1. An Unid entified Sp ecies: Horror, The Body and Early Television Drama Mark Ja ncovich

(1) As w e saw in the introd uction, horror and television a re often seen as virtually incompatib le with one a nother, a nd it ha s b een cla imed tha t ‘there a re few, if a ny, una cknow led ged ma sterworks or cultural milestones to b e found in the sp raw ling and often monotonous land scap e of mad e for television horror’ (Waller 1987: 147). How ever, Nig el Knea le’s The Quaterma ss Exp eriment is not only a n acknow ledg ed cla ssic of horror television but is often cited a s one of the d efining moments in the history of British television, a moment that is second only in importance to the televised C oronation of Queen Eliz ab eth II. Ind eed , the seria l wa s the British Broa d ca sting Corp ora tion’s response to its critics, a nd pa rticula rly those w ho had b een ca mpa igning for the establishment of a commercia l comp etitor to the BBC, a ca mpaign tha t in 1954 resulted in the pa ssing of the Television Act tha t w ould lea d to the introd uction of a second channel in 1955. Fa ced w ith the threat of comp etition, it is often claimed tha t the BBC wa s sha ken out of its comp la cency a nd, for the first time, established a Scrip t Unit to produce orig ina l p rojects. As a result, Lez C ooke a rgues tha t the Quaterma ss seria l ‘ma y b e seen to ma rk the moment at w hich television d ra ma in Britain finally b roke free from the shadows of cinema, rad io a nd thea tre to offer its first truly origina l prod uction.’ (Cooke 2003: 20) (2) Institutiona lly, then, The Qua termass Exp eriment wa s pivota l in the attemp t to develop works original to television, a nd it is hig hly significa nt tha t the first fruit of this new initiative wa s a science- fiction-horror story ab out an a lien inva sion, in w hich an a stronaut muta tes into a monstrous human- veg eta ble hyb rid after his return from outer spa ce. F urthermore, if the series w a s a milestone for the ind ustry, it w as a lso, a s Cha rles Ba rr ha s a rgued, ‘a land ma rk … in intensity of a udience response’ (Barr( a) 1896: 215), a ccounts of which ha ve b ecome leg enda ry, and p robab ly exagg era ted, w ith stories of pub s and streets streets b eing d eserted as a udiences sta yed home to ca tch the next insta lment. If exagg era ted, the impa ct of the series w as none the less excep tiona l a nd, a s Ca therine Johnson ha s shown, b y the time of Qua terma ss and the Pit in 1958, ‘the Quaterma ss p rog ra mmes had b ecome a cultural event w ith Va riety reporting ‘a motion a t one loca l council tha t business shouldn’t sta rt until a fter the Quaterma ss transmission had end ed’, adding tha t ‘cinema exhib s testify to the pull of the p rog ram b y sa ying tha t they had one of the worst evening ’s b iz in a long, long time’ (J ohnson 2005: 20) . (3) The follow ing a rticle will therefore look a t The Qua terma ss Exp eriment a s an exa mple of television horror a nd, in the p rocess, it will d emonstra te that, fa r from b eing ma rg ina l to television history, horror w as a ctually crucia l to the d evelopment of British television dra ma, a nd pa rticularly the seria l forma t. As a result, the first section focuses on the wa ys in w hich horror and television w ere not seen a s funda menta lly opposed to one another b y the BBC b ut, on the contra ry, a s w ell suited to one another; and the wa ys in which horror’s associa tion w ith susp ense wa s pa rticula rly useful to the d evelop ment of the serial forma t through w hich the BBC sought to estab lish ha bits of a ud ience view ing. The second section then moves on to exa mine The Quaterma ss Exp eriment itself and its sp ecific na rra tive focus on a process of b odily tra nsformation. In the process, it w ill b e a rg ued tha t, ra ther tha n shying aw ay from g rap hic d epictions of the bod y, ea rly British horror television ma d e the b od y centra l, a techniq ue that d id not cha lleng e the a esthetics of the ‘intimate d rama ’ but both intensified a nd expand ed this a esthetic. Fina lly, the a rticle w ill turn to the later Quaterma ss seria ls of the 1950s to examine how the focus on the body d evelop ed in these later serials.

Horror, Suspense and the BBC (4) Ra ther tha n b eing seen a s inapp rop riate to television, the BBC clea rly saw horror a s a key ma teria l d uring the early yea rs of British television p rog ramming . As Johnson p oints out, The Qua terma ss Exp eriment wa s used b y Controller of Prog rammes, C ecil M cGiven, ‘a s an illustra tion of the kind s of television dra ma tha t the BBC should b e producing w ith the a rriva l of comp etition.’ (J ohnson 2005: 20) In other word s, horror wa s seen a s a form of pop ula r story telling that could attra ct audiences a t a time when the BBC knew it could no long er simp ly a ssume an a udience. Soon to loose its monopoly a s the sole provid er of p rogramming , the BBC rea lised tha t it would ha ve to sta rt build ing a udience loyalty in p repa ra tion for the introd uction of ITV, and then fight to keep tha t a udience therea fter. (5) How ever, horror a lso ha d a more sp ecific app ea l over other typ es of p opula r story telling . The Qua terma ss Exp eriment wa s not just a n exercise in popula r storytelling , but crucially used a serial forma t, a form tha t wa s central to ind ustrial strateg ies to standa rdise viewing patterns. W hile one-off events such a s the Corona tion could d eliver astonishing numb ers of view ers, the serial format w as used to ritua lise viewing: it wa s used to encourag e hab its and loya lty in view ers ( Ja cob s 2003: 71). How ever, this sta nda rd isation of view ing w as d ep end ent on the ab ility