Melanesia in Review: Issues and Events, 2009

FIJI meeting, attended instead by Attorney ’s three coups have each occurred General Aiyaz Sayed-Khaiyum, settled in two stanzas: first an illegal over- on yet another ultimatum to Fiji’s throw of the elected government, and interim government, insisting that then a later abrogation of the con- a credible timetable for elections be stitution. Unlike its predecessors, the drawn up by 1 May. Australian Prime 5 December 2006 coup took twenty- Minister Kevin Rudd said “a line in eight months to reach the second the sand” had been drawn (Post Cou- denouement. On 10 April 2009, the rier 2009). Bainimarama responded constitution was ditched, the judiciary that he had no intention of complying sacked, and the scheduled date for with the ultimatum and said that the elections was pushed back to 2014. inevitable suspension should have been The military was digging itself in for immediate (FijiLive, 29 Jan 2009). the long haul, in defiance of domestic His nonattendance at the pif summit and international protest. Domestic generated some controversy within the criticism was to be silenced by stiff ranks of the interim administration. media censorship, public emergency Permanent Secretary in the Ministry regulations, travel bans, corruption of Foreign Affairs Isoa Gavidi charges, clandestine firebombs, as well and Fiji’s High Commissioner to PNG as cancellation of pensions. The inevi- Ratu Isoa Tikoca were both sacked table storm of international protest after urging Bainimarama to make an after 10 April was less easily silenced. appearance in Port Moresby. Gavidi In response, military commander and said later that Bainimarama’s familiar- interim Prime Minister Josaia Voreqe ity with top-down military authority claimed to be a made it difficult for him to accept victim of Australian and advice (, 3 March 2009). “bullying” and appealed for solidarity Over the course of 2009, other regime from the Melanesian Spearhead Group insiders urging a more conciliatory states. Over 2009, as Bainimarama’s stance—including Permanent Secretary enemies faltered, he visibly grew in in the Prime Minister’s Office Parmesh domestic self-confidence. On the inter- Chand, as well as Robin Nair and national stage, he projected an image former Citizen’s Constitutional of a wronged and misunderstood Forum activist Jone Dakuvula—also champion of modernism in Fiji. found themselves demoted, sacked, or In January 2009, Bainimarama marginalized. refused to attend a meeting of Pacific During late 2008, hopes for Islands Forum (pif) leaders in Port some resolution to the coup-related Moresby, insisting that severe flood- impasse had focused on the scheduled ing in Fiji required him to stay home President’s Political Dialogue Forum, to assist clean-up operations. The pif which the United Nations and the

416 pol i t ical reviews • melanesia 417

Commonwealth had been invited to Far from embracing pressures for a chair. But preliminary dialogue ses- restoration of democracy, the interim sions with political parties—assisted government was busily dismantling by interlocutors Hawai‘i-based Ton- yet another tier of elected leadership. gan academic Sitiveni Halapua and In January, Fiji’s town and municipal Robin Nair, a Fiji Indian who formerly councils—the country’s only elected worked in the Australian Department bodies for which all Fiji citizens vote of Foreign Affairs and Trade—gave together without race-based electoral little cause for optimism. Through rolls—were dissolved, and administra- early 2009, meetings were regularly tors were instead appointed to run the canceled or delayed, and Bainimarama urban authorities. This was another made clear that he wanted to exclude blow for Fiji’s political elites, still ’s Soqosoqo Duavata reeling as a result of the dissolution ni Lewenivanua (sdl) party and any of Parliament in 2006. The councils others who refused to sign up to his had been important bases for the sdl, government’s People’s Charter (for nfp, and the (flp). details, see Fraenkel 2009). Qarase’s For the flp in particular, the shift SDL, together with the National Fed- in position over 2009 was dramatic. eration Party (nfp), and former Oppo- Party leader Mahendra Chaudhry sition leader , as well as had joined the interim cabinet as trade unions and civil society organi- finance minister in January 2007, as zations, met under the auspices of the well as taking responsibility for sugar, Democracy Movement in January, but national planning, and public sector this too was soon silenced. In March, restructuring. His departure in August there were attacks on the homes and 2008 had been due to a rift with the vehicles of prominent government crit- cabinet and the Military Council, ics, including Democracy Movement ostensibly over a bungled attempt to President Attar Singh, Fiji Times editor impose punitive duties on the bottled Netani Rika, and Colonel Sakiusa mineral water industry. The subse- Raivoce, a former army officer who quent break with Bainimarama had is also head of Global Risks Fiji, a not been complete, but it sharpened recruitment organization for security in early 2009. In February, Chaudhry personnel bound for Iraq. Qarase trav- criticized the interim prime minister eled to in February, where he for showing “an apparent lack of con- claimed his life was at risk in Fiji, but cern for the poor in our society,” and he nevertheless returned to face trial in response, Bainimarama accused the on corruption charges in March. The flp leader of failing “to understand deposed prime minister spent much the dynamics of the world’s economy” of 2009 away from on his home (Fiji Times, 14 Feb 2009). Efforts to island. In January, he was installed as heal that breach, reportedly includ- the new chief of his Mavana village on ing an offer that Chaudhry rejoin the Vanuabalavu. Reports of that event cabinet, proved unsuccessful (FijiLive, were carried back to Suva by the new 26 Feb 2009). Tui Kubuca’s traditional herald, Daily Not only had flp-run councils in Post editor Mesake Koroi. Labasa, , and Nasinu been 418 the contemporary pacific • 22:2 (2010)

liquidated, but Nasinu Mayor Rajesh- old hands from the 1980s, Gautam war Kumar, a close ally of Chaudhry, Ramswarup and Rasheed Ali, both was also being pursued by the Fiji post-1987 coup émigrés. Sugar down- Independent Commission Against sizing was not primarily an attack on Corruption for alleged misappro- the farmers’ unions or the flp. It was priation of funds. In addition, the an inevitable retrenchment given the flp’s power base in the sugar indus- ratcheting down of European Union try was under threat. In February, (EU) preferential pricing. But the con- the interim government dismantled sequences were the same. the Sugar Commission of Fiji, Fiji Chaudhry also had other rea- Sugar Marketing Ltd, and the Sugar sons for concern about the chang- Research Institute, and was accused ing political situation. In February, by Chaudhry of a “consequential a Times-Tebbutt opinion poll found marginalisation of the cane growers, that 37 percent of Fiji Indians favored as was the case in the colonial era” Bainimarama as prime minister in (FijiLive, 21 Feb 2009). In May, the contrast to only 15 percent in favor of