Light Scattering:

Size & Zeta Potential Measurements in Nanotechnology

Ana Morfesis, Ph.D. [email protected] OBJECTIVES

Benefits of Light Scattering . DLS . Zeta Potential Applications . Drug Delivery . Sunscreens/Sun Lotions Optimal Protein Zeta Potential Technique . New Diffusion Barrier Method . Example Protein Studies Benefits of Light Scattering Dynamic Light Scattering Instruments measure size . Size measurements between 0.6nm up to 6μm . Volume required: 12μL up to 2mL . Typical concentration: 1 mg/mL (sample dependent) . Non destructive method Static Light Scattering, MW Zeta Potential, effectiveness of the surface charge Size Exclusion Chromatography Applications: Zetasizer Family

1.0mm 0.6 6.0 nm Polypeptides Biopolymers Inks & Toners Micro mm Spheres Proteins Conjugates & Assemblies Gold Dendrimers Colloids & Sols Micelles Viruses & Vaccines

Zetasizer Nano Dynamic Light Scattering and Brownian Motion

 Random movement of particles or molecules in suspension  Speed of the Brownian motion depends upon  Size  Viscosity Dynamic Light Scattering

Dynamic light scattering measures the time dependent fluctuations in the scattering intensity to determine the translational diffusion coefficient (D), and subsequently the hydrodynamic

diameter (DH) (from the Stokes- Einstein equation) kT D = 3πηDH Where k = Boltzmann’s constant, T = absolute temperature, η = viscosity Zeta Potential? Measurement Electrophoretic Mobility

UE = Particle Velocity / Electric Field Strength

Calculate a Zeta Potential Zeta potential is the overall charge a particle acquires in a particular medium It depends on both the chemistry of the surface and the dispersant Small changes in the pH or concentration of ions can lead to dramatic changes in the zeta potential For electrostatically stabilized dispersions, the higher the value of zeta potential, the more stable the dispersion is likely to be Electrostatics + + As particles approach one another: . The stability of colloidal systems is determined by the balance of repulsive and attractive forces. + . If there is mutual repulsion then the Stable dispersion will resist flocculation. . If there is no repulsion, then flocculation or coagulation will 0 0 eventually take place. . Rule of thumb for stable suspensions is Zeta Potential > +/- 30 mV 0

DLVO Theory, 1940’s Unstable http://www.colloidtraining.co.uk/file.php/1/DLVOcurves/DLVOcurvesa.html Zeta Potential (ZP)

Electrostatic interactions are controlled by the magnitude of the charge at the slipping plane, defined as the zeta potential. The zeta potential gives an indication of the inherent formulation stability. The charge at the slipping plane includes: . Particle valence . Condensed counter-ions . Diffusing ions In the presence of a small amount of salt, e.g. > ~ 10 mM, experimental evidence suggests that the slipping plane and hydrodynamic boundary are the same. Stability There are two fundamental mechanisms that affect dispersion stability:

ELECTROSTATIC STERIC Ionic surface groups - zeta potential Polymer adsorption Reversible Irreversible May only require change in pH or ion An extra component concentration Zeta Potential Measurements using Micro-Electrophoresis

Zetasizer Nano ZS + Disposable Capillary Cell

Mach-Zender interferometer with frequency modulated reference arm Measuring Zeta Potential

Electrophoresis is the movement of a charged particle relative to the liquid it is suspended in under the influence of an applied electric field

The particles move with a velocity which is dependent on: . Zeta potential . Field strength . Dielectric constant of medium . Viscosity of the medium

Laser Doppler Electrophoresis

A laser beam is passed through the sample in the capillary cell undergoing electrophoresis and the scattered light from the moving particles is frequency shifted The frequency shift ∆f is equal to:

φ = q µE ∆f = 2ν sin(θ/2)/λ ν = the particle velocity λ = laser wavelength θ = scattering angle

