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The Supernova That Destroyed a Protogalaxy: Prompt Chemical Enrichment and Supermassive Black Hole Growth

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The Supernova That Destroyed a Protogalaxy: Prompt Chemical Enrichment and Supermassive Black Hole Growth The Astrophysical Journal, 774:64 (10pp), 2013 September 1 doi:10.1088/0004-637X/774/1/64 C 2013. The American Astronomical Society. All rights reserved. Printed in the U.S.A. THE SUPERNOVA THAT DESTROYED A PROTOGALAXY: PROMPT CHEMICAL ENRICHMENT AND SUPERMASSIVE BLACK HOLE GROWTH Daniel J. Whalen1,2, Jarrett L. Johnson1, Joseph Smidt1, Avery Meiksin3, Alexander Heger4, Wesley Even5, and Chris L. Fryer5 1 T-2, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA 2 Zentrum fur¨ Astronomie, Institut fur¨ Theoretische Astrophysik, Universitat¨ Heidelberg, Albert-Ueberle-Str. 2, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany 3 Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Blackford Hill, Edinburgh EH9 3HJ, UK 4 Monash Centre for Astrophysics, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia 5 CCS-2, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA Received 2013 May 29; accepted 2013 July 17; published 2013 August 16 ABSTRACT The first primitive galaxies formed from accretion and mergers by z ∼ 15, and were primarily responsible for cosmological reionization and the chemical enrichment of the early cosmos. But a few of these galaxies may have formed in the presence of strong Lyman–Werner UV fluxes that sterilized them of H2, preventing them from 8 forming stars or expelling heavy elements into the intergalactic medium prior to assembly. At masses of 10 M 4 4 6 and virial temperatures of 10 K, these halos began to rapidly cool by atomic lines, perhaps forming 10 –10 M Pop III stars and, later, the seeds of supermassive black holes. We have modeled the explosion of a supermassive Pop III star in the dense core of a line-cooled protogalaxy with the ZEUS-MP code. We find that the supernova (SN) expands to a radius of ∼1 kpc, briefly engulfing the entire galaxy, but then collapses back into the potential well of the dark matter. Fallback fully mixes the interior of the protogalaxy with metals, igniting a violent starburst and fueling the rapid growth of a massive black hole at its center. The starburst would populate the protogalaxy with stars in greater numbers and at higher metallicities than in more slowly evolving, nearby halos. The SN remnant becomes a strong synchrotron source that can be observed with eVLA and eMERLIN and has a unique signature that easily distinguishes it from less energetic SN remnants. Such explosions, and their attendant starbursts, may well have marked the birthplaces of supermassive black holes on the sky. Key words: accretion, accretion disks – black hole physics – early universe – galaxies: high-redshift – hydrodynamics – quasars: general – radiative transfer – stars: early-type – supernovae: general Online-only material: color figures 1. INTRODUCTION Shang et al. 2010; Wolcott-Green et al. 2011). These rates are 1000 times those that created the first stars and may have led to After the appearance of the first stars ended the cosmic dark the formation of supermassive gas fragments. ages at z ∼ 25 (Bromm et al. 1999, 2002; Abel et al. 2000, In most cases these fragments bypassed star formation and 4 5 2002; Nakamura & Umemura 2001; O’Shea & Norman 2007, collapsed directly to 10 –10 M black holes (BHs). These 2008; Wise & Abel 2007; Yoshida et al. 2008;Turketal.2009; objects may have been the progenitors of the supermassive black Stacy et al. 2010; Clark et al. 2011; Smith et al. 2011;Greif holes (SMBHs) found in most massive galaxies today (Bromm et al. 2011, 2012), primeval galaxies formed by accretion and & Loeb 2003; Begelman et al. 2006; Johnson & Bromm 2007; mergers between cosmological halos by z ∼ 15 (Johnson et al. Djorgovski et al. 2008; Lippai et al. 2009; Tanaka & Haiman 2008, 2009; Greif et al. 2008, 2010; Jeon et al. 2012; Pawlik et al. 2009; Pan et al. 2012b). The creation of SMBH seeds by direct 2011, 2013; Wise et al. 2012). Radiation and strong winds from baryon collapse is favored by many because it is difficult for these galaxies began to reionize (Whalen et al. 2004; Kitayama the BHs of Population (Pop) III stars to sustain the rapid growth 9 et al. 2004; Alvarez et al. 2006; Abel et al. 2007; Wise & Abel needed at early times to reach 10 M by z ∼ 7(Fanetal.2003, 2008) and chemically enrich the intergalactic medium (IGM; 2006; Willott et al. 2003; Milosavljevicetal.