DYNAMICS OF POWER OF investigate the arrangement of the spirit SPACE IN THE TAI-YUAN cult in contemporary Lanna context.

CHAO LUANG KHAM DAENG The research results reveal the declaration SPIRIT CULT1 of the ritual space and arrangement by various parties, i.e., the state, the Nittaya Wannakit2 community and the villagers. The 3 government supports the budget for the Siraporn Nathalang ritual, however, the control and running of the cult is under the power of local people. Abstract Local leaders have power in producing and publicizing the discourses of the cult.

Some have knowledge of the ritual This paper aims to study the dynamics of performance and some have power in the power relations in the “Chao Luang Kham management and the control of the Daeng”/ spirit cult of the Tai performances including women who also Yuan people in and Phayao have a certain space in the preparation of provinces. In the past, the spirit cult was the rituals. The spirit cult can thus be followed by the rulers of Chiang Mai city. viewed as a space for negotiation among Later on and nowadays, it has been various sides: the state, the community, downgraded to be the responsibility of the certain local leaders and women, all of district level. Therefore, it is interesting to whom declare their power in the ritual.

Introduction 1 This paper is a part of a Ph.D. dissertation in Thai Folklore entitled, “Dynamism of the Chao In this paper, the word “cult” is defined as Luang Khamdaeng Spirit Cult of Tai Yuan the modes of belief and of rituals that and Tai Lue in Northern ” produce narratives and present symbols of submitted to the Department of Thai, Faculty the person who is the centre of the belief; a of Arts, . The author cult is normally not part of the main would like to thank The Office of Higher Education Commission for providing ”The religion of the society (Niti Eawsriwong Teacher Development Scholarships” for Ph.D. 2003: 61). studies and would like to thank Chulalongkorn University, “The 90th Anniversary Of The objective of this paper is to provide an Chulalongkorn University Fund” understanding and to explain the (Ratchadaphiseksomphot Endowment Fund) phenomenon of the spirit cult of Chao and Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkorn University Luang Kham Daeng among the Tai Yuan for partially supporting this Ph.D. field research. people in Lanna () from 2 Lecturer, Department of Thai and Oriental an aspect concerning modes of power languages, Faculty of Humanities and Social relationships. The Chao Luang Kham Sciences, Mahasarakham University, Thailand. 3 Daeng spirit cults at , (corresponding author) Professor of Folklore, and Mae Chai Department of Thai and Director of Thai Studies Center, Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkorn district, have been University selected for case study. This paper analyzes the distribution of the power of the ritual space by the government, the

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community and local leaders in the spirit Khon also separated themselves cult. In addition, the paper analyzes the from the “inferior” ethnic groups, such as dynamics of the control of the ritual space the Lua, the Yang (Karen) or the Kha. The in the contemporary Lanna context. way they defined themselves as khon mueang had social implications since they Background to the belief and legend were the most powerful ethnic group who of Chao Luang Kham Daeng were the owners and had the rights to the city land. This definition was also used for ethnic discrimination. However, the Tai Yuan people are one of Tai ethnic definition of the identity of the khon group among many in Lanna or in the mueang has varied according to the social upper northern region of Thailand. context; therefore, the political and Nowadays, the Yuan seldom address historical background of the power space themselves as “Yuan” as in previous days that was the context of ethnic relationships but address themselves as khon mueang/ has been subjected to study for a better ‘city people’ instead. They have also understanding (see more details in Chayan named the language used for their Watthanaphuti 2006: 32–73). communication and writing as phasa mueang or ‘mueang language.’ The many According to Tai Yuan belief, the explanations from academics can be biography of Chao Luang Kham Daeng is summed up to explain that the word by detailed in two legends: the Chiang Mai which the “city people” have addressed Pang Doem Legend/ themselves for a long time was likely first ( Social Research used at the start of the Rattanakosin Institute 1994) and the Suwankhamdaeng period, during the Renaissance of the Legend/ or the Sao Inthakhil Lanna. During the period known as Keb Legend/ (Sa-Nguan Chotisukarat, Paak Sai Saa Keb Kha Sai mueang/กก 1972: 117–160). These legends explain ก or collecting vegetables in the that Chao Luang Kham Daeng was a pre- basket and collecting people into the city, historic figure who was alive before King when war captives were herded into the built Chiang Mai city in B.E city and became the citizens of Chiang 1839. In his past lives, he was born as Mai, the Yuan people, as the “real” Uttaracunda, the lord of the swine. Next, citizens, decided to address themselves as he was born as Chao Suwanna khon mueang in order to separate Khamdaeng, the son of Phaya Corani. The themselves from the collected and the god Indra needed a representative human herded captives. Later, this word became to work as a ruler teaching the humans in popularly used by other ethnic groups and the Jampu Dvipa who were not keeping to in other cities when referring to the Tai the fives moral precepts of Buddhism. Yuan people. (Suraphol Dumrikul 1999: Phra Vissukam volunteered to find the 96–105). representative. He eventually decided that Chao Suwanna Khamdaeng should take on Chayan Watthanaphuti (2006: 39) this duty. So, he transformed himself into explained that khon mueang were the a golden deer to induce Chao Suwanna words defining the Tai Yuan ethnic group, Khamdaeng. During the hunt, Chao who presented their social and cultural Suwannakhamdaeng saw Nang In Lao at relationship in the mode of city patterns. Doi Ang Song, where his counsellors also

