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Somelike It Hot SOMELIKE IT HOT Life in New Zealand’s Geothermal Environments Champagne Pool at Waiotapu. Photo Credit: GNS Science New Zealand’s geothermal activity LOCATIONLOCATION occurs due to high heat flow in the Earth’s crust along the Pacific – LOCATION Australasian tectonic plate boundary. Faults and fractures channel heat to the surface creating volcanoes, hot springs, geysers, heated soils, hot streams, and fumaroles. 2 WHY ARE GEOTHERMAL AREAS Ngawha COLOURFUL? The brightly coloured rocks and soils in geothermal Taupō areas arise in different ways, due to chemicals Auckland Volcanic in the soil and the presence of pigmented Zone microorganisms. Hot, acidic gases and fluids interact with rock to New Plymouth form colourful clay minerals. For example salmon pink is cinnabar (mercury sulphide), orange is realgar (arsenic sulphide) and yellow to grey colours can be from sulphur-based minerals. Wellington When geothermal water discharges out of a spring or geyser, it cools quickly and forms what is known as a sinter deposit. Pure silica is white, Christchurch but sinters often contain traces of impurities or microorganisms which produce beautifully coloured forms. Some of the more common colours are pink from iron oxide or microbes, and Dunedin grey to black, from iron sulfide (pyrite). Microorganisms inhabit geothermal areas and can survive in very high temperatures. The type of The Taupō Volcanic Zone sits over the subduction zone boundary microbes will depend largely on the temperature where the Australasian and Pacific tectonic plates meet. and the chemical composition of the surrounding water, and each is pigmented differently. At lower The most well-recognised geothermal area in temperatures photosynthetic pigments produce New Zealand is the Taupō Volcanic Zone (TVZ). blues, reds and greens, while some higher This is a 100 km wide by 350 km long volcanic temperature microorganisms have carotenoid region of the central North Island. pigments that produce pinks, reds, yellows and browns. Māori legend says that geothermal fields in the central North Island were created when Te Pupu and Te Hoata, goddesses of fire, emerged from the WHAT IS THAT SMELL? Earth’s core in search of Ngātoroirangi who had That rotten egg smell in geothermal areas is due been stranded freezing on Mt Tongariro. Wherever to hydrogen sulphide gas being released into the they surfaced, they left geysers, hot springs and atmosphere. Fortunately if you live here, or visit mud pools, leaving the path of geothermal activity often, you quickly get used to the smell! that remains today. Warm and hot waters are also discharging from springs throughout the country, including Ngawha and Northland, East Cape, the Hauraki and Auckland regions, around Tauranga, and along the Alpine Fault in the South Island such as Hanmer Springs. Hot spring at Waimangu. The yellow Photo Credit: and green colours are associated with Jean Power photosynthetic microorganisms. 3 Hoani, a hot spring at Tokaanu. Photo Credit: Jean Power Geothermal areas are unique habitats ISlaNDSON LanD and ecosystems that challenge the survival ability of most life forms. Their physical characteristics include high temperatures, steep soil temperature gradients, exposure to steam, highly mineralised soils and waters, extreme pH, infertile soils, and the presence of toxic metals and gases. 4 Geothermal ecosystems have a longitudinal zonation, which means the plant and animal TERRESTRIAL HABITATS life changes with distance from the heat and Fumarole margins & warm microclimates geothermal fluid source. This makes these areas Fumaroles are steam and gas vents. Constant small “islands” of unique and specialised species steam allows frost-sensitive plants to survive at the and communities. fumarole margins. AQUATIC HABITATS Heated ground Hot pools & springs Geothermally heated soils result from heat flowing through the ground that is released at the surface Mineral waters journey through heated rocks to as steam. Ground temperatures (15 cm deep) can discharge naturally at the surface. Temperatures range from 40°C to over 100°C. Some flora species range from 30-100°C and pH from less than 1 such as the prostrate kanuka have evolved very (highly acidic) to 10 (highly alkaline). Depending on shallow root structures to avoid the heated and their chemical composition and gas content, these acidic soils at deeper soil depths. mineralised waters