2.1. General: Maharashtra is a state in the western region of India. It is the second most populous state after Uttar Pradesh and third largest state by area in India. Maharashtra is the wealthiest state in India, contributing 15% of the country's industrial output and 13.3% of its GDP (2006– 2007 figures). Maharashtra occupies a substantial portion of the Deccan plateau in the western peninsular part of the subcontinent. Its shape roughly resembles a triangle, with the 450-mile (725-km) western coastline forming the base and its interior narrowing to a blunt apex some 500 miles (800 km) to the east. Maharashtra is bounded by the Indian states of Gujarat to the northwest, Madhya Pradesh to the north, Chhattisgarh to the east, Andhra Pradesh to the southeast, Karnataka to the south, and Goa to the southwest and by the union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and the Arabian Sea to the west. The state covers an area of 307,731 km2 (118,816 sq mi) or 9.84% of the total geographical area of India. Mumbai, the capital city of the state, is India's largest city and the financial capital of the nation. 2.2. Geography: The Western Ghats better known as Sahyadri, are a hilly range running parallel to the coast, at an average elevation of 1,200 metres (4,000 ft). Kalsubai, a peak in the Sahyadris, near Nashik City is the highest elevated point in Maharashtra. To the west of these hills lie the Konkan coastal plains, 50–80 kilometres in width. To the east of the Ghats lies the flat Deccan Plateau. The Western Ghats form one of the three watersheds of India, from which many South Indian rivers originate, notable among them being Godavari River, and Krishna River, which flow eastward into the Bay of Bengal, forming one of the greatest river basins in India 2.3. Climate: The climate is characteristically monsoonal (i.e., wet-dry), with local variations. India’s southwest monsoonal rains break on the Mumbai coast usually in the first week of June and last until September, during which period they account for about four-fifths of the annual Environmental Sciences 19 rainfall. Four seasons are normal: March–May (hot and dry); June–September (hot and wet); October–November (warm and dry); and December–February (cool and dry). The Western Ghats and the ranges on the northern borders greatly influence the climate and separate the wet Konkan Coast from the dry interior upland, an area called the Desh. Rainfall is extremely heavy in Konkan, averaging about 100 inches (2,540 mm), with some of the wettest spots receiving up to 250 inches (6,350 mm) but rapidly diminishing to one- fifth of that amount east of the Ghats. Rainfall increases again in the eastern areas, reaching about 40 to 80 inches (1,000 to 2,000 mm) in the extreme east. 2.4. Divisions and Regions: Maharashtra is divided into six revenue divisions, which are further divided into thirty- five districts. These thirty-five districts are further divided into 109 sub-divisions of the districts and 357 Talukas in Maharashtra. Fig. 2.1 Map of India and Maharashtra Environmental Sciences 20 2.4.1. Divisions: The six administrative divisions in Maharashtra state are Amravati Division, Aurangabad Division, Konkan Division, Nagpur Division, Nashik Division, and Pune Division (Table 2.1) Table 2.1. Divisions and Districts in Maharashtra Division District Mumbai, Mumbai Suburban (Mumbai Upanagar), Mumbai (Konkan) Thane, Raigad, Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg Pune (Western Maharashtra) Pune, Satara, sangli, Solapur and Kohlapur Nashik (North Maharashtra) Nashik, Dhule, Jalgaon, Ahmednagar, and Nandurbar Aurangabad, Jalna, Latur/Lattalur, Nanded, Osmanabad, Aurangabad (Marathwada) Parbhani, Hingoli, and Beed Amravati (Vidarbha) Amravati, Akola, Washim, Buldhana and Yavatmal Nagpur, Chandrapur, Wardha, Bhandara, Gondia, and Nagpur (Vidarbha) Gadchiroli Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_districts_of_Maharashtra 2.4.2. Regions: From the geographical point of view Maharashtra has been divided into five regions, which also suit well to political flavor and historical significance. Vidarbha – (Nagpur and Amravati divisions) – (Old Berar Region) Marathwada – (Aurangabad division) Khandesh and North Maharashtra region – (Nashik Division) Desh – (Pune division) and Konkan – (Konkan Division) – (including, Mumbai City and Mumbai Suburban Area). Environmental Sciences 21 2.5. Pune District: The present study was carried out in district Pune which is the eighth largest metropolis in India and the second largest in the state of Maharashtra. It is situated 560 metres (1,837 feet) above sea level on the Deccan plateau at the right bank of the Mutha River. Pune city is the administrative headquarters of Pune district and was once the centre of power of the Maratha Empire. Pune is known to have existed as a town since 847 AD. It was the first capital of the Maratha Empire under Chhatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhosale. In the 18th century, Pune became the political centre of Indian subcontinent, as the seat of Maratha Peshwas who were the prime ministers of the Maratha Empire. 