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History of the World Civilization. Book 2, Part 2. Middle Ages. to the Memory of Ja.N.Ljubarskij (1937-2003)

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History of the World Civilization. Book 2, Part 2. Middle Ages. to the Memory of Ja.N.Ljubarskij (1937-2003) History of the world civilization. Book 2, part 2. Middle Ages. To the memory of Ja.N.Ljubarskij (1937-2003). Introduction: The idea of “Middle Ages” was introduced by the Humanists of 15th century, who called so the period from the end of the Western Roman Empire (476) to the epoch of Renaissance, when they lived. Middle Ages were understood by them as a period of decay. The Humanistic point of view was accepted in the Western historiography, albeit already from the beginning of 19th century one began to find something positive in it, for example, the outstanding part, played by the church (Catholic in the West and Orthodox in the East) and knighthood, the appearance of the cities, universities, secular culture etc. The chronographic frames of the Middle Ages were defined in different ways. His beginning was thought to be not only the date, proposed by Humanists, but also more earlier dates (taking over of Rome in 455 by Vandals or by Goths 410, partition of the Roman Empire into the Western and the Eastern 395 or even the moving of capital to Constantinople 330). The opinions about the date of ending of medieval time differed too (the fall of Constantinople 1453, discovering of America by Columbus 1492 or the beginning of Reformation 1517). By these datings the history of the countries of Asia and Africa was not taken into account at all, albeit they reached exactly in this time the high level of development, which could be compared with the European and oft was ahead of it, but the important events of European history only were taken as the base of periodisation. The traditional Marxist historiography has seen the Middle Ages as the time of domination of the feudal system, which was propagated in the all countries of the world (albeit the other opinions existed too, Marx himself thought that the special Asiatic form of production existed on the East, this theory, condemned in the time of Stalin, was newly revived by Semenov). In such a way, as the base of the periodisation of Middle Ages was taken the criterion of appearing, development and decay of the feudal system, to which the periods accordingly of 5th-10th, 11th- 15th and 16th-17th centuries corresponded. As the end of the medieval era the English bourgeois revolution was taken, the beginning as earlier was put in 476 (for the East earlier, in 3rd-4 th centuries). Both Western and traditional Marxist understandings of Middle Age are not fully convincing. In the fact the medieval time is very different already in the territory of Europe, much more for Asia and Africa (in America in this time the early class civilizations existed, which were discussed already in the first volume, in Australia the primitive system was dominating). The early Middle Ages with their “military democracy”, which grew into the barbaric kingdom or even Empires (like Empire of Karl the Great or Kiev Rus), were replaced by the epoch of feudal disintegration, then by the “developed Middle Ages” with the developed cities, universities, secular culture and at the end by the “late medieval times” – epoch of Renaissance, Reformation and geographical discoveries, in the politics of the layers-representative, and then the absolutist state. The cultural differences influence the differences of the systems of “feudal” states from Britain to Japan. But how big they are? Already for the antiquity we defined five main civilizations (Greek, Jewish, Persian, Indian and Chinese), their continuators are the civilizations of the medieval time, which can be defined already by the principle of religion. The “descendant” of the Greek civilization is a Christian, which is divided into the Western (Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox-Monophysitic), the Jewish civilization continues to exist, despite the absence of the own state (non-attention to this fact makes the most of the medieval histories incomplete), some time the Middle Persian Zoroastrian civilization still exists, later on it is replaced by the Islamic civilization, which propagates on the vast territory from Spain to India, conquered from other civilizations. Indian and Chinese civilizations continue to exist, in their sphere of influence more and more countries are involved, therefore now one must speak about Hindu-Hinayanic (India, Shri Lanka, Indochina etc.) et Confucian-Mahayanic (China, Korea, Japan etc.) civilizations. Therefore in the Middle Age one can define six main types of civilizations, which have been preserved till now. Continuing our previous periodisation, one can distinguish five conventional periods, from 14th till 18th (200-1450 CE), which are corresponding typologically to the 2nd part of the 1st cycle (2050-800 BCE). These common features were found already long ago, some historians of the beginning of 20th century (Meyer etc.) even declared the societies of that epoch (Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, Greece and Crete of the Bronze time) to be feudal, but in the fact the spiral, not the circle development takes place here. The early class system can be called “proto- feudalism”, which was thoroughly discussed in the first volume. If we add to it the 6th (19th) conventional period, which can be seen too as the first period of modern time (1450-1700) and corresponds to the first period of antiquity (800-550 BCE), we can get the proportional periodisation of the Middle Ages, which looks very close to the traditional Marxist, but goes from the cultural and civilizational prerequisites. Early Middle Ages (200-700) 14 period - 200-450. 