government refused to continue to Chaudhry—a dramatic change from bail out the heavily subsidized South May 2006 when Chaudhry’s flp had Pacific Fertilizers Ltd, a move also captured 81 percent of the Indian opposed by the flp. Floods in Janu- vote. Among indigenous , ary had destroyed the old Sigatoka Qarase remained the favorite, with Bridge, across which tramlines used 52 percent, compared to 19 percent to carry cane from Olosara Sector preferring Bainimarama (Fiji Times, on the eastern side of the river to the 20 Feb 2009). Although opinion polls mill at Lautoka in the west. In July, in Fiji are notoriously unreliable, the the nfp-aligned Fiji Cane Growers Times-Tebbutt poll entailed interviews Association accused the government of with 11,256 people, an unusually abandoning the two hundred farm- large sample, and other than this, only ers in Olosara. Permanent Secretary anecdotal surveys of the public mood for Sugar Parmesh Chand responded were available through 2009. Given that spending f$7 million to repair the the climate of intimidation and the bridge did not make financial sense usual urban bias in polling, the survey and urged farmers to “switch to non- probably understated the backing for cane from 2010” (FijiLive, 19 Sept Qarase and the sdl at the time, but 2009). (f$1.00 equals approximately few doubted the findings about Fiji us$.52.) The thirty-eight-member Fiji Indian support for Bainimarama’s Sugar Cane Grower’s Council was government. dissolved in August. It had previously Nevertheless, this was a curious been controlled by the flp-aligned reaction from a community that had National Farmers’ Union, and the flp protested vigorously against the coups responded by furiously attacking the of 1987 and 2000. Fiji Indians, who Fiji Sugar Corporation’s “local /expa- for the most part lack the safety net triate consultants from Australia” of owning land in rural areas, had (flp 2009), a reference to the growing been hit hard by steep fuel and food influence of two returning industry price rises in 2008. Acceleration in pol i t ical reviews • melanesia 419 the decline of the sugar industry over Brothers School in Suva. His actions 2007–2009 lowered living standards after the 2000 coup, and in particu- particularly in the cane belts of lar his seizure of executive authority northern Vanua Levu and western Viti and abrogation of the constitution on Levu, and strengthened the longer- 29 May 2000, had at the time been run exodus toward the towns. Bitter vigorously condemned by Fiji Indian hatred of the Qarase government had commentators, including the flp prompted initial sympathies for the leadership. The platform of his thirty- December 2006 coup, but would this seven-day administration in 2000 endure as the economy faltered, and as had been about uplifting the indig- the prices of basic foodstuffs soared? enous Fijians, not racial equality. His Despite the economic deterioration, espousal of the cause of the Fiji Indi- the signs were that Indian backing ans had matured during battles against for the interim government remained the Qarase government, particularly strong. By year’s end, even the reso- over the Reconciliation, Tolerance lutely anti-coup nfp saw its Fiji Cane and Unity Bill, which many believed Growers Association making overtures was aimed at granting amnesty to the to Bainimarama (fbc, 16 Feb 2010). 2000 coup instigators. Bainimarama Chaudhry had initially encouraged nevertheless remained first and fore- support for the regime on the part of most a military man, in charge of an Fiji Indians, and although he was now army that was 99 percent composed of out of the government, other promi- ethnic Fijians. Little effort was made nent Indians like Aiyaz Sayed-Khai- to alter this even after the 2006 coup, yum and Colonel Mohammed Aziz as could be seen from the overwhelm- were in key positions in the new order. ingly indigenous names of new recruits Bainimarama spoke regularly of racial listed for training exercises as adver- equality, and his relentless assault on tised in the national newspapers over Qarase, as well as on the Methodist 2007–2009. In substance, Bainimara- Church leaders and Fijian chiefs allied ma’s core message remained similar to with the SDL, captured the sympathy of that in 2000: It was about pulling Fiji- those who had long felt themselves to ans up by the bootstraps into moder- be the victims of Fijian ethno-nation- nity, using repression if necessary. alism. As University of the South Allusions to a cannibalistic past and Pacific (usp) economist Wadan Narsey other derogatory references to Fijian remarked in despair at the prevailing backwardness were used to justify the mood in his community, “To obtain case for military-guided modernization the support of Indian people in this (see, eg, SkyNewsAustralia 2009; see country (and abroad), all you need to also Fraenkel 2007, 435). The Novem- do is chant the mantra of racial equal- ber 2000 mutiny, which involved an ity” (Fiji Times, 31 Jan 2009). attempt on Bainimarama’s life, had Bainimarama’s commitment to encouraged a strain of fanaticism in racial equality had come late in his the commander, and determination career, although many retrospectively not to be swayed from his purpose emphasized the importance of his was no doubt reinforced by the likely schooling at the multiracial Marist dire personal consequences of failure. 420 the contemporary pacific • 22:2 (2010)

Not all of Bainimarama’s loyal the National Stadium (Sydney Morn- lieutenants shared this perspective. In ing Herald, 29 Nov 2009), while the February at the Nasova Police Acad- Qarase-aligned mainstream Methodist emy, Police Commissioner Esala Teleni Church had meeting permits refused. criticized senior Fiji Indian officers The “Christian Crusade” within the for disloyalty after some protested police force, and Vulaono’s New to the media about internal religious Methodist road show, only abated pressures, including a requirement to after protests from prominent Catholic attend prayer sessions as part of the regime supporters led Bainimarama to commissioner’s “Christian Crusade” quash the new cult. against crime. At a meeting secretly The legality of rule by presidential filmed by Fiji tv, Commodore Teleni decree, and thus of Bainimarama’s berated the mostly Hindu and Mus- government, had been upheld by a lim Indian officers saying “Kemudou decision of Fiji’s High Court in Octo- tamata liu muri (You people are back- ber 2008, but an appeal in the Qarase stabbers). I don’t know what’s wrong v Bainimarama case was inevitable. with you people” (Fiji tv, 17 Feb Judicial deliberation in this case was 2009; FijiLive, 18 Feb 2009). Baini- constrained by the precedent set after marama came to the defense of his the 2000 coup, when the Court of fellow naval officer, saying, “I would Appeal ruled in the Chandrika Prasad do the same thing,” and emphasiz- case that the 1997 constitution was ing the importance of discipline in still intact and that the then postcoup the security forces: “Commissioner interim government had no legal Teleni is not a racist, he is only doing standing. To avoid that precedent, his job” (FijiLive, 18 Feb 2009). In a Chief Justice , together letter to the Fiji Times, former Vice with