´ 2009; Alvarez et al. Mackey et al. 2003; Smith & Sigurdsson 2007; Smith et al. 2009; 2009; Park & Ricotti 2011, 2012, 2013; Mortlock et al. 2011; Joggerst et al. 2010; Joggerst & Whalen 2011; Ritter et al. 2012; Whalen & Fryer 2012; Johnson et al. 2013c; Latif et al. 2013a; Chiaki et al. 2013; Frebel & Bromm 2012; Safranek-Shrader Schleicher et al. 2013). It was originally believed that LW fluxes et al. 2013). capable of fully quenching Pop III star formation were rare, and 9 A few of these galaxies form in the vicinity of strong that this might explain why only ∼one 10 M BH is found sources of Lyman–Werner (LW) UV flux that sterilize them per Gpc3 at z ∼ 7, but it has recently been discovered that of H2, preventing them from cooling and forming primordial such conditions may have been far more common in the early stars or hosting supernova (SN) explosions prior to assembly universe than previously thought (Dijkstra et al. 2008; Johnson (e.g., Johnson et al. 2012). These protogalaxies reach masses et al. 2012; Agarwal et al. 2012; Petri et al. 2012). 8 4 of 10 M and virial temperatures of 10 K without having Some supermassive clumps in line-cooled halos formed stable blown any gas into the IGM or been chemically enriched. At stars instead of collapsing directly to BHs (Iben 1963;Fowler 104 K, gas in these halos began to cool by H lines, triggering &Hoyle1964;Fowler1966; Appenzeller & Fricke 1972a, catastrophic baryon collapse at their centers with infall rates of 1972b; Bond et al. 1984; Fuller et al. 1986; Begelman 2010). −1 up to 1 M yr (Wise et al. 2008; Regan & Haehnelt 2009; It is now known that some of these stars died in the most 1 The Astrophysical Journal, 774:64 (10pp), 2013 September 1 Whalen et al. energetic thermonuclear explosions in the universe (Montero As a fiducial case, we examine the dynamics and energetics of et al. 2012; A. Heger & K.-J. Chen 2013, in preparation). Recent the supermassive SN in the GADGET halo in detail. simulations have shown that such SNe will be visible in both deep-field and all-sky NIR surveys at z 10 by the James Webb 2.1. Protogalaxy Models/Halo Profiles Space Telescope and the Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST) and Wide-Field Imaging Surveyor for High-Redshift The simulation details for our GADGET halo are described (WISH; Whalen et al. 2012b; see also Scannapieco et al. 2005; in Johnson et al. (2011); here, we discuss the Enzo model of Fryer et al. 2010; Kasen et al. 2011; Pan et al. 2012a; Hummel our more massive protogalaxy. Enzo (O’Shea et al. 2004)isan et al. 2012; Dessart et al. 2013; Whalen et al. 2013b, 2012a, adaptive mesh refinement (AMR) cosmology code. It utilizes an 2013c, 2013a; de Souza et al. 2013, for other work on Pop III SN N-body adaptive particle-mesh scheme (Efstathiou et al. 1985; light curves). The effects of a 55,500 M thermonuclear SN on Couchman 1991; Bryan & Norman 1997) to evolve DM and a protogalaxy and its surrounding cosmological flows has just a piecewise-parabolic method for fluid dynamics (Woodward been studied by Johnson et al. (2013b). For explosions in low & Colella 1984; Bryan et al. 1995). A low-viscosity Riemann ambient densities, like those of an H ii region formed by the solver for is used for capturing shocks, and in these runs we use star, they found that the SN blows most of the baryons from the recently implemented HLLC Riemann solver (Toro et al. the protogalaxy to radii of 10 kpc, or about 10 times the virial 1994) for enhanced stability for strong shocks and rarefaction radius of the halo. Some of this gas, which is heavily enriched by waves. metals from the SN, later falls back into the halo on timescales Like ZEUS-MP, Enzo solves nine-species H and He gas of 100 Myr. chemistry and cooling together with hydrodynamics (Abel et al. However, past work has shown that many supermassive 1997; Anninos et al. 1997). To approximate the formation of a Pop III stars may not form H ii regions because of the enormous protogalaxy in a strong LW background, we evolve the halo with infall rates at the centers of line-cooled halos (Johnson et al. H2 cooling turned off for simplicity. We initialize our simulation 2012). The star may then have exploded in very high ambient volume with Gaussian primordial density fluctuations at z = densities capable of radiating away most of the energy of the 150 with MUSIC (Hahn & Abel 2011), with cosmological SN as bremsstrahlung X-rays in very short times, before the parameters from the 7 yr Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Λ Ω = ejecta can be blown from the halo (Kitayama & Yoshida 2005; Probe CDM+SZ+LENS best fit (Komatsu et al. 2011): M Ω = Ω = = = Whalen et al. 2008; see also Vasiliev et al. 2012, for studies 0.266, Λ 0.734, b 0.0449, h 0.71, σ8 0.81, and of less massive SNe in early protogalaxies). This perhaps more n = 0.963. likely scenario could not be studied by Johnson et al. (2013b) To capture an atomically cooled halo in a mass range of 8 9 because such losses occur on scales of 0.001–10 pc, below the 10 –10 M by z ∼ 15,weusea2Mpcsimulationbox 3 resolution limit of their GADGET (Springel et al.
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