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saw the lotus ponds. They decided to build possessing spirits, only spirits from the Lanna city on the low-lying plain of the first to the fifth level will descend to and Chao Suwanna possess the spirit medium in order to help Khamdaeng became the first king of this the people and the spirits in the fifth level city. At the end of his life, he abdicated are considered to be the highest in the and went with Nang In Lao to live in hierachy. Chiang Dao cave, but his descendants ruled the city for generations. During the Although the origin of the belief of the reign of Phaya Khrao, the city was ruined Chao Lang Kham Daeng spirit in Lanna is and sunk after his citizens ate a white soft- not specifically discussed, it is possible shelled turtle. After Chao that this spirit originally belonged to the Suwannakhamdaeng’s death, according to Lua, the indigenous tribe of the area. The the Chiang Mai Pang Duem Legend, the Lua in Chiang Dao city have a belief in the Chiang Mai citizens praised him and guardian spirits residing in the Chiang Dao placed him as the leader of the guardian cave. It was told that later on when King spirits of Chiang Mai city (Chiang Mai Mangrai built Chiang Mai city, he gave University Social Research Institute 1994: Chiang Dao city to his son, Phaya Chai 40). In another legend, Phra Chao Lieb Song Khram, to rule. Since then, the belief Lok Legend/ก ‘Legend of in the guardian spirits residing in Chiang the Buddha’s Visiting the World,’ the Ang Dao cave has been continuously preserved Song Legend/ and in several and transmitted in the Lanna Kingdom. versions of the Chiang Dao legends, it is claimed that Chao Luang Kham Daeng According to the Yonok Chronicle/ was the lord of the ogres guarding treasure ก (Phaya Prachakitkorachak 1972: 277), in the Chiang Dao cave (Phaitoon Phaya Chai Song Khram had three sons. Dokbuakaew, 2007). His elder son, Thao Saen Phu Rajabutr, was born at Wiang Chiang Dao. When his According to the beliefs of the spirit wife went into labour, they gave offerings mediums in the upper Northern region of to the deities and the guardian spirits of Thailand, the spirit of Chao Luang Kham Chiang Dao city. Moreover, according to Daeng was the greatest among all of the the Mueang Chiang Mai Legend/ spirits of Lanna. He had a network of and the Fifteen Dynasties Legend/ 4 many important spirit followers . , during the reign of Chao Chaladchai Ramitanond (2002: 38–39), in Sam Kaen, he protected the city from his book, Phii Chao Nai ( Chao Nai enemies by providing offerings to the Protective Spirits), said that when the guardian spirits of Chiang Saen city and of spirits in Chiang Mai province were Chiang Mai city, including the guardian ranked in hierachy, Chao Luang Kham spirits along the path from Chiang Mai to Daeng was placed on the fifth-level (all Chiangrai and Chiang Saen (Venerable together there are nine levels), the same Teacher Sobhonkvivadhana, 2007: 60). level as other most important Lanna Accordingly, the guardian spirits at Doi legendary spirits. In the hierarchy of Chiang Dao would be given offerings during this vital ritual, because Chiang Dao city was built by Phaya Mangrai as a rest stop between Chiang Mai and Chiangrai. 4 Interview, Sukham Kukkong, 16th June 2008

