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Richmond Public Schools: Post-Court Mandated School Desegregation (1986-2006)

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Richmond Public Schools: Post-Court Mandated School Desegregation (1986-2006) Virginia Commonwealth University VCU Scholars Compass Theses and Dissertations Graduate School 2009 Richmond Public Schools: Post-Court Mandated School Desegregation (1986-2006) Joshua Cole Virginia Commonwealth University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/etd Part of the Education Commons © The Author Downloaded from https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/etd/1975 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at VCU Scholars Compass. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of VCU Scholars Compass. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Richmond Public Schools: Post-Court Mandated School Desegregation (1986-2006) A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Virginia Commonwealth University By Joshua Paul Cole, Ph.D. B.S., Central Michigan University, 2000 M.S., Wayne State University, 2003 Director: Maike Philipsen, Ph.D. Professor, School of Education Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond, Virginia December 1, 2009 ii Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to acknowledge everyone associated with Richmond Public Schools who contributed to the content of this historical case study. Without your living history, this dissertation would not exist. I would also like to thank all of my colleagues, friends and family who supported me through this journey. I greatly appreciate all of your interest, advice and encouragement over the years. Specifically, I would like to thank Dr. Robert Smith, Sara Miller and Kathryn Starke for your insight and editing eyes. Finally, I would like to thank Virginia Commonwealth University and the School of Education for the opportunity to contribute to the body of knowledge in the field of education. Most importantly, I would like to thank Dr. Maike Philipsen, Dr. Samuel Craver, Dr. Erik Laursen and Dr. Michela Zonta for all of your guidance during my research and writing. iii Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to Emmanuel Wright. Your support is the foundation of this study. iv Table of Contents Page Acknowledgements............................................................................................................. ii Dedication.......................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents...............................................................................................................iv List of Tables .......................................................................................................................v List of Figures.................................................................................................................... vi List of Appendices ............................................................................................................ vii Abstract............................................................................................................................ viii Chapter 1: Introduction........................................................................................................1 Chapter 2: Literature Review.............................................................................................25 Chapter 3: Research Design and Methodology .................................................................56 Chapter 4: The Transition from Cross-Town Busing to Unitary Status ............................65 Chapter 5: Internal School Marketing................................................................................92 Chapter 6: Working to Establish Consistency .................................................................124 Chapter 7: Accountability during Adversity....................................................................152 Chapter 8: Conclusion......................................................................................................188 List of References ............................................................................................................222 Appendices.......................................................................................................................235 Vita...................................................................................................................................243 v List of Tables Page Table 1: Median Family Income as Percentage of Metropolitan Median Family Income.17 Table 2: Racial Composition of Richmond Public Schools...............................................18 Table 3: Fair Share of Poverty Index.................................................................................20 Table 4: Average Neighborhood Changes: 1960-1980 .....................................................34 Table 5: Residential Segregation Spatial Proximity Index of African-Americans by Population of Selected Metropolitan Areas……………………………………………...35 Table 6: Class Composition at Bellevue………………………………………………..111 Table 7: “Clustering” Split City: Separation in School Sparked Political Storm……...135 Table 8: Percentage of Students Passing 2005-06 SOL Assessments (AYP Subgroups) (English Performance)……………………………………………………………….…182 Table 9: Percentage of Students Passing 2005-06 SOL Assessments (AYP Subgroups) (Mathematics Performance)…………………………………………………………….183 Table 10: Membership Totals of Richmond Public School (2005-06)…………………185 vi List of Figures Page Figure 1: Public and Private Schools with White and Black Student Enrollment……...156 Figure 2: Percentage of Black Population in Richmond, VA……………………...158-159 Figure 3: Poverty Status of White Persons in Richmond, VA…………………….161-162 Figure 4: Poverty Status of Black Persons in Richmond, VA……………………..164-165 Figure 5: Median Household Income of Black Population………………………..167-168 vii List of Appendices Page Appendix A: Initial Introduction Letter………………………………………………..235 Appendix B: Interview Questions……………………………………………………...236 Appendix C: Research Subject Information and Consent Form……………………….237 Appendix D: Definition of Terms……………………………………………………...240 viii ABSTRACT Richmond Public Schools: Post-Court Mandated School Desegregation (1986-2006) By Joshua P. Cole, Ph.D. A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Virginia Commonwealth University Virginia Commonwealth University, 2009 Director: Maike Philipsen Professor, School of Education In 1970, cross-town busing was court mandated to enforce school desegregation in Richmond, Virginia. Unitary status was declared in Richmond when cross-town busing ended in 1986. Richmond Public Schools (RPS) no longer operated as a dual school system for blacks and whites after 1986. Class and racial segregation continued to exist in the City of Richmond. RPS remained predominately black and poor. Socio-economic conditions of the city continued to impact the school district. Controversies, mismanagement and low academic achievement stigmatized RPS until state and federal performance measures forced the district to improve. By 2006, RPS was still segregated; however, as a result of better leadership, academic success was demonstrated on Standards of Learning (SOL) assessments. 1 CHAPTER 1 Introduction Background of the Study Since 1954, the United States Supreme Court’s landmark school desegregation court decision in Brown v. Board of Education has impacted education. The desegregation of schools is a process that requires greater analysis. The introduction of this study provides a historical review of Richmond, Virginia’s dually operated school system for blacks and whites beginning with Brown v. Board (1954) through Bradley v. Board (1986), which ended cross-town busing in Richmond. This provides a background for the present study of post-court mandated school desegregation in Richmond Public Schools (RPS) from 1986 through 2006. Furthermore, the account of Richmond’s school desegregation process outlined in this study’s introduction serves as a backdrop for the historical analysis of RPS operating as a unitary school system for blacks and whites between 1986 and 2006. Massive Resistance: 1954-1959 On May 17, 1954, the United States Supreme Court handed down its historic school desegregation decision, Brown v. Board of Education, (Brown I), (1954). It stated that the segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race deprives the children of minority groups of equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, even though the physical facilities and other tangible factors may be equal (Brown v. Board, 1954). This decision ended the Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) “separate but equal” era, which provided legal cover for 2 segregated schools 58 years earlier (Plessy v. Ferguson, 1896). The Brown decision was met with “massive resistance” by most of Virginia’s politicians. Massive resistance was the process by which the political body of Virginia resisted the integration of public schools. Politicians believed school desegregation was an unwarranted intrusion upon states rights (Pratt, 1992). However, officials of the Virginia branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) hailed the decision as “a landmark comparable to the Declaration of Independence” (Pratt, 1992, p. 3). Thurgood Marshall, the NAACP’s prominent black attorney for civil rights, was very pleased with the decision, calling
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