Henry’s Equation

ZETA POTENTIAL is related to the ELECTROPHORETIC MOBILITY by the HENRY EQUATION

UE = 2 ε z F(k a) 3 η

UE = electrophoretic mobility z = zeta potential ε = dielectric constant η = viscosity F(k a) = Henry’s function Example Measurement Cells Capillary & Dip Cells Applications - Drug Delivery - Sunscreens / Sun Lotions - Emulsions

Coated Anionic Liposomes in Gene Delivery (Steric Stabilisation)

+ POLY ETHYLENE GLYCOL

LIPOSOME “STEALTH” LIPOSOME PEG-Coated Liposomes (Dispersed in Physiological Saline)

0

-10

-20

-30

-4 0

Potential (mV) Zeta -5 0

-6 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Mole % Lipid-PEG2000 Cationic Liposomes in Gene Delivery

Cationic Plasmids Liposome

Plasmid-Liposome Complex Cationic Liposomes in Gene Therapy

6 0 1 8 0

40 1 6 0

2 0 1 4 0 0 1 2 0 - 2 0

Potential (mV) Zeta 100 - 4 0 average Diameter- average (nm) Z - 6 0 8 0 1:0.2 1:0.4 1:0.6 1:0.8 1:1 1:1.2 1:1.4

Molar Ratio of Plasmid:Liposome Photochemistry & Photobiology of the Skin

UVB and UVA both cause catastrophic and carcinogenic events in the skin but they do so in very different ways

Need to protect against both UVA and UVB – Broad Spectrum Sunscreen Agents: Two Kinds

Traditional / organic screens - soluble . narrow spectrum, use 3 or more to get needed attenuation . absorbed into skin …. . cause adverse reactions such as allergy and eye irritation . known photo-instabilities . need “solvents” when formulating, increasing irritation potential

Physical / inorganic sunscreens - insoluble . broad spectrum . zinc oxide blocks entire UV spectrum (including far UVA) . not absorbed into the skin . do not cause adverse reactions . do not need solvents in formulation Physical (Particulate) Sunscreen Materials Pigmentary and Fine Particle Oxides Zinc Oxide, Titanium Dioxide, Iron Oxides, (Cerium Oxide)

Pigmentary: mean particle size >200nm (TiO2), > 400nm (ZnO) Broad PSD, strong interaction with visible light, appears white and opaque, less attenuation of UV radiation

Fine Particle: mean particle size <100nm (TiO2), <150nm (ZnO) Narrow PSD, minimal interaction with visible light, appears transparent in end-use, strong UVR attenuation Microfine Metal Oxide UVR Attenuation Spectra

Overlapping /Complementary Attenuation TiO2 better UVB; ZnO better UVA Uncoated Titanium Dioxide & Zinc Oxide

40

30 20 TiO2 10 ZnO 0

Zeta potential -10

-20

-30 pH 7.0

Uncoated ZnO and TiO2 are chemically incompatible Zeta Potential vs. pH: Microfine ZnO and TiO2

Zeta Potential is affected by coating ZnO & TiO2 Particle Size Growth ZnO & TiO2 (pH 7.0)

1200 1000 800 Non-treated 600 Treated 400 200 Agglomerate size in Agglomerate nm 0 Time 0 to 6 minutes Introducing a New Zeta Method - Optimal for Protein Measurements - Diffusion Barrier Method - Albumin Studies Zeta Potential Measurements of Proteins

Zeta potential measurements of proteins historically have been difficult . the sample can be damaged by the measurement itself

Introducing a new method

Diffusion Barrier . The diffusion barrier method eliminates these dangers by protecting the sample during the measurement Diffusion barrier technique

or gel loading tips Diffusion Barrier Technique –What is it?

