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Print shows through as there Is tpxt on both sides of page. 7. Indistinct, broken or small print on several oaoes 0. Print exceeds margin requirements______ 9. Tightly tiound copy with print lost_______ in spine 10. Computer printout pages with indistinct print 11. Page(s)___________lacking when material received, and not available from school or author. 12. Page(s)___________seem to be missing In numbering only as text follows. 13. Two pages num tïered . Text follows. 14. Curling and wrinkled pages______ 15. Dissertation contains pages with print at a slant, filmed a s received 16. Other_______________________________________________________________________ University Microfilms International THE AGED IN PAST AND PRESENT EASTERN CHEROKEE SOCIETY By Cesare R. Marino submitted to the Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of The American University in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology Signatures of Committee: Chairman: ian the College" 1987 The American University Washington, D.C. 20016 IBE im iC JlN DHIllDIiSITÏ LtEEUtï © COPYRIGHT BY CESARE R. MARINO 1987 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED THE AGED IN PAST AND PRESENT EASTERN CHEROKEE SOCIETY BY Cesare R. Marino ABSTRACT This is a study of the status, roles and functions of the aged in aboriginal Cherokee society and contempo­ rary Eastern Cherokee reservation life. The first part of this work focuses on an ethnohistorical reconstruction of the prestigious 'place' the so-called beloved men and beloved grandmothers occupied in pre-removal Cherokee tribal life. In the mid-nineteenth century, the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians emerged as a new socio-political entity, no longer under the- old religious gerontocracy, but still guided by the tribal elders. The second part of the study illustrates the nature and extent to which today's older tribal members, the senior citizens, participate in and contribute to family and community life. The picture emerging from field research contradicts the disengagement and reductionist theories of aging. Instead, it appears that, despite some limitations, the aged are still integrated members of Eastern Cherokee society which has maintained a positive ii cultural perception of arid values associated with old age and the elderly. Ill PREFACE During my fieldwork on the Eastern Cherokee Reser­ vation in western North Carolina, I was often asked the reasons for my presence at Qualla, and my interest in the Indian elderly. I hope the following will help clarify and give some background information on the factors that eventually brought me among the Eastern Cherokees and, in particular, among their senior citizens. My attention was first drawn to the contemporary status and role of older American Indians in tribal life when I had the opportunity to review the final report of the First Conference of the National Indian Council on Aging (NICOA), held in Phoenix in the summer 19 76, On that occasion, some 1,500 elderly Indian delegates from more than 170 tribes and native communities— among whom were representatives of the Eastern Band of Cherokees— came together to draw public attention to the conditions and needs of older native Americans, During the Conference, two major areas of concern were discussed: the medical, nutritional and economic condition of the Indian elderly, and their social and cultural status in modern reservation and urban life. Problems of low income, poor health, and often inadequate iv nutrition and housing were dealt with by making specific recommendations for remedial actions. As for the question of the roles and social status of the aged in today's American Indian culture and society, many conferees brought personal accounts of the difficulties older Indians face not only economically and physically, but also in their social and emotional life (see NICOA 1976). It was recognized that, generally speaking, changes in the socio-economic structure of Indian communities, particularly in the last twenty years, have often disrupted the traditional roles and functions of the aged within the family, local community, and tribe. However, because of the diversity of local, tribal situations, and the complex implications of the issues involved, the Conference avoided making specific recom­ mendations while calling upon the tribes themselves to address, at the local level, such sensitive questions. As I began researching the anthropological literature on aging, I also had the opportunity to work on a bibliographic project with a member of the Eastern Band. It was during our conversations on the position of the aged in traditional and contemporary Cherokee society and culture that this study came into focus. Upon completion of a research proposal, I made a field trip in November 1982 to the Eastern Cherokee Reservation during which I V met with former Principal Chief John Crowe and Indian elders with whom I discussed my proposed research. The Tribal Council eventually passed a resolution authoriz­ ing the study which, as I stressed then, was to focus on questions concerning the roles, position and status of the senior citizens in contemporary Eastern Cherokee culture and society. The field research would complement an ethnohistorical reconstruction of the position of the aged in aboriginal Cherokee society. Field research was conducted in 1983 thanks to an American University Dissertation Fellowship and some financial assistance I received from relatives. On the reservation many people gave me their generous hospital­ ity, in particular Mollie and the late Fred Blankenship, and Hilory and Joe Osborne. Gilliam Jackson, who has since visited me several times in Washington, was also very kind and helpful, Ned Welch of Big Cove and Jerry Long of Rough Branch (Soco) introduced me to the senior citizens at Tsali Manor, the new Senior Citizens' Center CSCC) , and kindly allowed me to share rides in the SCC vans to the most remote and beautiful parts of the Qualla Boundary. Above all, the senior citizens' kind acceptance and tolerance, their willingness to share time, memories and knowledge, and jokes with me made possible the completion of this study. Following the ethical standards of our vi profession (American Anthropological Association 1973), I have preserved the anonymity of my informants. To the many senior citizens who helped me gain an understanding of the place 'old folks'--as they often refer to them­ selves— occupy in contemporary reservation life goes my sincere gratitude and appreciation. My thanks also goes to the Tribal Council of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians for granting permission to conduct the research and reside on the reservation; several tribal employees, both Indian and white, assisted me during my stay at Qualla and after I returned to Washington. Finally, my sincere thanks goes to the members of my committee. Dr. John J. Bodine, Dr. William L. Leap, and Dr, Geoffrey Burkhart, without whose encouragement, comments and criticism this paper would not have seen completion. Of course I am solely responsible,for its content. vix TABLE OP CONTENTS ABSTRACT.......................................... il PREFACE ....................................... iv LIST OF TABLES ............................. X Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ................................. 1 Why the Indian Elderly? ................... 1 Cherokee Elders: A Question of 'Place' ...... 8 A Review of the Theories of Aging .......... 13 Methods and Tools of Research ............ 31 II. HISTORICAL DIMENSIONS ........................ 51 Where Memories Do Not Reach ............... 51 Aniyunwiya: A Historical Sketch of the Principal