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city’s restoration after having been a According to certain foreign records, in A Burmese colony for nearly two hundred Half Century among the Shan and years. During the ritual, the Inthakhil pillar and Autobiography, Daniel McGilvary was erected at Jediluang temple and it was (2002: 228–229) noted that villagers there that the pillar worship ritual was held around Chiang Dao hill area believe in the as well. Moreover, the Chao Luang Kham spirit residing in Chiang Dao cave and that Daeng spirit was invited to take possession this spirit belongs to the Lua. Also, it was to prophesize the city’s future. Every year, noted that Phra Chao Kaviroros, the King the Chiang Mai rulers presented offerings of Chiang Mai at that time, did not allow to the Chao Luang Kham Daeng spirit at foreigners to build a bridge over the Ping Jaeng Sri Phum/ ‘the northeastern River in the area of Chiang Dao city for city wall corner.’ Other spirits in the city fear that it would offend the spirit in the that were under the power of the Chao cave. Luang Kham Daeng spirit who would join the ritual as well (Sa-Nguan Choksukarat Another foreign record with reference to 1969: 93). Obediently, the city rulers in the Chao Luang Kham Daeng spirit of the the following generations had to follow Chiang Dao cave was later evident in A this tradition strictly. However, after Thousand Miles on an Elephant in the Chiang Mai city became a part of Siam by Holt S. Hallet (2000: 323– during the early Rattanakosin period, this 325). Hallet took a journey to Chiang Dao ritual was not performed. in 1986 and wrote in his note that the Chiang Dao cave was on the path to the Later, when the government tried to Dewa (deity) city and the Yaksa (Ogre) modernize Chiang Mai city to become the city, both of which were ruled by Chao centre of the Northern region, there were Luang Kham Daeng, or Phii Luang Kham tremendous social and economical Daeng ‘Kham Daeng, The Great Spirit’ changes. Once the spirit ritual was not and that he was the guardian spirit of performed as often as in the past, the ritual Chiang Mai city. for Chao Luang Kham Daeng almost vanished. Whereas in Chiang Dao city According to the belief in the Chao Luang where sacred places, such as the Chiang Kham Daeng spirit, he was praised and Dao cave and the Chiang Dao Hill are promoted from being a spirit of the Lua located, the related belief, legend and the indigenous group to be the leader of the worship of Chao Luang Kham Daeng were Chiang Mai guardians spirits having a passed on and preserved by the local higher status than other city guardian people. Such phenomena reflect a change spirits, over both the king spirits and the in the belief in the Chao Luang Kham local spirits, such as Phaya Mangrai, Phra Daeng spirit whose status was downgraded Chao Saen Phu, Phra Chao Kue Na, Chao from the city guardian spirit to be only a Phraya Sam Fang Kaen, Thao Lok, Thao local guardian spirit. Yod Chiangrai, Phii Pu Ya and Phii Pu Sae Ya Sae.

The beginning of the Chao Luang Kham

Daeng spirit offering ritual was in the reign of King Kavila, the period of the

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Contemporary Chao Luang Kham Daeng spirit cult: Case studies at Chiang Dao District and

Spirit cult of Chao Luang Kham Daeng at Chiang Dao District, Chiang Mai

Since Chiang Dao district is directly connected to the belief of Chao Luang Kham Daeng, this district can be considered an important area for studying the belief, which is still strong in that area.

Shrines of Chao Luang Kham Daeng in Chiang Dao district Figure 3: Shrine at Ban Pa Sak Chiang Dao village

Figure 1: Shrine at Ban Tham village

Figure 4: Shrine at village

There are four shrines of Chao Luang Kham Daeng in Chiang Dao district, i.e., at Kaeng Pan Tao/ก/ village, Mae Na/ village, Ban Chiang Dao/ village and in front of Chiang Dao cave, Ban Tham/ village. The spirit-offering rituals for Chao Luang Kham Daeng are held at these four shrines, during the Songkran festival (Thai New Year), Figure 2: Shrine at Kaeng Pan Tao village however on a small scale. The grander

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scale of the annual spirit offering ritual for Khun Kham Daeng came to the throne in Chao Luang Kham Daeng is held on the B.E. 1821. His son, Khun Kham Lue, full moon day in the 9th month at Ban came to the throne after Khun Kham Kaeng Pan Tao. Daeng passed away. In B.E. 1881, King Kham Fu, the king of Chiangsaen city, The grand spirit offering ritual for Chao defeated Khun Kham Lue, so, Phayao city Luang Kham Daeng normally has three has become counted as a part of the Lanna procedures. The first procedure is to kingdom since then (Phra present offerings to Chao Luang Kham Rajvisuddhisobhon 1984: 114–116). This Daeng and to worship the spirits of the legend has resulted in the perception of the Chiang Mai rulers, deities and guardians in Chao Luang Kham Daeng legend among the Brahmanistic style. The next procedure the Tai Yuan people in Mae Jai district to is the ritual of “extending the life of the be different from that of the Tai Yuan in city,” considered as a kind of Buddhist Chiang Mai province. ritual, held for the fertility of the crops because the villagers believe that through According to The Biography of Chao Pho this ritual the deities and the guardians in Luang Kham Daeng (2008:1–4) published heaven will bless them and fulfil their on the occasion of the ritual of pouring needs. The last procedure is the time for liquid gold to mould the Chao Pho Luang the spirit medium possession when the Kham Daeng statue on 20th January 2008 spirit medium as the representative of the by Venerable Teacher Sobhonbadhanotom, spirit will perform a Lanna traditional Chao Luang Kham Daeng, the son of dance, fon phi/. Phaya Ngam Mueang was the king of Phayao city. After construction of Chiang Spirit cult of Chao Luang Kham Daeng Mai city had been completed, with the at Mae Jai district, Phayao province cooperation of King Ramkhamhaeng, the king of Sukhothai city, and Khun Mengrai, In Mae Jai district, Phayao province, the the first king of Chiang Mai city, Khun Tai Yuan people consider that the Chao Ngam Mueang returned to Phayao city. Luang Kham Daeng spirit has two roles; Later, he abdicated and went to live in the role of guardian spirit and of local hero Mueang Nguen. Then his son, Khun Kham spirit. A monk named Venerable Teacher Daeng, came to the throne. When the Tai Sobhonbadhanotom, the abbot of Yai (the Shan) attacked Phayao city and Photharam temple in Tambol Srithoi, Mae robbed the people, Chao Luang Kham Jai district and the deputy ecclesiastical Daeng and his troop came to guard the city provincial governor of Phayao province, is borders with all kinds of weapons; this the person who has enriched the value of area is Chiang Dao city today. Here, Chao the Chao Luang Kham Daeng spirit by Luang Kham Daeng met Chao Chom connecting the spirit’s narrative expressed Devi, the beautiful lady in the golden deer in the Chiang Mai Pang Duem Legend and figure who came to seduce him. the Suwannakhamdaeng Legend with Passionately, he followed her into the information on Phayao province history Chiang Dao cave. That night, she which declares that this spirit, or Khun transformed herself into a woman and had Kham Daeng as his name was when he an affair with him. Ever since they passed was alive, was the son of Phaya Ngam away, their spirits are believed to have Mueang, the great king of Phayao city. resided in this cave.