Justices Davendra Pathik and President Ratu John Byrne, ruled in October 2008 pointed out that this was vilification that the postcoup actions of President of members of a specific ethnic group Ratu entailed a legal and that “racism by another name exercise of “prerogative powers,” does not make it less so” (Fiji Times, which, although not explicit in the 25 Feb 2009). In March at Valelevu, 1997 constitution, had been inherited Commodore Teleni, strutting on the by all former colonies from the British stage in the manner of an evangelist Crown (fjhc 2008). This was a ver- preacher, reiterated his warning to dict condemned by most legal scholars disloyal officers and threatened divine (see Williams and others 2008). The retribution (Fiji tv, 21 March 2009). October 2008 judgment was never- Police officers were required to attend theless vigorously upheld as the basis Christian crusade events organized by of the legal order in Fiji. In January, Teleni’s brother Atu Vulaono’s New postcoup appointee Justice Thomas Methodist Church. Through mid- Hickie—who quite literally sang the 2009, Vulaono’s police force–funded praises of the 2008 Fiji judgments New Methodists held frequent “Souls on national television in November to Jesus” rallies across Suva, in (Fiji tv, 25 Nov 2008)—convicted Sukuna Park, at the fmf Dome, and at the Fiji Times of “contempt of court” pol i t ical reviews • melanesia 421 for publishing a letter critical of that himself head of state. The Fiji Consti- judgment. Although no verdict was tution Amendment Act 1997 Revoca- recorded against Fiji Times publisher tion Decree 2009 stated: “I hereby Rex Gardner, he subsequently became decree that all Decrees promulgated the third Australian newspaper pub- under my hand and seal shall be lisher to be deported since the 2006 regarded as law and shall be observed coup. and enforced.” Elections would not In the Court of Appeal judgment be held until September 2014, giving issued on 9 April, the October 2008 five years to put in place the necessary decision was overturned. Justices Ian reforms “to hold true democratic and Lloyd, Randall Powell sc, and Fran- parliamentary elections.” Another day cis Maxwell Douglas qc ruled that later, Bainimarama and his cabinet presidential powers were closely cir- were all reappointed. Officers from cumscribed by the 1997 constitution. the military-controlled Ministry of The dismissal of Qarase’s government Information were sent on a nightly and the appointment of Bainimarama basis into the newsrooms of the local as prime minister were pronounced media organizations, several foreign illegal. It was declared that a neutral journalists were expelled, and the prime minister should be appointed in signals from Radio Australia were a caretaker role to advise a constitu- jammed in an effort to avoid “negative tional dissolution of parliament ahead publicity.” The Fiji dollar was deval- of fresh elections (fjca 2009). With ued by 20 percent, and longstanding their judgment released and a govern- Reserve Bank Governor Savenaca ment appeal for a stay order refused, Narube was sacked. So too was Justices Lloyd, Powell, and Douglas Director of Public Prosecutions Josaia left the country, enabling Gates and Naigalevu and, as a result of regime other Fiji resident judges to avoid infighting, Ombudsman Shaista the stain of having ruled the interim Shameem. Bainimarama’s decision, government illegal. Attorney Gen- at the initial press conference after eral Aiyaz Sayed-Khaiyum criticized the abrogation of the constitution, the court for generating a “vacuum” to appear alongside his fellow naval (FijiLive, 9 April 2009). Bainimarama officers, Esala Teleni and Viliame told Auckland-based Radio Tarana Naupoto, rather than the top-ranking that he was going back to barracks army officers, suggested some fear of (Fiji Times, 11 April 2009). This was, resistance. Blog sites speculated about as Australian National University Pro- the absence of Colonel Pita Driti, the fessor Brij V Lal put it, a “cruel hoax” Fiji Land Force commander, and Ratu (Lal 2009), one scripted to reinforce Tevita Uluilakeba, the head of the key the fallacy of presidential control. Third Infantry Regiment (3rfi) who The next day, President Iloilo— is also the youngest son of former whose office remained firmly under President Ratu Sir and military control—announced that he politically well placed as chairman of was abrogating the 1997 constitution, the Lau Provincial Council. that all judicial appointments had been Protest within Fiji was negligible, revoked, and that he was declaring as it had been after the October 422 the contemporary pacific • 22:2 (2010)

2008 High Court decision. A few ruption faded in prominence, partly courageous turned up to due to the lack of success of the Fiji demonstrate outside courts in Suva Independent Commission Against and Lautoka when they reopened Corruption in securing prosecutions after the Easter break, and Chaudhry and partly because of serious allega- condemned Bainimarama’s actions tions emerging against the interim as “autocratic and dictatorial” (The government itself. In March 2009, Australian, 27 April 2009). Schisms Auditor General Eroni Vatuloka within the military remained con- completed a report into the f$184,740 cealed or were healed by reward and received by the commander in “back self-interest. On 24 April, Colonel Pita pay” for 698 days of leave alleg- Driti together with close Bainimarama edly not taken since 1978, and then confidante Colonel Mohammed Aziz promptly resigned. The Web site of were publicly rewarded with medals his office remained stalled at the year by President Iloilo. In June, Driti said 2006, the reports for which were that the Military Council was 100 shown as “produced but not yet percent behind Bainimarama and tabled in parliament.” The pursuit of denied rumors of a split. Soon after prominent individuals for corruption, the destruction of Fiji’s legal order, including deposed Prime Minister soldiers convicted for the killings of Qarase and sacked Airports Fiji Chief Nimilote Verebasaga and Sakiusa Executive Sakiusa Tuisolia, was trans- Rabaka were released on “compul- parently linked to personal and politi- sory supervision orders,” echoing the cal vendettas, while Fijian villages that much-criticized actions of the Qarase acquiesced under the new order were government in its treatment of chiefs rewarded with development projects. convicted for their part in the 2000 During 2008, the emphasis had coup. Although those actions deeply instead been on electoral reform, a damaged Bainimarama’s credibility, perspective encouraged by the delib- they also sent a clear message to the erations of the National Council for military rank and file that they would Building a Better Fiji (ncbbf). Early be protected should they shed blood to elections were unwise, it had been protect the regime. During 2009, mili- argued, because the 1997 constitu- tary officers received substantial pay tion’s race-based electoral rolls were increases as well as additional back responsible for ethnic polarization pay. By midyear, there were around in postindependence Fiji. Time was sixty officers located in senior civil ser- needed for Bainimarama to convince vice positions, and all four divisional Fiji’s politicians to sign up to a new commissioners were military men. All electoral system, a central focus of this was a far cry from Bainimarama’s the political parties dialogue, and initial postcoup claims that no military the scheduled President’s Political officer would benefit from the Decem- Dialogue Forum. This was a vision ber 2006 takeover. embraced by many of Bainimarama’s Over 2008, the initial justifica- sympathizers, both within Fiji and tion of the December 2006 coup as a even more so overseas. While it “clean-up campaign” against cor- seemed at least plausible before the pol i t ical reviews • melanesia 423