of the serial to g enuinely convince aud iences to follow the na rrative a cross a series of episod es and this d ep end ed , at lea st until the habits of television view ing had b een estab lished, on the ab ility of the series to g enerate na rrative susp ense b etw een ep isod es. Horror was therefore pa rticula rly significa nt g iven the importance of susp ense within the g enre, an imp ortance tha t ha s mad e it central to the emerg ence of a numb er of seria l forms. For exa mp le, the Gothic novel was orig inally a seria l form, to the extent tha t it wa s larg ely consumed throug h tra velling lib ra ries a nd wa s a va ilab le to read ers throug h a series of volumes ra ther tha n a s one complete and bound ed na rrative. Furthermore, a s Da vid Punter ha s pointed out, it ha s b een a rgued tha t ‘w e ow e the entire a ppa ra tus of novelistic susp ense’ to the Gothic novel, p rior to w hich fiction ‘wa s sub sta ntially w ithout p lot’ (Punter 1980: 16). (6) If the p re-Gothic novel wa s ‘a series of loosely linked ep isod es and events, connected only b y their common b ea ring on a centra l moral arg ument’, it wa s the Gothic novel that established ‘complexity of plotting’ (Punter 1980: 16) . If na rrative susp ense tied events tog ether, it a lso enabled one of the key d evices of the seria l format, the cliff- hang er, through w hich b rea ks in the na rra tive b etw een volumes w ere turned from p roblems, w hich threa tened to lose aud iences, into virtues, which crea ted anticipa tion for the next instalment. Horror wa s also centra l to the la te 19 t h century pop ula r magaz ines w hich seria lised stories such a s The W oman in W hite (C ollins 1860), a seria l w hich crea ted a sensa tion simila r to tha t of the Qua terma ss stories with read ers queuing up to buy the la test ep isod es a nd Glad stone ca ncelling public enga g ements so tha t he could finish read ing them ( Symons 1974). (7) If horror’s a ssocia tion with na rrative susp ense wa s crucial to the BBC’s a ttempts to organise an a udience of reg ula r, hab itua l view ers, and to crea te strong id entifica tions w ith the cha nnel, many forms of horror television mad e this sense of control overt. Many a udiences for horror a ctua lly d iscuss their investment in the g enre p recisely in terms of a loss of control, a s a n a ct of w ilful surrend er. F or exa mp le, it is this sense that is conveyed b y the freq uent references to horror a s similar to a fa irg round or rollercoa ster ride. Similarly, w hile there a re those w ho cla im to like wa tching horror on vid eo, b eca use they ca n control their view ing by pa using the a ction w hen thing s g et too much, many exp licitly sta te a p reference for the cinema, w here there is both a sense of immersion within the exp erience a nd one is forced to surrend er to the pa ce of the film (Ja ncovich and F aire w ith Stubbing s 2003). As a result, even w ithin the anthology forma t, the introd uctions to Alfred Hitchcock Presents ( 1955- 62) overtly p resented its host a s a malicious p ra ctical joker, w ho d elig hted in unsettling his aud ience throug h the stories p resented, w hile Rod Serling ’s introd uction to many The Tw ilight Zone (1959- 64) episod es a lso sugg ested the show w ould exercise control over you. How ever, now here wa s this more emp ha tic tha n in the introduction to The Outer Limits (1963- 65), the creation of the scrip tw riter of Psycho (1960) , Josep h Stefano: There is nothing w rong with your television set. D o not a ttemp t to ad just the p icture. W e a re controlling transmission. If w e w ish to ma ke it loud er, w e w ill b ring up the volume. If w e w ish to ma ke it softer, w e will tune it to a whisp er. W e ca n reduce the focus to a soft blur, or sha rp en it to crystal cla rity. W e w ill control the horizonta l. W e will control the vertical. For the next hour, sit quietly and w e w ill control a ll that you see and hea r. You a re about to exp erience the aw e a nd mystery that rea ches from the inner mind to … the Outer Limits. In this wa ys, these shows celeb ra te the plea sures of surrend er to television horror. (8) Nor w as The Qua termass Exp eriment the first time tha t the BBC had turned to horror ma teria ls. The serial format w ould later b e attacked p recisely b ecause its standa rdisa tion of sched ules a nd viewing wa s seen a s ‘more p red ictable a nd formulaic’ (J a cob s 2003: 75) tha n the sta nd-a lone single p la y (or even to the comp romise betw een the sing le play a nd the seria l, the antholog y series). It is therefore significa nt tha t horror wa s not simp ly limited to the more disreputab le form of the serial a nd tha t, w ith the resumption of television b road ca sting in the late 1940s, the BBC quickly turned to horror a s the ba sis for ma ny of its sing le p la ys. One of the exp lana tions for this is tha t it ‘echoed a simila r trend in the cinema with the relea se of films like Dead of Night ( 1945), Brighton R ock (1947) and Hitchcock’s America n p rod uction of R op e (1948) ’ (Cooke 2003: 14), a trend tha t is itself exp la ined b y the end of the wa r w hich supposed ly led to a ‘sp ecta cula r shift from the pub lic sp here to the private sp here, with a stress on vision a nd fa nta sy.’ ( Ba rr(b) 1986: 16- 8) How ever, the trend wa s not simply a post wa r phenomenon b ut dated ba ck to the early 1940s ( see N ote 1). The two p la ys that a re often cited a s key exa mp les of what the BBC referred to a s ‘horror pla ys’ w ere Rop e (J anua ry 1947) a nd The Two M rs C arrolls (F eb rua ry 1947), the second of which wa s relea sed a s a film sta rring Humphrey Boga rt a nd Ba rb a ra Sta nw yck in 1947 (a lthough it had a ctua lly b een filmed tw o yea rs earlier in 1945), a film w hich wa s itself pa rt of a cycle of Gothic horror films tha t wa s initiated b y the success of Reb ecca ( 1940) and includ ed exa mp les such a s Suspicion (1941) , Jane Eyre ( 1944) and Ga slight ( 1944). F urthermore, R eb ecca a nd Susp icion were b oth directed by Hitchcock, for whom Selz nick had also d eveloped Jane Eyre, a nd Hitchcock wa s also to direct a film version of Rop e in 1948. Ind eed, R op e had originally b een written for the stag e b y Pa trick Hamilton, w ho had a lso w ritten the thea trica l hit, Angel Street, on which Ga slight had b een ba sed. (9) How ever, if these horror plays w ere develop ed in response to a trend tha t w ent ba ck at lea st a s fa r a s the ea rly 1940s, the BBC did not simply d evelop them in a n a ttemp t to cop y cinema or rad io. On the contra ry, it wa s hop ed that horror ma terials w ould esta blish a ‘new aesthetic’ for television d ra ma tha t w ould b oth crea te a d istinctive feel and exploit features seen a s sp ecific to the med ium of television (Cooke 2003: 16). For exa mp le, Ja cob s quotes a memo from Rob ert MacD ermot, Head of BBC Television D ra ma, to C ecil M cGiven, Head of Television, in which he sugg ests tha t ghost stories mig ht b e w ell suited to television, a nd could b e used to ‘crea te a very effective eerie atmosphere’ ( Quoted in Ja cob s 2000: 97). R ather than a situation in which ‘mad e- for- television horror w ould seem to b e b y d efinition imp ossib le’ ( Waller 1987: 159), the BBC seemed to b oth hop e and fea r tha t the ‘intima te’ q uality of television would make it p a rticula rly effective a s a horror med ium. (10) As a result, while Ma cD ermot fa voured the horrific ma teria ls, Norman C ollins, C ontroller of the Television Service, found horrific projects w orrying: It w ould b e footling to say that w e should never d o any horror pla ys in television, but I think tha t, on the other ha nd, w e ha ve got to b e ca reful not to overdo the terror and to recognise that wha t is seen on the screen in a p erson’s home ma kes a very different impa ct from the impa ct ma de in the cinema w hen a strid ently ad vertised horror film is b eing shown. Not only ha ve we the initia l resp onsib ility tha t comes from know ing tha t our productions ma y be seen by child ren … but w e must rememb er tha t there will also b e la rg e numb ers of unsusp ecting p ersons who, as in Sound ra dio, simp ly turn to their set d uring transmission to see w ha t is on. ( Quoted in Ja cob s 2000: 98) Whether or not the reference to ‘Sound rad io’ is an a llusion to the panic initia ted b y Orson W elles’ notorious b roa dcast of W ar of the Worlds, there wa s a very rea l sense that it wa s p recisely television’s intima cy – its capa city to b ring materia ls close to the a udience and vice versa – tha t mad e many in the BBC b elieve tha t television w a s a particula rly effective medium for horror: tha t such ma teria ls w ere useful to d emonstra ting the pow ers of the med ium but consequently need ed to be ha ndled w ith g rea t ca re. (11) This mixture of enthusia sm for, and concern w ith, horror eventually led to a situation in which ‘output b y 1948 wa s such that one view er felt comp elled to w rite [a ] protest a t television’s ‘lurid’ output’ (Ja cob s 2000: 99) , and C ollins w as forced to call for d ra ma to avoid materia ls that might result in the censorship of television d rama. How ever, d esp ite his concern, C ollins d id not cond emn horror outright but simp ly called for restra int in the visual d ep iction of p hysical violence (Ja cob s 2000: 100). If visua lised violence wa s a p rob lem for the BBC, Ja cob s claims tha t the importa nce of the horror p la ys wa s tha t they help ed ea rly p rogramme ma kers to d evelop the visua l style of television. F or examp le, p la ys such a s Rop e exp loited new ly develop ed techniq ues for cutting d irectly from one ca mera to another, without ha ving to fad e b etw een the two, w hich crea ted a g rea ter sense of pa ce a nd energ y. M ore sig nificantly, J acob s also a rg ues tha t a detailed a nalysis of Rop e’s p rog ra mme file sugg ests tha t the play wa s rep resenta tive of a significa nt chang e in the camera’s rela tionship to the a ction. Wherea s ea rly television d ra ma ha d adop ted a more ‘theatrical’ rela tionship to the p erforma nce in w hich the camera tend ed to remain outsid e the action, a nd the d rama wa s stag ed a s though the ca mera wa s in the position of an a ud ience, the staging of Rop e seems to have ‘favoured freq uent camera movement and refra ming to follow actors and emp ha siz e d ia log ue and rea ction.’ (Ja cob s, 2000: 107) It was therefore more involved w ithin the action a nd, w hile the a verag e leng th of ea ch shot wa s still q uite long , the shots themselves w ere fa r more a ctive in picking out, a nd emp ha sizing , d eta ils w ithin the a ction. He even d emonstrates tha t this fea ture was used to p romote the p la y and he q uotes the R adio Times: There is an exciting reviva l in the prog rammes this w eek – Step hen Ha rrison’s p roduction of Patrick Ha milton’s thriller Rop e. Ha rrison p rod uced the play three yea rs ago and show ed how effectively the close- up techniq ue of television could b e app lied to a p resenta tion of this kind in which the rea ction of the cha ra cters is a s imp ortant as their a ction and sp eech. His techniq ue will b e simila r this time, a nd we should notice some subtle camera w ork. (Rad io Times, 8 Ja nua ry 1950, q uoted in Jacob s 2000: 104) Rather tha n b eing effa ced, the visual style w a s actively p romoted a s one of the key a pp eals of this d rama.