15 period - 450-700. Developed Middle Ages (700-1200) 16 period - 700-950. 17 period -950-1200. Late Middle Ages (1200-1700) 18 period - 1200-1450. 19 period - 1450-1700 (the 1 period of the 3 cycle - modern history). As it was said already in the first part of the second volume, we take the first quarter of the 3rd century as the beginning of Middle Ages, the time of fall or decay of four world Empires (Roman, Parthian, Kushana, Later Han), that were replaced by the splitting and formation of the new states. The developed Middle Ages are distinguished by the strengthening of the feudal states, that change into the prospering Empires of new type, founded by new ideology (Karolings Empire, then German Empire, Kiev Rus, Middle Byzantine state, Arabic caliphat, Empires Tan and Sung in China, Tibetan state, Japanese state of Nara epoch). In the late Middle Ages these states are decayed, instead of them new national states (in Europe) or new Empires (Moscow Rus, Great Moguls, Yuan and Ming in China, Japan of Tokugava shogunat) are forming, that present the last stAge of feudal state. Exactly in the late period the cities, trade, universities are developing, early capitalist fabrics appear, which brings the decay, and then fall of feudalism as result of the revolutions, that began in the West (Netherlands, Britain) and with the time proceeded further to the East. In the epoch of Middle Ages (200-1700) much more people were involved in the orbit of civilization, then in the epochs of the most ancient and ancient history – the most people of the Old World, and in the end of epoch – the people of the New World. The feudal system is dominating, following the Marxist historiography, we see its main features in the non-economic compelling and the exploitation of the dependent serfs by the landowners-feudals, the feudal splitting and feoff system being the additional features. The main classes are feudals and serfs, the slaves are preserved (like in Arabic caliphat or in Kiev Rus), but their part is not important. At the end of epoch the considerable layer of city dwellers appears, among them “intelligentsia”, tradesmen and craftsmen, from whom later the classes of bourgeoisie and hired workers were developed. In the spiritual plane this epoch can be called the epoch of „lower mental“, i.e. of logical thinking, but on the base of the ancient holy writs, around which the logical commentaries are growing. The typical phenomenon of the medieval thinking is the European scholastics, but also in the Muslim world, in India and China the medieval philosophers and scholars do not invent something principally new, restricting themselves with the commentaries and deepening of understanding of the ancient heritage. Middle Ages (450-1450) is an epoch “of the 1000 year kingdom of God on the land” (Revelation of John, 20), when in difference to the antiquity, religious differences began to play the first part. The world is divided into the groups of common believes, the state becomes totalitarian again, the dissidents of other believe are prosecuted, the independent philosophy almost disappears. The time of triumph of three world religions – Christianity, Islam and Buddhism, but among the common people the pagan ideas are preserved, that bring so called “double belief”. The dominating political system is monarchy. In the places with early developed pre-capitalist relations (Italia, Northern Russia) republics are appearing anew, that express the interests of the merchant layers. In the culture it is the time of applying of the dominating religious values, the time of symbolic art and painting. The ancient heritage is denied or understood in the new way: “Philosophy is a maid-servant of theology” (Tertullian). In the end of epoch in Europe the interest to antiquity appears again (so called Renaissance) and the religious fight of Reformation takes place, which shows the dissatisfaction with the medieval institutions and the search of new ideology. Middle Ages repeats on the new level the second part of the most ancient history, the totalitarian spirit and half-natural economics are alike (in difference to the antiquity). In the sphere of culture oft the decay can be seen, but the Middle Ages in the whole is a progress, the thinking of men enters the higher level, the means of production are becoming better, the world religions, preaching the high moral values, change the interior character of the men.
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