April abrogation, it made no sense The furious Wages Council chairman, afterward, when nothing stopped Catholic priest Father Kevin Barr, immediate electoral reform by presi- accused the interim prime minister dential decree. After 10 April, anyway, of caving in to business interests and regime spokesman Neumi Leweni gave a press conference from the flatly rejected any resumption of dia- labor ministry on national television logue. In July, Bainimarama told sbs provocatively accompanied by gov- Dateline that an election was out of ernment critic, usp Professor Wadan the question because Qarase “would Narsey. Bainimarama assured his win it and where would that take us?” critics that, although postponed, the (sbs Dateline, 26 July 2009). Hence- minimum wage increases would occur forth, electoral reform issues would be in July. A few days later, with the Fiji downplayed. The justification for the tv cameras rolling, he walked together long delay until 2014 before elections with Father Barr through Suva’s noto- was never publicly made explicit, but rious Jittu estate squatter settlement to it became obvious that Bainimarama demonstrate government concern with hoped that, with time, Fijian opinion issues of urban poverty. would eventually swing in his favor. In July, as promised, the interim On 1 July, Bainimarama released a government agreed to the minimum “Strategic Policy Framework,” written wage increases across nine indus- by ncbbf Technical Director John tries. Other moves were also made Samy, who again traveled to Fiji from to strengthen the link with the leftist his New Zealand home. This outlined development lobby. In March, the plans for consultations on a new con- China Railway First Company signed stitution to commence only in 2012, a f$70 million contract to build low- and for the new legal framework to be cost housing units in Tacirua, Rawai, in place by 2013, a year ahead of the and Raiwaqa on the outskirts of Suva. intended election deadline. Although This was intended as part of a f$260 hostility to “ethnic based voting” million soft loan being sought from was still mentioned, the emphasis the Export-Import Bank of China at was now firmly on the economy and 2 percent interest per annum. Three “pro-growth and pro-poor” initia- hundred Chinese contractors were at tives. This was music to the ears of work building a hydroelectric dam in Bainimarama’s left-wing supporters, remote Nadarivatu, and others were who had long urged a focus on alle- building a new bridge at Naqali to viating the plight of urban squatters cross the flood-prone Waidina River in and combating “neo-liberalism.” In Naitasiri. In October, Barr’s Ecumeni- January, the regime’s orientation had cal Centre for Research Education and been different. Then, Bainimarama Advocacy produced a survey indicat- had postponed scheduled minimum ing that school attendance was falling wage increases across nine industries because poor families could not afford and rescinded a planned 10 percent bus fares. Bainimarama responded by decrease in bus fares (which was to abolishing the fares, generating vigor- reverse an earlier increase triggered by ous applause from radical civil society the global fuel price hikes of 2008). activists (Sydney Morning Herald, 30 424 the contemporary pacific • 22:2 (2010)

Nov 2009). But would this be only conference would go ahead in defiance another temporary marriage of conve- of the regime (Raw Fiji News, 21 July nience, as had been that with the elec- 2009). Government spokesman Neumi toral reformists and the People’s Char- Leweni described this as a “form of ter lobbyists? After all, the common incitement” (FijiLive, 22 July 2009). denominator in these various favored Ro Teimumu and eight Methodist alliances were that they all justified leaders were taken into military cus- the interim government’s retention of tody and then charged with breach- political power and the delay of fresh ing the emergency regulations. Ro elections while providing temporary Teimumu’s daughter, together with jobs for a few hired scriptwriters. Chief Adi Litia Cakobau, placed With the politicians, chiefs, and a fireside video on YouTube denounc- public sector unions defeated, many ing the arrest (Cakobau 2009). Ro indigenous Fijians looked to the Teimumu and the churchmen were Methodist Church for leadership in released on bail but kept under close the struggle against Bainimarama. In scrutiny. Resistance soon petered out. June, Methodist Church President The triumphant Bainimarama declared Ame Tugaue and General Secretary that the church’s annual convention Tuikilakila Waqairatu met with would not be held until 2014. Bainimarama and were told that the With the Methodists now also Methodist annual conference was to humbled, many in Fiji passively acqui- be canceled unless the veteran fire- esced under the new order, hoping brand ethno-nationalist, the Reverend for better times. Overseas, defiance Manasa Lasaro, and the Reverend remained easier. The émigré-run Fiji Tomasi Kanailagi were expelled (Fiji Democracy Movement organized dem- Sun, 9 June 2009). The conference, onstrations in Sydney and Canberra scheduled for August at Lomanikoro that were attended almost exclusively in Rewa, was to be hosted by deposed by indigenous Fijian families. At the education minister and Rewa high meeting in chief Ro . This was an Cairns in August, Niue Prime Minister obvious potential focal point for indig- Toke Talagi shocked even Australian enous resistance: Military intelligence and New Zealand diplomats by call- identified the risk entailed by allowing ing on Fijians to “rise up to challenge an event that even under normal cir- the undemocratic rule of the military cumstances would draw large num- regime,” seeming to urge a violent bers of indigenous Fijians together. confrontation: “If 500,000 Fijians Public Emergency Regulations, which take to the streets Frank Bainimarama had been renewed monthly since the can’t shoot them all” (The Austra- April crisis, were the “only way to lian, 6 Aug 2009). Samoan Prime control instability which may give rise Minister Tuilaepa Sailele Malielegaoi to violent situations,” said Defence had also called on Fijians to “wake Minister Ratu (FijiLive, up and reclaim your Government” 23 June 2009). In July, Ro Teimumu earlier in 2009, leading Bainimarama released an open letter on the Inter- to respond that such comments were net, saying that the annual Methodist “un-Pacific” (FijiLive, 26 Feb 2009). pol i t ical reviews • melanesia 425