2.6. Geography: Pune is located 560 m (1,840 ft) above sea level on the western margin of the Deccan plateau. It is situated on the leeward side of the Sahyadri mountain range, which forms a barrier from the Arabian Sea. It is a hilly city, with its tallest hill, Vetal Hill, rising to 800 m (2,600 ft) above sea level. Just outside the city, the Sinhagad fort is located at an altitude of 1300 m. It lies between 18° 32"North latitude and 73° 51"East longitude. Central Pune is located at the confluence of the Mula and Mutha rivers. The Pavana and Indrayani rivers, tributaries of the Bhima river, traverse the northwestern outskirts of metropolitan Pune. 2.7. Climate: Pune has a hot semi-arid climate (BSh) bordering with tropical wet and dry (Aw) with average temperatures ranging between 20 to 28 °C (68 to 82 °F). Pune experiences three seasons: summer, monsoon and a winter. Typical summer months are from March to May, with maximum temperatures ranging from 30 to 38 °C (86 to 100 °F). The warmest month in Pune is April; although summer doesn't end until May, the city often receives heavy thundershowers in May (and humidity remains high). Even during the hottest months, the nights are usually cool due to Pune's high altitude. The monsoon lasts from June to October, with moderate rainfall and temperatures ranging from 22 to 28 °C (72 to 82 °F). Most of the 722 mm (28.43 in) of annual rainfall in the city Environmental Sciences 22 fall between June and September, and July is the wettest month of the year. Hailstorms are also common in this region. Winter begins in November; November in particular is referred to as the Rosy Cold (literal translation). The daytime temperature hovers around 28 °C (82 °F) while night temperature is below 10 °C (50 °F) for most of December and January, often dropping to 5 to 6 °C (41 to 43 °F). 2.8. Demographics: As per the 2011 Census of India estimate, the population of the Pune urban agglomeration is 60,49,968. This includes the towns of Khadki, Pimpri-Chinchwad and Dehu. Growth in the software and education sectors has led to an influx of skilled labour from across India. The population of the urban agglomeration was estimated to be around 4,485,000 in 2005. The migrating population rose from 43,900 in 2001 to 88,200 in 2005. According to the Pune Municipal Corporation, 40% of the population lived in slums in 2001. The literacy rate is about 81%. 2.9. Talukas in Pune district: There are 15 talukas in Pune district (including 2 city talukas). The 15 taluka are divided into 5 district subdivisions as shown in Table 2.2. Table 2.2. Sub-divisions and Talukas in Pune district Sub-divisions Taluka Baramati Baramati taluka, Dhund taluka, Indapur taluka Bhor Bhor taluka, Purander taluka, Velhe taluka Pune Haveli taluka, Pune city taluka, Pimpri Chinchwad city taluka Khed Shirur taluka, Khed taluka, Ambegoan taluka, Junnar taluka Maval Maval taluka, Mulshi taluka Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pune_City_taluka Environmental Sciences 23 Fig. 2.2. Map showing Talukas of Pune city 2.10. Villages selected for the study: Velhe taluka is situated in Bore subdivision of Pune district. It lies towards the western side of Pune and is surrounded by one of the biggest mountain ranges in Maharashtra called Sahyadri. The taluka is known as Velhe Mahal. This area receives very high rainfall about 2400 to 3500 mm. Most of the area is covered with forest. Sag, Oak, Teak and Mango are mainly found in the forest. Rabbit, deer, wolf, Fox, tiger and leopards are the wild animals found in this area. Rice is grown in this region on a large scale. The forts over here-Rajgad and Torana are very famous. The present study was undertaken in two villages namely Kuran Budrukh and Kadwe in Velhe taluka, District Pune (Fig. 2.3). Environmental Sciences 24 Fig. 2.3. Map showing selected villages in Velhe taluka. 2.10.1. Kuran Village: The Kuran village consists of three small wadis namely Varachi wadi, Madhali wadi & Gaothan and a Dhangarwada at the hill top behind the village. It is 45-50 km from the city of Pune. It is a high rainfall area in the crest line of Western Ghats. The Kuran village has the total population of 860. The elderly population constitutes about 8% of the total population. 2.10.2. Kadwe Village: The Kadwe village consists of four Wadis namely Kalambewadi, Shirkewadi, Gauthan and Telewlewadi. The community inhabiting at Kadwe village is agrarian and completely dependent on the rain water.