Internal Inv estig ations: Intimate Drama, Exp ansiv e Storytelling and Body-Horror in The Quatermass Exp eriment (12) If critics ha ve often a ccused television of b eing frig htened to shock its a ud ience a nd for its d ep end ence on the ord ina ry, unobtrusive and everyd ay, these a ccusations w ere only pa rtia lly true of ea rly television d ra ma, a nd it wa s the scop e for exp erimentation that seems to have d ra wn N ig el Knea le to continue the tradition of the ‘horror pla y’ in his scrip ts for The Qua termass Exp eriment. The seria l even op ens w ith a sta tement that is clea rly mea nt to comment on b oth the scientific exp eriment tha t concerns the na rrative of the seria l, a nd Kneale’s ow n efforts in w riting the scrip t: ‘a n exp eriment … is a n op eration d esig ned to discover some unknow n truth. It is a lso a risk’ (Kneale( a) 1953) . Ind eed, critics often claim tha t Knea le and R ud olp h Cartier, the p rod ucer of the series, found this sense of television a s a ‘‘‘cosy’ med ium’ to b e an ‘anathema’ to them (Ja cob s 2000: 133), and Kneale in pa rticula r is often claimed to ha ve seen the seria l as a n attemp t to break from established p ra ctice: I d esp erately wanted to do something different, something fa st moving a nd ad venturous. W e wanted to get rig ht a wa y from the usua lly talky piece set in a coup le of rooms in which p eople sa id thing s like ‘p ut d ow n that g un, it might be load ed ’ or ‘let’s not go to the p olice’, a nd so on. ( Quoted in Petley 1989: 91) How ever, Kneale’s dramas often overtly concerned the d isrup tion of the everyda y, rather tha n simply rejecting it. W hile he turned to horror and science fiction, he firmly loca ted it within the contempora ry Brita in of his time, a nd firmly located the a ction within a recognisab le everyda y. In the op ening ep isod e of the serial, Qua terma ss’s exp erimenta l rocket cra shes into suburb an London, a nd b efore authorities a rrive on the scene, w e a re introduced to a series of loca l resid ents a s they try to ma ke sense of, and cop e w ith, the phenomenon that ha s invad ed their everyda y existence, much a s the story invad ed the living rooms of its viewers. (13) As a result, while many claim tha t The Quaterma ss Exp eriment ‘cha lleng ed the intimate d ra ma d irectly’ (Jacob s 2000: 130), its relationship to the ‘intima te’ wa s a ctua lly more complex. F or Ja cob s, Cartier in p articula r wa s working to crea te an ‘expa nsive’ television style tha t ‘attempted to expa nd spa ce, using long shots, la rg e sets and close up s’ (J a cob s 2000: 135) , In this a ttemp t to create a ‘wid er ca nvas’, he used filmed inserts to ‘increase mob ility a nd overcome spa tial limita tions’, and in so doing w orked ‘to p ush the ‘limits of the medium’ outwa rd s rather than tow a rd s the intimate d ra ma’ (J acob s 2000: 131). (14) C erta inly, this expa nsive vision is one aspect of Ca rtier’s contrib ution to television a nd one nota ble a sp ect of a esthetic style in The Quaterma ss Exp eriment. The fina l confronta tion b etw een Quaterma ss and the monster in W estminster Abb ey clea rly works in this wa y. The setting crea tes a sense of sca le, a s does the d escrip tion of the encounter w hich sugg ests that b oth Quaterma ss and Westminster Abb ey a re d wa rfed by the a lien threat: QUATERM ASS ha s moved further in. M emorial tab lets to poets, on the wa ll b ehind, a re pa rtly ob scured by sections of the Thing. Little tend rils lick a round the pier a djoining . QUATERM ASS’s fa ce glistens w ith sw ea t. His eyes g o q uickly, fea rfully, from p oint to point, as if exp ecting a n atta ck at a ny moment. ( Knea le( f) 1953: 33) It is not simp ly that the a ction takes p la ce on a la rg e sca le here, b ut tha t the very choice of W estminster Abb ey a s a location moves the story from one of intima te p ersonal d ra ma and associa tes it with the interna tional event of the C oronation, w hich had not only ta ken pla ce there the same yea r b ut had b een a ma jor television event. (15) How ever, if the location p rovid es the sense of sca le tha t is associa ted with Ca rtier’s expand ed style, the reference to Quaterma ss’s moving eyes also sugg ests a n intimate element to the dra ma. Although it seems from the ca mera scrip t tha t this encounter was told in one shot, the very d rama of this encounter is d ep end ent on the contra st b etw een the enormity of the a lien mena ce and the intima te d rama of Qua termass’s reactions, w hich a re themselves signa lled though tiny d eta ils, such a s the wa ys in which his ‘fa ce glistens w ith sw ea t’ a nd ‘his eyes g o quickly, fea rfully, from p oint to point’. N or is Qua terma ss’s resolution of the threa t achieved throug h physica l action. On the contrary, Qua terma ss eventua lly sa ves the d ay by add ressing the intima te feeling s of huma ns that ha ve b een assimilated b y the a lien b eing: ‘I am not to b e killed … tha t must not be done. C ha rles Greene … Ludw ig R eichenheim … Victor C arroon … I am sp ea king to you now . There is … something else here … but I a m appealing to you. I wa nt you to rememb er.’ ( Knea le( f) 1953: 36) In asking them to rememb er their p rior existence, Quaterma ss also a sks them to resist the Thing that ha s a ssimilated them a nd to exp erience the feelings of empa thy a nd altruism necessa ry to ma ke the ultimate sa crifice: You will overcome this evil. W ithout you it cannot exist up on the Ea rth … it can only know b y means of your know ledg e … und erstand s throug h your und erstanding . It ca n only exist throug h your submission. Victor C a rroon .… Ludw ig R eichma n …. Cha rles Greene .