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The Chao Luang Kham Daeng new There are two Chao Luang Kham Daeng narratives were published for the public shrines in Mae Jai district. One is at Ton from the collective memory of local Phueng/ village, Srithoi sub district/ history among the villagers and several and the other one is in Photharam kinds of Chao Luang Kham Daeng temple which is the main temple of Srithoi amulets were sold to help increase the sub district of Mae Jai district. In Ton spirit’s sacredness and make him better Phueng village, spirit offering rituals are known. He became the spiritual centre for held three times a year at the Chao Luang the local people. Whenever the people Kham Daeng shrine. The first is on the need help, they will go to the shrine and 13th waxing moon day of the 5th month (3rd make a votive prayer; or whenever they lunar month), the second, is also on the undertake any activities, they always go to 13th waxing moon day, of the 7th month the shrine and light joss sticks of telling or th 5 (5 lunar month). The rituals held on these asking permission from the spirit. two occasions are not as grand as the third.

Shrines of Chao Luang Kham Daeng in The ritual committees bring only Mae Jai district vegetarian food to present to the spirit at the shrine; a small group of villagers come to join the ritual. In comparison, the third ritual held annually on the 13th waxing moon day of the 9th month (7th lunar month), is a grand ritual in which a large number of the villagers in Mae Jai district and from other provinces who respect Chao Luang Kham Daeng come to participate.

The ritual is held over two days. The first day is for preparation; the ritual Figure 5: Shrine at Ton Phueng village committees set the ritual place and prepare the objects needed for the ritual. The second day is for performing the ritual; the villagers who have made a vow to Chao Luang Kham Daeng will come to give an offering. From the early morning, they will make and bring offerings, such as pork, chicken, boiled eggs, water, young coconuts, flower, joss sticks, and candles, to the shrine committees in order to prepare the food to present to the spirit. Villagers who do not make a vow will bring mats, pillows, and the clothes of Figure 6: Shrine at Photharam temple their family members to place on shelves beside the shrine to be a part of the objects used in the ritual. In doing so, villagers believe that their family members will be 5 Interview, Po Wongkameng, 25th May 2009 happy.

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When all of the “food offerings” are However, the tradition of worshiping the presented to the spirit of Chao Luang Inthakhil pillar has not been held since the Kham Daeng, pho mo ‘the ritual East Asia War or the Pacific War practitioner’ will start the ritual. Then (A.D.1941–1945), whereas the grand there will be a break to make sure that Chao Luang Kham Daeng spirit-offering Chao Luang Kham Daeng has received all ritual has been held every year by the of the offerings and that break is often governor at the northeastern corner of the until noon. During the break, the sword Chiang Mai city wall. Other spirits under dance, the spear dance and Lanna music the Chao Luang Kham Daeng spirit would are performed to entertain the spirit. At descend to join the cult as well. Holding noon, the pho mo will measure a stick, this this tradition has been the essential duty of procedure is called waa mai and it is to ask rulers in the following generations who whether the spirit has already received all have strictly kept performing it, or else the of the offerings. If it has, a gun is fired as a city will be in trouble. signal to the villagers who come to take home their offerings. Some of the villagers This belief demonstrates that the may donate their offerings to make dishes performance of the Chao Luang Kham to eat together, then comes the end of the Daeng cult was, in the olden days, ritual. meaningful and essential in legitimatizing the right and power of rulers. When the As for the ritual at the Chao Luang Kham Lanna kingdom became a part of the Thai Daeng shrine in Photharam temple, it is state, the power system of the Chiang Mai held on the same day as the ritual held at governors decreased. The cult thus became Ton Phueng village, however, there are less popular and was eventually no longer only fruit, flowers, incense and candles held; however, the belief in the spirits has offered to the spirit. deeply persisted and is still communicated among Chiang Mai people. The dynamics of power relations reflected in the spirit cult When Chiang Mai became a large and modern city, many things changed. The In the past, the ritual of Chao Luang Kham Chao Luang Kham Daeng cult of Chiang Daeng was a cult of Chiang Mai city held Mai city was not held, so, the spirit by the king or the governor. Sa nguan became neglected and forgotten. However, Choksukarat (1969: 93) says that during the Chiang Dao people, who live in the the ritual of worshiping the Inthakhil pillar sacred place connected with the belief and of Chiang Mai city, the local fiddlers, a legend of Chao Luang Kham Daeng, have spear dance, a sword dance, presented to preserved and transmitted the belief and the guardian spirits, were performed. The also consistently adhered to the local Chao city guardian spirits, Chao Luang Kham Luang Kham Daeng spirit offering cult. Khiew and Chao Luang Kham Daeng, were invited to possess the mediums in In the contemporary Lanna context, the order to prophesy the city’s future. If the arrangement of the Chao Luang Kham prophecy was not very good, the governor Daeng spirit ritual at Chiang Dao and Mae would hold another ritual to eliminate the Chai is interesting to analyze in terms of future harmful effects. the role of power distribution and the