Other Pacific leaders were more (gcc) and the Methodist Church. sympathetic to Fiji’s interim prime The institute urged an international minister, including Papua New Guinea accommodation with “the reality” and Prime Minister Sir Michael Somare criticized those “persistently demonis- and Vanuatu’s Edward Natapei, who ing the Commodore” (Pacific Institute offered to broker talks under the of Public Policy 2009). Such a gener- auspices of the Melanesian Spearhead ous interpretation took Bainimarama Group. The small island states to Fiji’s at his word and even exaggerated the north, including Tuvalu and Kiribati, commodore’s objectives. Bainima- were worried that repercussions of rama, wrongly described as “Catho- Forum defiance of Bainimarama’s lic,” might have defied the leaders of government might lead to a severing the Methodist Church and the Great of their air links, through Fiji, to the Council of Chiefs, but it was not clear outside world. Lobbying by Can- whether he sought to destroy or to berra and Wellington ensured that the capture and reshape those institutions. Pacific Islands Forum official state- Even if the case was fairly made for ments remained resolutely in favor of combating corruption and eliminating the suspension of Fiji, but the position racial polarization, it was far-fetched of the pif Secretariat located in Suva to think that military dictatorship was was obviously threatened. Qarase and the means for accomplishing these Chaudhry had been successfully pre- goals. Other overseas think tanks vailed upon to join forces in August were also bewildered by Bainimarama to write a joint letter to the Cairns but wanted to offer some way out of meeting rejecting the three-year delay the impasse. The Australian Strate- before elections and condemning the gic Policy Institute’s Anthony Bergin Bainimarama regime for “setting itself absurdly recommended that Britain’s up as the sole arbiter of what is good Prince Andrew, as a fellow white- for Fiji” (Qarase and Chaudhry 2009). suited naval officer, would be an ideal Yet in truth, the anti–interim govern- mediator to engage in discussions with ment politicians remained deeply Bainimarama (The Australian, 8 May divided, and even great adversity had 2009). not truly healed the schisms of bygone Before the United Nations General years. Assembly in September, Bainimarama The silencing of domestic criticism condemned the “old elites,” whom he of Fiji’s interim regime over the second blamed for generating earlier coups half of 2009 also spurred Bainimara- and impeding reform. He did not ma’s foreign sympathizers to become mention that prominent backers of more vocal, now less afraid that their the 1987 coup, including Ratu Inoke interpretations might be contested Kubuabola and , were in his from within Fiji. The Vanuatu-based own cabinet. His assault on the “old Institute of Public Policy called Baini- elites” had been selective and prag- marama a “circuit breaker” to break matic: powerful ministerial portfolios “endemic racism,” rid Fiji of corrup- were also held by prominent eastern tion, and destroy the pernicious influ- chiefs, such as Ratu Epeli Ganilau and ences of the Ratu , both sons-in- 426 the contemporary pacific • 22:2 (2010) law of Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara, Fiji’s October 2008, now combined under former president and 1970 –1987 the rubric of the Ministry of Provin- prime minister. The attack on the cial Development, Indigenous and chiefs had been aimed at destroying Multi-Ethnic Affairs. In late 2008, he the influence of the paramount chiefs had convened an initial meeting of the who were firm allies of Qarase, partic- Bose ni Turaga (council of lower-level ularly Ro Teimumu chiefs), with the objective of a bottom- Kepa (Rewa-) and Ratu upward capturing of the authority of (Cakaudrove), the Great Council of Chiefs. While but Bainimarama nevertheless under the 1997 constitution this had remained close to allied chiefs—for been an important maneuver: the example, in his home village of Kiuva Great Council of Chiefs was consti- and in the old Matanitu (kingdom) tutionally the appointing authority of Verata. His own behavior and for the president and vice president. demeanor, as well as his treatment In the wake of the abrogation of the during military kava ceremonies, was constitution, that route was no longer increasingly vakaturaga (in the man- necessary, and no effort was made ner of high chiefs). to reconvene the Bose ni Turaga in Had the Great Council of Chiefs 2009. A week after the constitution’s truly been abolished, or would it abrogation, Ratu Epeli became vice ultimately be reconstituted? In August, president by decree. Ratu Josefa Iloilo Bainimarama was adamant that “there was retired on 30 July, paving the way is no Great Council of Chiefs,” but for Nailatikau to assume the top job. he was noncommittal about whether The delay before that appointment, such a body might later be resurrected which only occurred three months (FijiLive, 11 Aug 2009). According later on 5 November, suggested some to the 2008 gcc decree, a new look nervousness on the part of Bainima- fifty-two-member council had been rama about handing over executive envisaged comprising only apolitical authority. In the intervening period, chiefs who had been “traditionally there were rumors that Bainimarama installed,” suggesting a more puri- was toying with taking the presidency tanical definition of “chief ” than for himself. existing practice (under which many If the propaganda was to be titles remain vacant and many chiefs believed, then, the elegant new f$30 uninstalled). Bainimarama had also million Vale ni Bose Levu Vakaturaga backtracked on proposals to down- complex situated next to Government grade the Ministry of Fijian Affairs to House on the Suva foreshore was a a department in 2007. Over 2007– huge white elephant. The project, 2008, he had been angered by the gcc undertaken by Raghwan Construc- refusal to endorse Ratu Epeli Naila- tion Ltd, had started under Qarase, tikau as vice president—or effectively but what purpose was it now to serve? president in waiting, given the age and Military spokesman Neumi Leweni infirmity of eighty-nine-year-old Ratu said that the new building would Josefa Iloilo. Nailatikau had him- be officially titled “Vale ni Bose” self taken control of that ministry in (“House of Meetings”) without the pol i t ical reviews • melanesia 427 reference to “Vakaturaga” (“Great sugar were being gradually reduced Chiefs”). A hundred guests were to enable EU compliance with World invited to attend the grand September Trading Organization rules. On 1 opening ceremony and watch Presi- October, the EU price for Fiji sugar dent Iloilo perform his last official was cut by a further 22 percent, bring- duty. Representing the government ing to 36 percent the total fall since were Ratu Epeli Ganilau, as acting 2006. That would have happened prime minister, Ratu Epeli Nailatikau, even without the coup, but scheduled Filipe Bole, and Aiyaz Sayed-Khaiyum. EU grant assistance for adjustment to The ceremony was boycotted by the new pricing regime was canceled most of the Qarase-aligned chiefs, as a result of the illegal overthrow but chiefs from Macuata, Sabeto, of Qarase’s government and the Bua, and Ba were present, as was the lack of agreement on a road