… you a re resisting this thing. Now g o further … go further! … With a ll your pow er … and mine joined to yours … you must d issever from it, send it out of ea rthly existence … To sa ve our world I ca ll on you’re my friend s to go from it! Now . (Kneale( f) 1953: 41- 2) Ind eed , the intimate nature of the d ra ma is g round ed in its na rra tive structure, w hich not only follow s Quaterma ss on his investiga tion of the a lien threat b ut a lso fea tures a ‘b od y-horror’ storyline in which, much like Seth Brund el in Da vid C ronenberg ’s 1985 rema ke of The F ly, the one surviving astrona ut, Victor C a rroon, is forced to w itness his own transforma tion into a monster. (16) This second storyline is a ll the more rema rkable g iven the p eriod in w hich the film wa s mad e. Bod y- horror is la rg ely a ssocia ted w ith the late 1970s and ea rly 1980s, d uring which, it is claimed, there wa s b oth a p ostmod ern crisis in the d istinction b etw een self a nd other a nd the develop ment of new sp ecia l effects techniq ues and chang ing censorship pra ctices, the comb ination of which ena bled g rap hic rep resenta tions of the bodily tra nsformation and trauma w hich Waller sees as crucia lly absent in television horror ( see for exa mple, Wa ller 1987). Ind eed , only tw o yea rs b efore The Quaterma ss Exp eriment, Howa rd Ha wks’ Winchester Pictures had b een forced to aband on the body- horror asp ects of J ohn W. Campb ell Jnr.’s ‘W ho Goes There?’, w hen it d ecid ed to adap t the story into The Thing from Another W orld , a film w hich would b e rema d e in 1982 a s one of the cla ssics of bod y- horror, John Carpenter’s The Thing. While Hollyw ood felt tha t its sp ecia l effects were simp ly not up to the job of telling a story of bod ily transforma tion, Knea le placed b od ily tra nsforma tion at the centre of his story, even though the BBC didn’t even ha ve a d epa rtment tha t hand led visual sp ecia l effects, and Kneale wa s forced to p rod uce the visua l effects for the Thing himself. (17) F urthermore, Kneale not only told his story in visua l terms, but also in terms tha t w ere intensely intimate. On the one hand , the seria l focused attention of the p hysica l na ture of C arroon’s transforma tion b y ma king him virtua lly sp eechless on his return to ea rth. Also D unca n Lamont, w ho p la yed Ca rroon w a s a p rofound ly physica l p resence. In the film version, Richa rd W ord sworth p lays Ca rroon, and his thin a nd almost ema ciated fra me sugg ests that the tra nsformation involves something a kin to a d ema teria lisa tion of the bod y a nd visually echoes horrific imag es of concentration ca mp victims. In contra st, La mont is a pow erful and thickset fig ure, w hose physicality is further emp ha siz ed by his role on the mission. Unlike the other a strona uts, w ho a re hig h- level scientists, Ca rroon is merely d escribed a s a n ‘eng ineer’, ‘ra dio op erator’ a nd resp onsib le for ‘g enera l g adgets’ ( Kneale(b) 1953) . He is therefore only one step awa y from a ma nua l la bourer. (18) How ever, on the other ha nd, w hile the seria l d etails Ca rroon’s physica l tra nsformation, Johnson a lso d raws a ttention to a crucial moment a fter Ca rroon’s return to ea rth, in w hich Knea le and Ca rtier tried to overcome the p rob lem of the studio ca mera s that ‘w ere not very mobile and had fixed lenses w hich mad e zooming or fa st tra cking imp ossib le.’ Rather than d isp ense w ith a n intimate close up of Carroon’s a nguish a nd confusion, Cartier overcomes this technical d ifficulty b y keep ing the ca mera still a nd moving the a ctor. After the careful build-up to the exp ected return of the heroic a stronauts, the sudd en a nd rap id close-up of Ca rroon’s terrified face is a particula rly shocking and potent d evice. Ca rroon fa lls into the ca mera, literally invad ing and occup ying the entire spa ce of the screen in the corner of the living room. (Johnson 2005: 26) This then is only the first of a series of seq uences in which C arroon’s persona l reaction to his p red ica ment is juxtap osed with Qua terma ss’s scientific investiga tion of it. (19) W e not only w itness his initia l rea ctions to ea rth and to Quaterma ss’s ea rly investiga tions, but a lso his rea ctions to the first signs of the a lien p resence, a s he is dra wn towa rd s a ca ctus that he will eventua lly a ssimilate into himself. While his human sid e is clea rly ca rried through a focus on his eyes, his encounter w ith the ca ctus sugg ests tha t the alien sid e p erceives throug h his hands. For exa mple, before his a ssimilation of the cactus, the scrip t notes tha t ‘C ARR OON ’s hand is reaching , b ut wa veringly, towa rds the ca ctus’, a d eta il w hich is not only emp ha sised through a t cut to C arroon and the ca ctus but b y another cha ra cter w ho d raw s a ttention to the strang e ‘wa y he’s moving his hand s’. Ind eed, yet a nother cha ra cter clea rly read s these movements as d emonstrating that Ca rroon is sea rching for something, and a sks ‘What d oes he wa nt?’ ( Knea le( c) 1953: 35) How ever, the focus on the eyes and hands is clea rest a short w hile later, after the ca ctus ha s b een moved awa y from Ca rroon a nd into another room, und er the mista ken a ssump tion tha t its presence is ala rming him. Driven b y urg es tha t he d oesn’t seem to und erstood , Ca rroon find s himself d raw n to sea rch out the ca ctus, and b egins ‘rising from b ed , his movements very slow like a sleepwa lker’s.’ Although his eyes a re op en, he a cts like one who is a sleep, until he fina lly ‘g ains his foot’, a t which point he ha s ‘his ha nd s outstretched b efore him, op ening a nd shutting ’. In other w ord s, his ha nd s a re used to convey his a lien urg es, and seem to b e sensing their environment a s his alien sid e sea rch for the ca ctus ( Knea le( c) 1953: 36). As a w hole, then, the encounter with the ca ctus d emonstra tes the conflict b etween the huma n and the a lien within his bod y a nd, a s his human self is g rad ually overw helmed, his interna l human rea ctions a re conveyed through a focus on his eyes. (20) Later, in the series, in an ep isod e entitled, ‘Believed to b e Suffering’, Ca rroon is lost, b oth litera lly a nd metap horically, and he wand ers Lond on w hile trying to evad e conta ct with the a uthorities. How ever, in one b rief seq uence, the script p resents us with a fleeting moment at which Ca rroon seems to ha ve found p ea ce a s he lies in a bomb ed house ‘slump ed up ag ainst the wall of [the] cella r. His eyes op en, exp ressionless.’ This moment of rep ose is then interrup ted b y the a rrival of a young b oy who is ‘p erp lexed b y the ma n’s silence a nd stillness.’ ( Kneale( d) 1953: 27) Aga in the inner d ra ma is not simp ly conveyed through the ‘silence and stillness’ of the body, but through a particula r emp ha sis on the eyes a nd, just before Ca rroon is fina lly engulfed by the a lien, it is once ag ain his eyes tha t g ives a la st intima te glimp se of his p light: FAD E UP C AM 1 The Isla nd … Lapp ing of water. Occa sional D uck Qua cks. (Close shot of b ush – a mass of sma ll leaves, intersp ersed with a moss- like va riety – the w hole und ergoing a g entle swa ying motion.) Tra ck slowly to C lose-up of eyes ... (Very, very slow ly tw o eyes op en a mong the lea ves, a s if someone is looking through. They move forw a rd – a nd the mossy foliag e comes forwa rd w ith them. The effect is not unlike the ‘Green M an’ of mythology. It moves slowly out of shot.) (Kneale( e) 1953: 17) In this wa y, the seria l involved an intimate investigation of Ca rroon and his invad ed bod y, b ut it is not just Carroon who is und er investiga tion. (21) F or Johnson, Quaterma ss op era tes much like a d etective fig ure, who follow s clues and d isp la ys ‘his skills b y piecing them tog ether to solve the mystery.’ He is ab le ‘to exp lain events’ a nd ‘b ring about na rrative resolution.’ (Johnson 2005: 29-30) How ever, Qua terma ss’s function w ithin the na rra tive is less certain tha n this sugg ests. As w e ha ve alread y seen, Qua termass d oesn’t actua lly resolve matters b ut actua lly ap p eals to the humans tha t ha ve b een a ssimilated b y the Thing to d estroy themselves and the a lien along w ith it. He is therefore, in a very real sense, a pow erless hero, who is more a commenta tor up on events tha n the actual sub ject of the na rrative who is a ble to effect a ction himself. One rea son for this situa tion is that Quaterma ss cannot offer the solution given tha t, throug hout the na rrative, he is p resented a s the ca use of the p roblem, a nd is consequently consumed with g uilt over his resp onsibility for b ring ing the a lien to ea rth. As he puts it nea r the end : ‘There is no q uestion of cred it now – only guilt. I ha ve – b rought up on the ea rth w ha t app ea rs to b e the most frightful thing ever know n.’ ( Kneale( f) 1953: 18) In a very rea l sense, then, the na rrative is a n investig ation into Quaterma ss’s own science and , just a s C arroon find s himself forced to exa mine himself and ma ke sense of his grad ua l tra nsformation, Quaterma ss is required to turn his investiga ting gaz e upon himself and his own a ctions. (22) How ever, while C arroon is d oomed to wa tch himself b e engulfed by the alien, Qua terma ss is saved from becoming a monster. While his science is p rob lematic, Quaterma ss is finally p resented a s a p ositive, if tainted, fig ure, a nd this is d ue to his a bility to a cknow ledg e g uilt. Quaterma ss worries that, through his science, he is in da ng er of pla ying God but, the seria l sug g ests, this recog nition itself is a rejection of hubris. He is therefore opp osed to another scientist, Patterson, who questions Quaterma ss’s judg ement. W hile Qua termass ha s the humility to recog nise tha t there is risk in every a ction, a nd tha t one cannot control events, Pa tterson seems to reject the possib ility of unforeseen events a nd ad opts a position that is p resented as a rrogance. He b elieves that if they had b een more ca reful, they could ha ve a void ed risk, a nd is clea rly seen a s ha ving totalitaria n tend encies w hen he tells a journalist: ‘M y – my point is tha t the ind ivid ua ls a ren’t imp orta nt – only the fate of the p roject itself’ (Kneale( c) 1953: 16. See Note 2) . Ind eed, the d esire for certa inty is ridiculed elsewhere b y F ullalove, a journalist, w ho d escrib es science a s ‘ma nkind trying to sound certain of himself, Ja cko. Because he know s tha t just b eyond the a ir there’s a new w ild erness. Pitch d a rk b oth da y and night, emp ty a nd … cold.’ ( Knea le(b ) 1953) Qua terma ss ha s the potentia l to b e a monster b ut it is precisely his la ck of certa inty a bout himself, a nd his w illing ness to ad mit his own limita tions tha t dista nces him from the figure of the totalita rian scientist.

Inv ad ed Bodies: Bod ies, Selv es and the Problem of Rationality in Quatermass II and Quatermass and the Pit (23) In this wa y, the serial involves an interrogation of Qua terma ss, even if the p rima ry object of investiga tion is C arroon’s invad ed b od y. As w e ha ve seen, much of the story concerns a close examination of Carroon’s intima te exp erience of his p hysical transforma tion, but this concern is ta ken in a new direction in the second Qua terma ss serial. In Quaterma ss II, Kneale cla ims tha t he w rote the story in such a wa y tha t ‘the pa ttern would b e reversed’ so that ‘Qua termass himself w ould be the lone figure’, even w hile it still remained centred on an intima te exa mina tion of the a lien other ( Kneale( a ) 1979: 6). If Ca rroon’s fa ce, and pa rticula rly his eyes, w ere used to covey the suffering of the invad ed b od y, the fa ce of the invad ed b odies in Qua terma ss II rep resented the monstrousness of the a lien threa t p recisely thoug h their emp ha tic lack of a ffect. Not only a re the invad ed humans referred to a s ‘z omb ies’ b ut a lso this sense of them a s b od ies without souls is further empha siz ed throug h the fig ure of the gua rd s w ithin the film. They w ea r uniforms so that the fa ce is the only wa y in which one ca n be d isting uished from another and , even then, these fa ces tha t a re often hid d en b ehind ga s- ma sks. How ever, even w hen the ma sks a re not b eing worn, these faces rema in b lank and imp ersonal. (24) This comes to a head ab out ha lf wa y through the serial, when a fa mily ma ke the mista ke of ig noring sig ns to keep out of a restricted area tha t is p oliced b y the g ua rd s. In p revious yea rs, b efore the a rrival of the a liens, the family ha ve used the a rea for a traditional da y a t the sea sid e, but ra ther tha n a rela xing da y at the b ea ch, the fa mily is disturb ed b y the sudd en app ea ra nce of two gua rd s w ho object to their presence. When the father retorts that they ‘come here every summer’, he is surp rised by the sudd enness with which the gua rd s turn to physica l intimida tion. ‘Stop shoving us a round,’ he wa rns , ‘or I’ll go to the pap ers.’ How ever, the gua rd s rema in imp ervious to him a nd q uickly threa ten the w ife with their rifles. Throughout the scene, the g ua rd s remain emotiona lly cold a nd la cking in empa thy, a cold ness a nd bruta lity tha t is later empha siz ed w hen we see the family ca r b eing tow ed throug h the ma in gate of the ind ustria l pla nt, w hich the g ua rd s are p rotecting. The fa mily itself is no long er present b ut their fate is mad e clea r b y a limp, ba re a rm tha t is hanging out of the ca r w indow , and b y Qua terma ss’s claim tha t the ca r exp lains the recent sound of gunfire. How ever, the inhumanity of the gua rd s is further empha siz ed throug h a shot of the b ea ch, on which the fa mily’s p icnic thing s ha ve been broken a nd scattered; the ta ble cloth lies torn; a nd the young boy’s flipp ers lie d isca rd ed. Most d isturb ing ly of all, his sw imming ma sk lies b esid e the flipp ers, its glass eyep iece shattered ( Kneale 1955). In this wa y, the seria l, w hich ha s a p lot that is rema rkab ly similar to R ob ert Heinlein’s The Pupp etmasters ( 1951) a nd Ja ck Finney’s The Bod y Sna tchers (1955) in which humans a re ‘ta ken over’ by a lien b eing s who then ma squera d e as human, raises a numb er of concerns ab out burea ucra cy p reva lent w ithin the p eriod ( see Heinlein 1951; and F inney 1955) . At one p oint a n old man exp resses his distrust of d octors: w ith the ad vent of the new W elfa re Sta te, he sugg ests, d octors a re now pa rt of a government conspiracy. (25) How ever, the story is not an a tta ck on the W elfa re State itself, but ra ther the p roduct of a more g enera l concern w ith the situa tion of the ind ivid ua l within mod ern society. At other p oints, the story clea rly criticises the erosion of civil lib erties during the C old Wa r, and even exp resses a nxieties a bout the situation of the a ffluent w orking cla ss, over w hom there wa s a major d ebate w ithin the p eriod ( See for La ing 1986 for a coverag e of these d ebates) . In this context, the seria l exp resses clea r concerns that w orking class rad icalism w a s b eing und ermined b y high w ag es, in return for w hich workers w ere b eing req uired to unq uestioningly d efer to authority. Ind eed , these va rious themes a re p robab ly b est enca psulated by the fig ure of Leo Pug h, Quaterma ss’s second in comma nd, w hom Qua termass is forced to confront in the fina l conflict of the seria l. (26) Although he is eventua lly ta ken over b y the alien mena ce, Pug h claims tha t scientists ha ve b ecome too relia nt on ma chines: ‘Too ma ny ma chines, that’s wha t w e’ve got.’ Furthermore, he sugg ests that human intellig ence should involve more tha n mere mecha nica l op erations, ‘They sp oil one from g ra sp ing a clea r concep t. I joined your father as a ma thema tica l g enius b ut these ma chines, they b eat me. I p ress b uttons.’ Ra ther than a mere button-pusher, he a lso claims tha t he wa s orig inally ‘looking for some kind of b ea uty, I supp ose: the mathematica l kind. The id ea of making road s in sp ace for rockets to tra vel, four d imensiona l road s, curved w ith rela tivity, metalled w ith the b est q ua lity continuum.’ ( Knea le 1955) F urthermore, w hen Kneale rew rote this d ia log ue for publication, he cha ng ed Pugh’s dia logue slig htly to emp ha siz e the p oint: ‘W ithout concep ts, you a re no b etter tha n this da mned tin thing – you’ve come down to its level! An add ing ma chine. The concept … gestalt … tha t’s a ll the kind of b ea uty I’ve ever looked for, you know. W ha t brought me here.’ ( Kneale(a ) 1979: 73) Here he invokes ‘g estalt p sychology’ w hich prop oses a theory of the human mind tha t sees it a s more than a series of mechanica l processes, b ut a s a comp lex, holistic p rocess in w hich p ercep tion involves more than the simp le id entifica tion of sp ecific elements but the ab ility to id entify w hole forms or p atterns. (27) Instead of simp ly calcula ting numb ers, Pugh champions the ab ility to id entify mathematical concep ts within these calcula tions. How ever, he also a cknow ledg es tha t when he wa s young he wa s ‘a ca lculating boy’ and that his tea cher would ‘set me enormous sums to do: she loved to a stonish herself but I a lwa ys got them right.’ ( Knea le 1955) Pugh is op en to inva sion b ecause, as a child, he wa s tra ined to b e little more tha n a ma chine. (28) F inally, in the la st Qua terma ss serial of the 1950s, Quaterma ss and the Pit, the huma n b od y is p resented a s a n inva d ed bod y from its very beginnings. The story concerns a five million yea r old spa ce ship , which is d iscovered in London during routine b uild ing . Its p resence soon revea ls that Ma rtians had visited the ea rth in our p rehistory and tha t it wa s through their intervention that humanity itself w as crea ted. In a n attempt to colonise the w orld b y p roxy, the M artians had instilled our biolog ical a ncestors b oth w ith intelligence a nd w ith their own ra cia l intolerance, a hered ita ry condition that is p resented a s necessa rily evil. (29) In the p rocess, the story explicitly attacks the ra cial a nta gonisms tha t fa ced W est Ind ia n Immig ra nts to the United Kingd om in the 1950s (see N ote 3), the M cCa rthyite W itch- hunt in the United Sta tes, and the Cold Wa r politics of the p ost wa r p eriod , conflicts tha t a re all linked to Nazism and the Holoca ust. As Qua terma ss d ecla res a t the end: But w e also ha ve know ledg e of ourselves … of the ancient destructive urg es in us tha t g row more dead ly a s our p opula tions increa se and app roa ch in siz e a nd complexity those of a ncient Mars. Every wa r crisis, witch- hunt, ra ce riot, and p urg e is a remind er and a wa rning … W e a re the M artia ns. If w e ca nnot control the inherita nce within us, this w ill b e their second d ead planet. ( Knea le(b) 1959) The story even involves Qua terma ss’s a ttemp ts to resists the Government in its attempt to milita riz e his civilia n rocket g roup for use in a nuclea r ‘D ead M an’s D eterrent’, a milita ry p olicy that is rema rkably simila r to that of M utua lly Assured D estruction ( MAD ), which cla imed that the stockpiling of nuclea r w eapons would deter aggression b ecause a ny nuclea r wa r w ould result in the d estruction of both sid es ( see Note 4) . Furthermore, he find s that in this cold wa r context, there is a clea r pola risa tion of positions a nd a conseq uent lack of p olitica l alternatives. For example, w hen he comes b efore the Government committee tha t is responsib le for d ecid ing the fa te of his rocket g roup, Qua terma ss tries to p ersuade it to a ct against the philosophy of the D ead Man’s D eterrent and plead s, ‘W e must exp ress our view s. W e’re men, not mechanica l comp uters.’ ( Knea le 1958) How ever, the M inister in cha rg e of the committee d ismisses the notion tha t there is a ny p ossib ility of a n a lternative to the ‘D ead Man’s Deterrent’ a nd cla ims to b e ‘d isturb ed ’ to ‘hea r such na ïve view s still put forwa rd.’ ( Knea le 1958) It is significant tha t the series wa s show n in late 1958, the same yea r tha t the Ca mpa ign for N uclea r Disa rmament wa s formed . (30) As a result, the story concerns a threa t that could not b e more intima te, b eing a n element of our very g enetic ma ke- up, b ut one tha t is a lso p rofound ly exp ansive in tha t it threa tens to d estroy the p la net. Furthermore, the solution is self- examination. How ever, d espite this concern w ith discip line and control, the serial d oes not p rivileg e intellect over emotion, but rather it complica tes their relationship. The most unemotiona l and d iscip lined fig ure within the story is the milita ry office, Breen, w ho is seen a s rep resenta tive of the fa scistic intolerance of the a lien mena ce, a nd is d escribed by Kneale a s b eing ‘a few yea rs young er tha n Quaterma ss, a lert a nd cold in manner, his uniform imma cula te.’ ( Knea le( c) 1979: 22) He is a lso contra sted w ith D r Roney, w ho is describ ed in terms of his emotions: ‘His p ersona lity is warm, unscientifically imp ulsive – even ra sh in the view of his colleagues.’ ( Knea le( c) 1979: 15) Furthermore, Quaterma ss is p la ced somew here b etw een them, but not a s a resolution b etw een extremes. On the contra ry, like Breen, his a ssociation with intellect ra ther than emotion means tha t he is unable to effectively resist the threat a nd, a s a result, both he and Breen a re p ossessed b y the alien mena ce. It is only R oney w ho seems to ha ve evolved beyond a lien rationa lity and intolerance. Intellect seems to b e a ssociated w ith the alien, while emotion is p resented a s huma n. (31) In the p rocess, the story comp lica tes the notion of the p rimitive and the ad vanced to sugg est tha t the ra tiona l is p rimitive, ba rb a ric and linked to intolerance, and tha t the emotiona l is a ctually an adva nce awa y from the alien pa st. In this wa y, the scientifica lly adva nced aliens b ecome p rimitives, a s d o a ll those who b elieve themselves to b e sup erior to others, a nd seek to impose discipline, ord er a nd ra tiona lity over them. As a result, it is significa nt tha t the threa t is not d efea ted throug h rea son a lone but b y also by d rawing on sup erstition. At one point, Breen even claims tha t Quaterma ss’s conjectures have no scientific ba sis and tha t his imag ina tion is simp ly ‘running w ild’ to which Quaterma ss resp ond s, ‘Isn’t yours?’( Knea le(a) 1959) Not only is ‘wild’ imagina tion the only p rop er response to the situation, b ut it a lso sa ves the da y.

Conclusion (32) As a result, while many critics ha ve cla imed tha t television is an inhosp ita ble environment for horror, ea rly television institutions often saw them a s w ell suited to one a nother. Not only w ere horror stories able to p rovid e television serials w ith the narrative susp ense necessa ry to command a ud ience loyalty, a nd so regula rise and routiniz e view ing habits, b ut horror w as a lso seen as p erfectly suited to the sup posed ly intima te cha ra cter of television. (33) It is therefore ha rd ly surp rising tha t the BBC chose a horror story for its first origina l p rod uction, and that this story should ta ke the intima te d rama one stag e further a nd focus on a p rocess of bodily muta tion. F urthermore, d esp ite the g lob al na ture of the threa t, w hich threa tens to eng ulf the w orld, The Qua terma ss Exp eriment is still told throug h the intimate d ra ma s of two men – the muta ting a stronaut and the g uilt- ridd en scientist – a nd, in b oth ca ses, the interna l cha ra cter of the d ra ma is stressed throug h a pointed focus on their eyes a s an medium of exp ression. (34) The invasion of the body is also centra l to the tw o following Quaterma ss stories, a lthoug h the inva sion takes p la ce on a ma ssive sca le in Qua terma ss II, while Quaterma ss and the Pit p resents the human b od y a s itself the p rod uct of a n a lien inva sion: its very ‘na ture’ is the p roduct of biolog ical engineering and ca rries a da ng erous inheritance. (34) As w e ha ve seen, then, horror and television have a long history and one that is intimately b ound up with the g rap hic rep resenta tion of the body.

Note 1: Ind eed, ma ny of the 1940s cinematic horror films w ere themselves a response to the hug e p opula rity of radio horror, a nd it is therefore unsurprising tha t many of the popula r rad io series w ere a lso converted for television. (F or a discussion of American rad io horror, see Ha nd 2006) . Note 2: Kneale even rew rote this exchang e for the pub lication of the scrip ts so tha t the journalist a ccuses him of ha ving mad e a ‘tota lita rian statement’. ( Knea le(a) 1979: 82). Note 3: The p roduction even exp licitly id entifies the build ers a t the sta rt of the series a s a n inter- ra cia l workforce in which sp ecific workers a re id entified a s black. Althoug h the ca mera scrip t makes no sp ecific reference to the ra cia l comp osition of the workforce ( unlike the later version of the scrip t tha t Knea le published later) , Ca rtier demonstra ted the imp orta nce of this ca sting b y req uesting a p riva te dressing room for the b la ck a ctor pla ying one of the workma n. Althoug h this illustra tes that he wa s still ra cially seg reg ated from the rest of the ca st, it a lso clea rly estab lishes how imp orta nt this ca sting was for C a rtier: only a ha nd ful of the ca st had their ow n dressing rooms. Note 4: The term wa s a ctua lly coined by Rob ert M cN ama ra in the 1960s a nd some d eba te exists over w hether it wa s America n foreign policy d uring the 1950s. None the less, it is often used to sum up a series of justifications for the stockp iling of nuclea r w eapons during the w hole of the cold wa r p eriod.

Bib liog rap hy

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