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power relations among the various parties of Chao Luang Kham Daeng was invited involved, i.e., the government, the to reside in the new shrine. In the community, the local leaders, women and following year, the Chao Luang Kham the villagers in general. Daeng spirit cult was held in the 9th month. The rituals of preserving the 11th The state, the community and villagers: Chiang Mai city door and Chiang Dao city the space of power in the ritual have been held since 2006 with budget support from Chiang Dao district and the Recently when the Thai state through the Mae Na sub-district Administrative officers of the Chiang Mai city realized the Organization.6 importance of traditional Chiang Mai culture, it helped revive and transmit some Participant observation during the annual cults of Chiang Mai, such as the Inthakhil spirit offering ritual at the Chao Luang pillar worship, although not every ritual Kham Daeng shrine in Kaeng Pan Tao procedure is performed as in the past. village during 2008–2009, it can be seen that the district tried to hold the ritual in a In Chiang Dao, the state has tried to grand manner. The district, as an agent of exercise its power by sponsoring the ritual the state, publicized it widely and of Chao Luang Kham Daeng, providing presented the ritual as the district ritual. the budget for constructing the statue and The Chiang Dao district chief officer the shrine of the Chao Luang Kham Daeng presided over the ritual and a great number and also sending government officials to of government officers joined it, however, preside over the ritual. However, the not many villagers were present during the implementation and the procedure of the preparation of the ritual. Villagers did not ritual are within the power of the Chiang really appreciate the help from the state Dao community and villagers. Accordingly, officers since they thought that people in Chiang Dao, the negotiation of power outside the community knew nothing expression between the state and the about the ritual. villagers can be seen in the cult space. While the ritual in Chiang Dao district The villagers of Chiang Dao say that the reflects some kind of negotiation over the spirit offering ritual at the Chao Luang ritual space by the state, the community Kham Daeng shrine has been held and the villagers, in Mae Jai district, the traditionally and annually by the villagers control of ritual arrangements is in the in the 9th month (June), whereas the ritual power rather, of the local villagers. held by the Mae Na sub-district Administrative Organization, a local state Mae Chai villagers mutually establish the organization in Chiang Dao district, only shrine and ritual committees. The duties in started since 2006. The ritual in the year the ritual preparation are allocated to the 2006 was held twice. The first held in June people in the community. The shrine was for the celebration of the establishment of a new shrine; the former shrine becoming a multipurpose pavilion 6 rd and the place for ritual preparation and as Interview, Phattra Suphattrasuwan, 3 June a rest stop for the mediums during the 2009 period of the cult. In December, the statue

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committees are divided into two groups. reaping the benefit from the community. The first group is in charge of running the Noticeably, even though the ritual is not annual ritual. It includes, khun hong/, publicized as broadly as in Chiang Dao the chair of the ritual, who is required to district, a large number of people come give the orders, to control, to supervise through faith and by word of mouth to join and to coordinate with other villagers. The the cult. Moreover, the spirit mediums are saen nang sue/, the position of selected only from those who live in the secretary, is responsible for advertising the community; spirit mediums from outside ritual. The hua khan kao/ก, the head the community are not allowed to join the cult.9 of the ritual preparation, is responsible for all the objects to be used in the ritual. The The ritual performance is the khun heed/, the ritual practitioner, representation of the power relationship performs the annual ritual. The hok noi/ between the state and the community. The ก kills all the pigs and hens brought ritual has its vital indispensable to him by the villagers who want to make component in the symbolic statue a votive offering. These duties have been functioning as the political representative handed down from their ancestors through of the power of the state in the early their descendants for many generations period, before the move to the era of and can not be neglected.7 Another group localism (the villagers and the local fund). of committees, chosen and changed This can be seen through the various Chao depending on the appropriateness, is Luang Kham Daeng statues. responsible for the income and budget concerned with the ritual and shrine. The The idea of building human monuments in income is from donations and the making Siam started in the Ayutthaya period. of votive offerings. The budget pays for Mainly, it was related to the belief in the shrine restoration and for the cost of Buddhism. Later, during the reign of King food and beverages consumed during the Rama IV, Siam was modernized along the period of the cult. The committees inform lines of Western countries. The new idea the villagers of the details of income and of building statues of living people 8 budget every year. became evident in this reign when the King ordered moulding of his statue and In Mae Jai, the villagers’ participation in its dispatch to Emperor Napoleon III after the ritual can be considered to be the the French emperor had sent him statues of policy of the community. Forming a group himself and his empress. During the reign as the local ritual authority can be viewed of King Rama V, statues of both dead as a community technique in constructing people and living people were built. In the the power to control the population in the reign of King Rama VII, there was a community. The result of this power not change from royal convention to state only helps strengthen the community convention. Many monuments of without depending on management by the important national figures were built. state but also resists the government’s After the revolution in Thai politics in B.E. 2475 (A.D.1973), the statues of

