. John Routledge, and Rojek Chris Eds. : Social problem Novel as Tourist Guide.” as Novel problem : Social 3/1 (1986): 56-62. California History California 71/3 (1992): 71/3 . Accessed

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