map to Rewa Vunivalu Ro Epeli Mataitini, elections. The Fiji Sugar Corpora- and, rather oddly, Naitasiri chief Ratu tion produced 167,611 metric tonnes Inoke Takiveikata, who was soon to of sugar in 2009, well below the be imprisoned for alleged involvement 250,000 –300,000 tonnes scheduled in a 2007 plot to assassinate Baini- to be delivered to Tate & Lyle annu- marama (FijiLive, 26 Sept 2009). The ally. Exports fell for the third succes- interim prime minister also did not sive year and stood at about half the attend the October launch by PNG average level a decade previously. The Prime Minister Sir Michael Somare of Fiji Sugar Corporation annual report Deryck Scarr’s biography Tuimacilai: for 2009 declared an after tax loss A Life of Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara, of f$36.8 million in the year ending although the daughters of Ratu Mara 31 May. The company was unable to and his sons-in-law Ratu Epeli Naila- make repayments on a f$86 million tikau and Ganilau were present, as loan from exim Bank of India for was Mara’s son 3rfi Commander purchasing materials for mill restruc- Ratu Tevita Uluilakeba. Ambivalence turing. Just prior to the last shipment toward the incorporated element of preceding the 1 October price fall, the chiefly order was obvious, but both of the main Indian farmers’ there was also no sign of eagerness to unions reported military harassment cut the eastern chiefs adrift. of cane-cutters for burning cane, the The economy fared poorly over latter being a widespread practice that 2009. Unlike the coups of 1987 and eases cutting but lowers sugar output. 2000, which resulted in sharp down- Like sugar, Fiji’s garment indus- turns followed by rapid recoveries, try also faced a long-running decline the 2006 coup generated a double-dip that was accentuated by the postcoup recession. The economy contracted crisis: a thousand jobs were lost over by 6.6 percent in 2007, remained just the year to June 2009, equivalent to about flat (0.2 percent) in 2008, and roughly one-fifth of the workforce fell again by 2.5 percent in 2009. Long (Fiji Sun, 1 Jan 2009). Gold produc- protected under the European Union tion had resumed at Vatukoula on Lomé and then Cotonou arrange- Viti Levu in early 2008, although with ments, preferential prices for Fiji a workforce of 750, about half the 428 the contemporary pacific • 22:2 (2010) number employed before the closure ton extension project had gone into in late 2006. Output fell during the receivership. first nine months of 2009, but tracked Official figures suggested that, in upward in the final months of the February, Fiji’s reserves had fallen to year. Bottled mineral water, which f$672.2 million, equivalent to 2.7 accounted for 11.4 percent of Fiji’s months of imports, but, in an inter- exports over 2006–2008, was badly view with SkyNewsAustralia in May, hit by the slowdown in American Bainimarama acknowledged that markets in 2009. Criticism of manu- the true figure had been “below 1.8 facturers Natural Waters of Fiji Ltd months” of imports. The devaluation in the September / October 2009 issue in April eased pressure on the reserves, of the US magazine Mother Jones but inflation predictably increased for putting “lipstick on a junta” and as the local cost of imported goods for having a heavy carbon footprint rose. Reserves were also boosted damaged the company’s credibility. by an International Monetary Fund Fish exports performed strongly over (imf) allocation of f$188 million in the year, and Levuka’s Pacific Fish- special drawing rights to Fiji, part ing Company cannery benefited from of a broader global rollout of assis- the closure of one of the American tance in response to the international Samoan canneries. Yet the standout financial crisis and by restrictions on industry in 2009 was clearly tour- bank repatriation of profits. However, ism. Visitor arrivals had fallen after devaluation also raised the costs of the December 2006 coup but recov- servicing Fiji’s us$150 million five- ered strongly in late 2007 and 2008, year bond, which has a 7 percent per although discounting by the major annum interest rate and falls due in resorts subdued earnings. A further 2011. imf Article IV consultations in trough in early 2009, witnessed across November concluded by commend- the Pacific Islands, was due to the ing the government “for their efforts impact of the global recession. Arriv- to limit the overall deficit in 2009 to als from Australia and New Zealand the budgeted level of 3¼ percent of recovered strongly from mid-2009, but GDP. This is being achieved by con- then dipped later in the year with the taining expenditure in the face of an coming of the low season. Investment unexpected 10 percent fall in revenue” in tourism and elsewhere remained at (imf 2009). However, the imf press rock bottom in Fiji: An effort to auc- release also indicated concern that tion off the aborted Momi Bay Resort public sector debt was running at over development failed in August, and 50 percent of gross domestic product, in March, Fijian Holdings Ltd failed and criticized continued government to raise the necessary finance for its reliance on borrowing from the Fiji planned buyout of British Petroleum National Provident Fund, Fiji’s main South West Pacific. Several companies pension provider. The restraint in engaged in the construction of villas spending had been assisted by the and resorts on Denarau Island, close compulsory retirement of 2,300 civil to the International Airport, servants as a result of the reduction were in major trouble, and the Hil- in the retirement age from 60 to 55. pol i t ical reviews • melanesia 429

In the decree affecting that reduc- 2009. Fiji was suspended from the tion, two senior civil servants were Pacific Islands Forum in May and expressly excluded—Bainimarama and exclusion from the Councils of the Police Commissioner Esala Teleni. On Commonwealth was ratcheted up to 27 April, Commodore Bainimarama full suspension in September 2009. In turned 55, and was serenaded by a despair, the UN Department of Politi- military brass band that turned up to cal Affairs gave up efforts to mediate play “Happy Birthday” outside his after Bainimarama’s exclusion of key house at 5 o’clock in the morning. political parties from talks on 9 April. In a consultative forum on the 2010 In November, the Commonwealth budget in September, Bainimarama Heads of Government meeting in told the audience “we’re going to Trinidad and Tobago resolved that Fiji leapfrog” toward economic growth, would not participate in the Common- pursuing objectives of “modernis- wealth Games scheduled for India in ing Fiji, bringing it into prosperity October 2010. Despite Fiji’s suspen- and out of poverty.” “I’m here for sion, former New Zealand Governor- power,” he said, “but power so we General Sir Paul Reeves arrived in Fiji can do the things the right way. I am as Commonwealth Envoy in Septem- not here to abuse power. I am not ber, but he was unable to persuade here to abuse the funds, nor here to Bainimarama to resume dialogue abuse the authority that I have. If it’s with the politicians or to commit to done, it’s because there is a reason for early elections. Instead, Bainimarama it. We want to keep people in