7 Interview, Lek Ang-ing, 13th May 2010 8 Interview, Inkaew Jaiprom, 13th May 2010 9 Interview, Po Wongkameng, 25th May 2009

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national historical figures, many of them villagers who raised funds and collected ordinary people, such as the Thao Suranari money from the annual spirit offering monument in Nakhon Ratchasima ritual. Several statues of the Chao Luang province, or the Bang Rajan heroes Kham Daeng are not only to remind us of monument in were his benevolence but are also the symbol built to declare their courage (Saipin of the cult reflecting sacredness, a fact Kaewngamprasert 1995: 200–202). easily noticed by the garlands, flowers, incense, candles, offerings, and sacred State policy is applied consistently. The offerings in his hands and around the government supports local people in the statue. These objects are from the votive budget for the construction of many local prayers and votive offerings of believers. historical-figure monuments. Accordingly, the local people give importance to local Statues of Chao Luang Kham Daeng are heroes. Therefore, the idea of building not found inside some shrines which are monuments has been introduced from the still temporary shrines or ancient spirit centre to the locality, as a result, we can houses, such as the Chao Luang Kham now see a large number of the monuments Daeng shrine at Mae Na village and at Pa of local leaders and heroes from history Suk Ngam village. This is because a grand and legends. annual ritual is not held there as in other communities and the villagers do not have The state policy of local hero statue any way of raising funds. construction matches the thought system and belief of local people in making To sum up, the role of the Chiang Mai city statues of the ancestors. Since the concept rulers in the Chao Luang Kham Daeng of monument construction is immensely spirit cult in the early period and the role popular, huge shrines and statues are of the local community in recovering and increasingly being built. According to spreading the cult in later periods reflects information from interviewing the elderly the dynamics of power of the cult who have lived in the community for a arrangement. The state and the local long time, they say that Chao Luang Kham community may have seen the importance Daeng shrine in the past was a small of the cult as a strong and efficient power shrine made of wood only used by the in their hegemony and a way of villagers for worship. The Chao Luang legitimization in order to control and Kham Daeng statue and the huge shrine as govern their people, to make them remain seen at the present time were constructed loyal and approve of the power of the later. superior, the state.

The Chao Luang Kham Daeng statues in some shrines, such as at Kaeng Pan Tao village, were built with support from the government, who also paid for the grand celebration of this statue; whereas the statues of this spirit in many shrines, such as at the Chiang Dao cave and in Mae Chai district, were built with the cooperation of local funds and the

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figures in the cult started with the royal convention before being stressed as a practical policy of the state convention; finally the statues have become managed under the power of the local people.

The role of local leaders in promoting the knowledge of the cult

The Chao Luang Kham Daeng spirit cult is considered to be a space of power declaration by the local people. Most of the ritual participants are villagers in the community who are faithful and hope to Figure 7: Chao Luang Kham Daeng statue depend on the sacredness of the Chao at Chiang Mai Luang Kham Daeng spirit. In both Mae Jai and Chiang Dao, there are certain villagers who have had a leading role in establishing the narratives about Chao Luang Kham Daeng spirit cult and in organizing and publicizing the ritual.

In Mae Jai, there is a monk who can be

considered to be the local leader in

establishing knowledge about Chao Luang

Kham Daeng spirit cult. The monk who

has this role is called Luang Pho Mae

Chai (Venerable Mae Chai) by the

villagers. His monastic name is Sobhon Bhadhanodom and he is the deputy ecclesiastical provincial governor and also Figure 8: Chao Luang Kham Daeng statue the abbot of Photharam temple in Tambol at Phayao province Srithoi, Mae Chai district. He is a learned

man. He researched and publicized the However, power does not stand still but Chao Luang Kham Daeng’s biography. can move and be transferred. It can be seen that, previously the Chiang Mai city governors held the ritual to legitimize their Data from interviewing the local people power but today the ritual is held by the reveals that previously villagers could not villagers. The ritual is a tactic of local fully explain exactly who Chao Luang people in forming social networks and Kham Daeng was and where he was from thus has other kinds of effects on the and they only knew that he was the local community. Even though later the state guardian spirit. However, after the abbot tried to control the ritual, the state’s role publicized the Chao Luang Kham Daeng’s and power could only be realized in some biography, the knowledge became more parts of the ritual, not with the whole. The established. Moreover, villagers also said idea of building the statues of important that the abbot had a statue of Chao Luang