The diffusion barrier technique protects the protein from damage by keeping a sample plug in a larger volume of the same buffer containing no protein

Most of the damage to proteins during zeta potential measurements happens at the electrodes so introducing a physical distance between the sample and the electrodes will protect it The sample will sit at the bottom of the cell if the cell is handled carefully

A lower voltage and longer periods between repeats reduce the effect of joule heating

Many more measurements can therefore be made before aggregates start to appear HSA measurement – full cell

HSA at 10 mg/ml in 10mM 300000 NaCl

200000 Poor frequency plots Total Counts Total repeatability and 100000 repeatability of results

clearly indicate protein 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 aggregation Frequency (Hz)

Measurement Mobility (µmcm/Vs) 1 -0.338 2 -1.329 3 -1.152 4 -1.513 5 -1.751 6 -1.959 Mean -1.34 SD 0.57 HSA measurement – diffusion barrier

14000

HSA at 10 mg/ml in 10mM 12000 NaCl 10000 8000 6000 Total Counts Total Repeatable results and good 4000 frequency plots indicate a high 2000 0 quality measurement 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 Frequency (Hz)

Measurement Mobility (µmcm/Vs) 1 -0.44 2 -0.387 3 -0.548 No distribution 4 -0.617 FFR only 5 -0.677 6 -0.417 Mean -0.51 SD 0.11 Size distributions before and after measurements

A 12

10

A: HSA size distributions 8 before zeta potential 6 Intensity (%) measurements 4 2

0 0.1 1 10 100 1000 Size (r.nm)

B 16 14

12

B: HSA after conventional 10 zeta potential 8 Intensity (%) 6 measurements 4 2

0 0.1 1 10 100 1000 Size (r.nm)

C 20

15 C: HSA size distributions 10

after using the diffusion Intensity (%) barrier technique. 5

0 0.1 1 10 100 1000 Size (r.nm) HSA in different pH buffers

Used SOP player to set up playlist combining DLS and ELS measurements HSA Sample - Diffusion Barrier Example

1.5 HSA

1.0

8.2mM NaCl 0.5 82mM NaCl mobility = 0

0.0 Electrophoreticmobility

-0.5

-1.0 2 3 4 5 6 7

pH Diffusion Barrier Method – Optimal Protein Studies General Recommendations Measure size (by DLS) before and after measurement to ensure no aggregation

Inspect frequency spectrum post-measurement . ensure that only protein and no aggregates are affecting the measurements

Adapt the number of sub runs per measurement for the conductivity of the sample, . 10mM NaCl dispersant allowed 50 sub runs . 1x PBS solution allows 7-15 sub runs per measurement

Add delay time between measurements to avoid Joule heating Conclusions Introduction of the new diffusion barrier method . Protects protein samples from denaturation by introducing a physical distance between the sample and the electrodes

Particle size & zeta potential studies are important for multi- component or formulated products . Cosmetics, Paints and Drug Delivery & Emulsions . Water Treatment, Paper, Specialty Ceramic/Refractory are large scale high throughput production examples . Vaccine development, Virus and Bacteria Studies

Zeta Potential provides information about the chemistry and interfacial properties . It is the effectivenes the surface charge . Provides i.e.p. information . Acidity and Alkalinity of materials . Predicts stability, particularly charge stabilization . Assists with the understanding of steric stability . Compatibility of “mixed component” chemistries

Continues to Introduce New Technology

. M3 , May 2000 - First Commercial Introduction of Fast Field Reversal . HPPS, November 2001 - NIBS Technology . ZetaSizer Nano Series, May 2003 ( Combining NIBS, M3 & Second Generation PALS ) . New Software Capabilities, July 2003 ( Integrated MW / Debye Plots, 2nd Virial Coef, etc ) . New Autotitrator for Size and Zeta, December 2003 . Research Grade Software, July 2004 . Feb. 2007, ASEC-Absolute Size Chromatography/Flow Mode . 2009 New DLS Instrumentation Focusing on Protein & Biomolecule Characterization - Zetasizer Micro V and Zetasizer APS . 2010 Diffusion Barrier Technique for Optimizing Protein Zeta Results . Current Software v 6.2 for Zetasizer Nano