line,” harangued Reeves to sign on to the he explained, “We need to change government’s reform program and people if they don’t think the way we refused to allow him to meet political want them to think” (FijiLive, 17 Sept leaders opposed to the regime. Con- 2009). The Fiji Employers’ Federation tinued usage of Fiji soldiers on UN and Chamber of Commerce pushed peacekeeping missions was criticized for a protectionist budget (FijiLive, by Australia and New Zealand, with 19 Sept 2009), but in his 2010 budget Australia’s Kevin Rudd urging a address in November, Bainimarama “progressive replacement of Fijian said it was rather the imf advice troops” (The Australian, 7 Sept 2009). that “corresponds with the reformist At a New York press conference on agenda of my government” (Baini- 21 May, UN Office of Peacekeeping marama 2009). The address out- chief Alain Le Roy responded off the lined plans to double gross domestic cuff to a query: “Yes, we are trying product by 2020, eliminate the current [to replace them] but so far there is account deficit, and increase tour- no pledges” [sic], and conceded that ist arrivals to 6 million, ten times the Fijians in Iraq “will be very difficult to number entering Fiji in 2008. Stan- replace” (abc Pacific Beat 2009a). In dard & Poor’s revised its “negative” November, the United Nations refused rating for Fiji to “stable” in December. to accept Colonel Pita Driti as new There was no improvement in head of peacekeeping operations in Fiji’s relations with Australia, New Iraq because of “allegations of serious Zealand, or the Commonwealth over human rights violations” (UN 2010). 430 the contemporary pacific • 22:2 (2010)

Australian and New Zealand travel Pacific Beat 2009b). The once highly bans targeting members of the interim respected judge was clearly urging the government and military officers, as commander to lash out against his well as their families and government opponents. On 3 November, Austra- appointees, were much resented in lian High Commissioner James Batley Fiji, although some critics urged their and New Zealand Acting High Com- retention to prevent the regime from missioner Tod Cleaver were expelled, consolidating its influence. Hostility and Fiji’s Acting High Commissioner to the travel bans gave Bainimarama in Canberra Kamlesh Arya was hastily and Aiyaz Sayed-Khaiyum a tool withdrawn in an effort to preempt with which to consolidate domestic the inevitable tit-for-tat retaliatory support. In early November, a diplo- expulsion. Cleaver became the third matic crisis was triggered by a press New Zealand head of mission to be conference organized by Chief Justice expelled from Fiji. Several days later, Anthony Gates to protest against Labasa-born Fiji historian Brij V allegedly heavy-handed Australian Lal—one of the architects of the 1997 and New Zealand travel bans (Gates constitution—was also ordered out of 2009). Gates had waited until six the country. weeks after the abrogation before Fiji’s coups occur in two stanzas signing on again as chief justice, at because the full repercussions of the which point he emphasized the need initial overthrow of government are for “curbing excesses” after coups and not immediately obvious to the perpe- “bringing the country and its institu- trators. The exception here was 2000, tions back to normality” (FijiLive, when the instigators were not the same 23 May 2009). His November press as the constitution’s abrogators, but conference was sparked by two that event only confirmed another rule incidents. First, Sri Lankan judges in Fiji politics, namely, that it is the intending to travel to Fiji to take military that decides the outcome of up positions on the bench had been coups—which is why telephoned by an Australian consular succeeded in 1987, why George official in Colombo to warn them Speight failed in 2000, and why Frank that taking up such appointments Bainimarama remained in power in would render them unable to travel to 2009. Unlike 1987 when the Repub- Australia. Second, family court judge lic of Fiji Military Forces “neglected Anjala Wati had been refused a visa to form any coalition with a civilian by the New Zealand High Commis- partner” (Scobell 1994, 197), a broad- sion to take her son to Auckland for ranging coalition opposed to Qarase’s urgent medical treatment. Although government had been assembled prior the visa was subsequently granted, to the 2006 coup, one particularly Gates wrote to the commander alleg- focused on opposition to the Reconcil- ing that such case-by-case exemptions iation, Tolerance and Unity Bill. This entailed foreign interference with the eased postcoup military consolidation independence of the judiciary and of political power, even if former allies asked, “Can the Executive allow subsequently drifted away. In Decem- such interference to continue?” (abc ber 2006, Bainimarama had claimed pol i t ical reviews • melanesia 431 to be acting in accordance with the Amnesty International. 2009. Fiji: Paradise constitution and the “doctrine of Lost: A Tale of Ongoing Human Rights necessity.” It was not a coup at all, he Violations April–July 2009. 7 September. had said, but a temporary “clean up.” London: Amnesty International. Since then, the coup instigators’ core http://www.amnesty.org/en / library/asset / ASA18 /002 / 2009 /en /0024be13-bdd1 themes had morphed from anticor- -47d2-875a-863fff41f978/ ruption to electoral reform to pov- asa180022009en.pdf. erty alleviation, and the fantasy that military control masquerading as rule The Australian. Daily newspaper, Sydney. by presidential decree might be found Online at http://www.theaustralian.news constituent with the 1997 constitu- .com.au / tion had been exposed as a sham. Bainimarama, Josaia Voreqe [Frank]. April 2009 proved the turning point, 2009. Strengthening the Foundations of but it was still unclear where Fiji was Economic Growth and Prosperity. Repub- heading. Ironically, the suspension of lic of Fiji 2010 Budget Address. Novotel talks on the new constitution until Lami, 27 November. http://www.mfnp.gov .fj / Documents /2010_Budget_Address.pdf 2012 took the pressure off Fiji’s new rulers in the sense that they no longer Cakobau, Adi Litia. 2009. Democ- felt much need to explain themselves. racy for Fiji: The Detainment of Ro If events went according to plan, 2010 Teimumu Kepa. Fireside video on looked set to be a year of deafening YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/ silence. watch?v=X9hfbYnq694 jon fraenkel fbc, Fiji Broadcasting Corporation. National Radio Service. http://www.radiofiji.com.fj/ Fiji Constitution Amendment Act 1997 References Revocation Decree 2009. Available on Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute abc Pacific Beat. Web site: http://www.paclii.org/fj/promu / 2009a. Former Fiji Army Chief Says promu_dec / fcaa1997rd2009444 / Mili tary Too Large. Australian Broad- FijiLive. Online news service. casting Corporation, 26 June. http://www.fijilive.com / http://www.radioaustralia.net.au /pacbeat / stories /200906 /s2609011.htm Fiji Sun. Daily newspaper, Suva. Online at http://www.sun.com.fj / 2009b. Leaked Documents Reveal Role of Fiji Chief Justice in Expulsions. Australian Fiji Times. Daily newspaper, Suva. Online Broadcasting Corporation, 10 November. at http://www.fijitimes.com / http://www.radioaustralia.net.au / pacbeat / Fiji TV. National television service. Suva. stories /200911 /s2738173.htm http://www.fijitv.com.fj Al Jazeera. 