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Kham Daeng made at Chiang Dao and also held a ritual inviting the Chao Luang Kham Daeng spirit from Chiang Dao cave to Mae Chai.10

In addition, the abbot, in co-operation with his disciples, had an important role in building the shrine of Chao Luang Kham Daeng in Photharam temple in Mae Chai in 2008. The reason why the abbot built the shrine of Chao Luang Kham Daeng was because he believed that his health would recover if he built the shrine for Chao Luang Kham Daeng in the area of the temple. Moreover, it was suggested that the abbot visit the Chao Luang Kham Daeng spirit in the Chiang Dao cave. Therefore at the end of the year 2007, he Figure 9: Several kinds of auspicious made the journey to the Chiang Dao cave. amulets relating to the Chao Luang Kham The budget for the shrine construction was Daeng of Photharam Temple, Mae Chai raised by selling propitious objects District, Phayao Province concerning the Chao Luang Kham Daeng spirit, such as auspicious coins, tiny In Chiang Dao district, the person who has statues and ta krut amulets (tiny rolled a very important role as a Brahmanistic metal amulets inscribed with magic ritual practitioner in the spirit cult of Chao words). The construction of the statue and Luang Kham Daeng is an ex-policeman the shrine was completed in 2008, and its named Rewat Kittiphutthakorn. Since he is grand celebration was held later.11 a Buddhist, not a real Brahman, he does not call himself a moh phram (Brahman specialist) but a bhudhacarya (Buddhist specialist) instead. He is like a pu jan, a northern Thai word for one who is a knowledgeable Buddhist ritual practioner. He has been hired to perform the ritual in Chiang Dao district and surrounding districts.12 He has long been a ritual performer for Chao Luang Kham Daeng. He knows the legends and the history of Chiang Dao and Chiang Mai cities. He has also collected, written about and publicized the Chao Luang Kham Daeng legend and told the story to local people

10 Interview, Po Wongkameng, 25th May 2009 11 Interview, Venerable Sobhon Bhadhanotom, 12 Interview, Rewat Kittiphutthakorn, 16th June 25th May 2009 2008

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on the annual Chao Luang Kham Daeng has also helped present a good image of spirit offering day. Most of the villagers the spirit cult and has increasingly say that they did not know the biography convinced the local people of the cult of this spirit before but only knew the which corresponds with Foucault’s simple fact that he was a spirit in Chiang concept that “whatever those in power say, Dao cave. They know better about this is right and is knowledge” (Michael spirit after listening to Mr. Rewat, the ex- Foucault 1983 cited in Teerayut Bunmee. policeman. Mr. Rewat has also performed 2008: 178–179). the ritual of reciting the incantations to consecrate Chao Luang Kham Daeng When one considers the role of the abbot amulets for the local people to worship. in the spirit cult in the frame of Buddhism, which is the national religion of Thailand The roles of these two people, the abbot and is supported by most authorities and and the ex-policeman mentioned above, the government, his involvement seems a are similar in the sense that they have strange irony. This is because most of the researched, assembled, and publicized the discourses of spirit cults are considered history of Chao Luang Kham Daeng. They negatively by society, often being seen as have also launched symbolic objects deceiving people, particularly the many concerning the spirit. Both the legend and spirit-medium cults, the Maitreya, the the symbolic objects are the necessary Future Buddha cult, etc. (Suriya kind of knowledge that helps legitimize Samuttakup 1996: 18–24). These cults and preserve the cult. Considering the focus on spirits, magic and supernatural statuses of the monk and the policeman in powers; they are against the Buddhist the ritual contexts, they are local cultural teachings. personnels who have important roles in their communities. Even though they do At the present time, Thailand has been not have political power in authority like modernized; her agricultural society has government officers, they have religious become industrialized. The lifestyle of and cultural power. More importantly, Thai citizens, including those of the they are accepted by the local people. northern , have started to change. Scientific knowledge and the The abbot has been considered a social worldview have influenced Thai society. developer and a devotee of social This has caused some knowledge systems activities, which he has done consistently to change and vanish, such as the for a long time. He has thus been praised productive system for self-sufficiency, and and received many rewards, certificates of the relationship system between family honour and honorary awards from many and community. Given the fact that authorities (Photharam temple 2008: 19– Thailand has been modernized in contrast 21). Mr. Rewat Kittiphutthakorn is a local the belief in supernatural powers and spirit learned man, knowledgeable in local worship are still strongly adhered to in history. Their roles as religious leaders and Lanna society. local men of wisdom together with their statuses as inner persons have resulted in Studies by many academics concerning the that causes their power and role belief in spirits in Lanna society over concerning the presentation of discourses nearly four decades have presented new of the spirit cult to be well accepted. This aspects in the study of the Lanna tradition