2009. 101 East—Fiji: Dictating fjca, Fiji Court of Appeal. 2009. Qarase Democracy 30 July 09. Two-part interview v Bainimarama [2009] fjca 9; abu with Commodore Frank Bainimarama. 0077.2008S. 9 April. Available on Pacific Available online at http://www.youtube Islands Legal Information Institute Web .com / watch?v=pVVgSkA8AV0&feature site: http://www.paclii.org / fj/cases / =channel FJCA /2009 /9.html 432 the contemporary pacific • 22:2 (2010) fjhc, Fiji High Court. 2008. Qarase http://archives.pireport.org /archive /2009/ v Bainimarama [2008] fjhc 241; hbc April /04-14-com.htm 60.2007S; hbc 398.2007S. 9 October. Mother Jones. 2009. Fiji Water: Spin the Available on Pacific Islands Legal Informa- Bottle. September/October. tion Institute Web site: http://www.paclii http://motherjones.com / politics /2009 / .org / fj /cases / FJHC /2008/241.html 09 / fiji-spin-bottle flp, Fiji Labour Party. 2009. Government Pacific Institute of Public Policy. 2009. and fsc Playing Politics with Farmers. Lending Fiji a Hand: The Need for 24 August. http://www.flp.org.fj/ International Engagement and a n090824b.htm National Dialogue. Briefing 09, July. Fraenkel, Jon. 2007. The Fiji Coup of http://www.pacificpolicy.org December 2006: Who, What, Where and Post Courier. 2009. Viewpoints: Moresby Why? In From Election to Coup in Fiji: Summit Sets Fiji Target. 28 January. The 2006 Campaign and Its Aftermath, http://www.postcourier.com.pg / edited by Jon Fraenkel and Stewart Firth, 420–449. Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies Qarase, Laisenia, and Mahendra Pal and Asia-Pacific Press. http://epress.anu Chaudhry. 2009. Joint Statement on Fiji .edu.au /fiji /pdf /addendum.pdf by the Leaders of the Soqosoqo Duavata ni Lewenivanua Party and the Fiji Labour ———. 2009. Melanesia in Review: Issues Party. Fortieth Pacific Islands Forum and Events, 2008: Fiji. The Contemporary Leaders’ Meeting, Cairns, Australia, 5–6 Pacific 21:337–352. August. Available on http://rspas.anu.edu Gates, Anthony. 2009. Statement by the .au/melanesia/documents.php upon the travel bans Raw Fiji News. Internet blog. http:// imposed by Australia and New Zealand rawfijinews.wordpress.com / on the Judiciary and Magistracy of Fiji. sbs Dateline. 2009. Perfectly Frank. Mark 1 November. Ministry of Information, Fiji Davis Interview with Frank Bainimarama. Government Online Portal. http://www.fiji Special Broadcasting Service, Australia, .gov.fj/index.php?option=com_content 26 July. http://www.sbs.com.au / dateline / &view=article&id=604:statement-by-the story/ watch / id /600116 /n / Perfectly-Frank -chief-justice-of-fiji-upon-the-travel-bans -imposed-by-australia-and-new-zealand Scarr, Deryck. 2008. Tuimacilai: A Life of -on-the-judiciary-and-magistracy-of Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara. Adelaide: Craw- -fiji&catid=50:speeches&Itemid=168 ford House Publishing. iba, International Bar Association. 2009. Scobell, Andrew. 1994. Politics, Profes- Dire Straits: A Report on the Rule of Law sionalism, and Peacekeeping: An Analysis in Fiji. iba Human Rights Institute report. of the 1987 Military Coup in Fiji. Com- 3 March. http://www.ibanet.org / Search / parative Politics 26 (2): 187–201. Default.aspx?q=Dire%20Straits SkyNewsAustralia. 2009. Fiji’s Frank imf, International Monetary Fund. 2009. Bainimarama. Three-part interview with Statement of an IMF Staff Mission at the Graham Davis. 2 May. Available at Conclusion of the Article IV Discussions http://www.youtube.com /watch?v with Fiji. Press Release 09/427, 23 Novem- =SwN7zgNUV7Y ber. http://www.imf.org /external / np/sec / Sydney Morning Herald. Daily newspaper. pr /2009 / pr09427.htm Online at http://www.smh.com.au / Lal, Brij V. 2009. Fiji: The Cruel Hoax. UN, United Nations. 2010. Daily Press Pacific Islands Report, 14 April. Briefing by the Offices of the Spokesperson pol i t ical reviews • melanesia 433 for the Secretary-General and the Spokes- and though the price per ton suffered person for the General Assembly President. almost a 50 percent drop over the past 19 February. http://www.un.org / News / year because of the global economic briefings /docs //2010 /db100219.doc.htm crisis, the mining-based economy Williams, George, Graham Leung, remains capable of sustainable devel- Anthony J Regan, and Jon Fraenkel. 2008. opment if the income distribution is Courts and Coups in Fiji: The 2008 High better managed. Court Judgment in Qarase v Bainimarama. In this “postcolonial” phase of the State, Society and Governance in Melane- country’s history, when the Noumea sia Discussion Paper 2008/10. Canberra: Accord serves as a kind of interim Research School of Pacific and Asian Stud- constitution, the political landscape ies, The Australian National University. http://rspas.anu.edu.au / papers /melanesia / is divided mainly between those who discussion_papers /08_10_williams.pdf support full independence and those who want enlarged autonomy (the status quo at this point), much like the situation in French Polynesia. Unfortunately for the latter, the near- New Caledonia parity of independence and autonomy This year was a potential turning point supporters has caused nine changes in the decolonization of New Caledo- in the top leadership in Papeete since nia. The Noumea Accord of 1998 said 2004, because a few politicians can that the country could hold a referen- switch sides and generate motions of dum on independence in 2014, and no confidence to receive better posts the provincial elections of May 2009 in a new regime. In New Caledonia, produced a Congress empowered to Harold Martin of the centrist Ave- call for that referendum. The coun- nir Ensemble (ae, Future Together) try already has a “double” federal party, which caused a mini-revolution relationship with France, as its three in local politics in 2004, explicitly provinces have some autonomy from urged his fellow French loyalists to the territory, which in turn continues unite and create a “pact of stability” to receive more self-governing powers to avoid a “Tahitian” situation (NC, from Paris. France itself is integrated 7 May 2009). But New Caledonia into the European Union, so the status too has experienced fluctuating divi- of New Caledonia in some ways sions on both sides of the political resembles that of a chartered town in spectrum. Since the Noumea Accord the old medieval European hierarchy. brought increasing self-government, Since 1986, the United Nations Decol- independence and autonomy are onization Committee has regarded separated by concerns among the New Caledonia as a non-self-govern- immigrant majority over economic ing territory, yet it looks a bit odd on dependency and security. For most a list with much smaller, resource-poor Europeans, Asians, Polynesians, entities such as Pitcairn Island, the mixed-race people (métis), and some Caribbean islands, Gibraltar, and the Kanak, French citizenship gives them Falklands. New Caledonia has one- legitimacy and safety, so they often fourth of the world supply of nickel, point to signs of instability in neigh-