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and culture concerning spirits. These Chao Luang Kham Daeng in combination studies, such as those of Anan with the figure of Jatukamramtep and sold Kanchanapan, Prakong Nimmanahaeminda, this version of the Chao Luang Kham Chaladchai Ramitanont, Shigeharu Tanabe Daeng amulet to the local people. and others (Narumon Hinshiranan. 1998), point out that the belief in supernatural The role of women and the transmission powers and spirit cults has persisted and of power in the spirit cult functioned continuously in Lanna society. The study of Chaladchai Ramitanont In Chao Luang Kham Daeng spirit cult, (2002), as an example of the studies in this both in Chiang Mai and Phayao provinces, group, states that the Lanna worship for the role of women in the transmission of the protective spirits is an example of the power in the cult is similarly expressed. spirit worship that normally exists in Women’s power or women’s space is seen popular religions, so one can see a co- in the role of the ritual guide and as existence between spirit cults in any possessing knowledge about the details of Buddhist and Hindu societies. This is the objects used in the ritual. because spirit cults can fulfill both the spiritual and material needs of people in In the case of the Tai Yuan community in society. This is the reason why the Chiang Mai, Mrs. Pattra Supattrasuwan is worshiping of the legendary hero spirits the person who prepares the objects used still exists in modern Lanna society. in the ritual every year. She has written a manual explaining clearly the objects used The existence of the Chao Luang Kham in the ritual and also the ritual procedures. Daeng spirit cult within the Buddhist She says that she was given this duty by context in Lanna reflects the plurality of her grandmother, the only spirit medium the Thai religious system, which is a of the Chao Luang Kham Daeng spirit. combination of the ancient-indigenous After her grandmother’s death, there was local power and the new religion, i.e., no medium for the spirit. She had the duty Buddhism. This combination becomes a of welcoming local people who came to knowledge of the acceptance of the join the cult, because her house was near dominant discourse as applied reasonably the shrine which was the place for to local knowledge, leading to a performing the ritual.13 strengthening in the power of the recessive discourse and becoming the device to In the case of the Tai Yuan in Phayao, negotiate with the dominant discourse and Mrs. Po Wongkameng, 84 years old, has a preserve the cult. For example, knowledge role as the Hua Khan Kao. She was given of the Chao Luang Kham Daeng spirit cult this duty by her mother. She has helped was used as the power to resist the collect all the objects used in the ritual for installation of cable cars on the Chiang over forty years. She says that her family Dao Hill in Chiang Dao district, the local performed this duty because once, before people giving the reason that this being moved to be located in the public installation would disrespect the Chao area nowadays, the shrine, which was just Luang Kham Daeng spirit. Another example is when the fashion of Jatukamramtep amulets was popular, the 13 rd spirit cult also made a religious object of Interview, Pattra Supattrasuwan, 3 June 2009

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a tiny wood shrine, was situated in an area ritual of the Meng spirit dance allowed of her house.14 She is the only woman who women to have power and a role as is allowed on to the stage of the shrine. On important as the men’s role in religious, the day of the ritual, a seat in front of the economic and political spaces. Therefore, stage is set specifically for her. The local both genders were in a mode of people respect her. If anyone wants to compromise, not in competition. However, know in detail about the ritual’s procedure according to Pranee Wongthet (2001: or the objects for making a votive prayer 363), women have a role only in the spirit and a votive offering to the spirit, they will worship rituals, whereas in Buddhist come to ask her. rituals, only men are allowed to perform the rituals, women can only facilitate in During the ritual preparation, the roles of the making merit ritual. women and men are divided. Women prepare the objects used in the ritual, Conclusion whereas men provide the labour for the ritual, for example, killing sacrificial The analysis illustrates the dynamics of animals or playing music during the ritual. the power in the ritual space of the Chao However, some duties such as cooking for Luang Kham Daeng spirit cult. The belief the feast are a co-operation between both and the cult of Chao Luang Kham Daeng sexes. in the past was the device of power for the ruler reaching out to the community and The transmission of power in spiritual his people. This tradition was the essential guiding and in carrying the knowledge of duty of rulers in the following generations objects used in the Chao Luang Kham who strictly kept performing it, or else the Daeng spirit-offering cult is the same as city would be in trouble. The cult is strong the transmission of power in the ritual and has power in its hegemony and relating to the Lanna ancestral spirits, legitimization in order to control and which is mainly through the matrilineal govern the people, to make them remain line. The expression of power of each loyal and approve the power of the gender during the ritual is a compromise superior. between women and men. This is similar to the study the Meng (Mon) Spirit Dance Nowadays, these beliefs and rituals have () in province by been developed to become a spirit cult Shigeharu Tanabe (1991: 183–221). That which is under the control of the local study explains that there were several people who have techniques and tactics in components for creating an understanding forming their network and their relationship of gender in the Northern region of of power on several layers. Local people Thailand. Men were allowed to approach who are the cultural personnel or local the knowledge of the mantras and the leaders such as monks and local learned Buddhist traditions more. However, men have the power to produce and women had the right to approach the publicize the discourse for the spirit cult. knowledge of ancestral spirit belief. The Some have the power and knowledge of the ritual performance. Some have power in the management and the control of the ritual which is an important role for 14 Interview, Po Wongkameng, 25th May 2009 women.

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