can be bubbly, salty, acidic, smelly or even flammable! Cooled, hydrothermally altered soils Geothermal streamsides Hydrothermally altered soils are often infertile. They have been changed by geothermal steam and Microhabitats are created where hot and cold become highly acidic, have low amounts of organic waters meet. This allows species, particularly those matter and phosphorus, and may contain toxic with tropical origins, to exist in areas that would concentrations of metals and trace elements. otherwise be too cold. WHAT LIVES IN OR NEAR WARM WATER? WHAT CAN LIVE IN OR NEAR HEATED Distinctive aquatic flora and fauna occur SOILS? downstream from thermal springs. Closest to the While microorganisms thrive in extreme high temperature water source (>60°C), aquatic temperatures, the hot conditions prohibit any communities are dominated exclusively by high- Eukaryotes, including any plant life and most temperature microorganisms (bacteria and invertebrates (insects), from residing in the hottest archaea). As the water cools downstream (<60°C), thermal areas. However, a complex variety of a diverse array of algae and fungi appear, and then specialised microorganisms, plants and insects soft-bodied organisms (invertebrates) begin to readily colonise areas adjacent to these heated occur where temperatures are less than 50°C. areas. CRADLES FOR EARLY LIFE The unusual food webs in geothermal areas may mimic conditions of the Earth billions of years ago when life originated. It is generally thought that life (primordial microorganisms) began in environments adjacent to geothermal features full of gases and toxic metals! A diverse range of plants grows in this Photo Credit: geothermal microhabitat at Waikite. Jean Power Fumarole and sinter terraces at Te Puia. Photo Credit: Jean Power 5 Array of geothermal habitats in a stream at Waimangu. Each colour indicates an environmental Photo Credit: Matthew Stott niche supporting different microbial life. Microorganisms, insects and plants liVinGIN A NICHE have made geothermal areas their home by adapting to extremes of temperature, acidity and alkalinity, turbidity and toxicity. The unique ecosystem biodiversity is so closely linked to chemical and physical conditions within each niche that community composition can vary between neighbouring hot springs, or even within a single pool or at different soil depths. 6 Some species and communities are endemic, THE GEOTHERMAL FOOD WEB that is, they are found only in these habitats and locations. WHERE DO THEY COME FROM? Many of the plant, insect and larger species are ANIMALS, BIRDS now uniquely adapted for life in geothermal areas and are exclusively found in these extreme habitats. PARASITIC FLIES Other opportunistic species have adapted to PREDATORY INSECTS tolerate geothermal conditions but are also found in non-geothermal areas. EPHYDRID FLIES The distribution and diversity of microorganisms within geothermal areas is thought to be a MICROORGANISMS consequence of: (e.g. ALGAE, FUNGI, BACTERIA, ARCHAEA) • physical dispersal by air, water, earth, and animals, Microorganisms are the backbone of the food • natural selection to the environmental web in all geothermal ecosystems, but even more conditions, and so in environments where conditions do not allow • beneficial DNA mutation by the species. photosynthesis. In these cases, microorganisms can use gases, such as methane and hydrogen sulphide, or metals, such as iron or arsenic, as energy sources. Other microorganisms are decomposers, with the ability to recycle nutrients from other organisms’ waste or break down plant material for energy and carbon. In turn, these primary producing microorganisms can be predated by other organisms in the food web. Grazing insects such as shore flies and midges are found in abundance living and feeding on microbial mats (up to 50°C). Predatory insects live on the cooler edges of hot springs and streams and feed on the larvae and other detritus. The adult geothermal-living insects then become prey for land-based predatory insects and birds. Hot spring at Waimangu. Photo Credit: Jean Power 7 Silica sinters growing at the margin of Champagne Pool, Waiotapu. Photo Credit: Bruce Mountain Microorganisms are present in almost EXTREMOPHilES every environment on earth, including in the heated water-bodies and soils of geothermal environments. As a general definition, microorganisms are any life form that cannot be seen without magnification. Examples of microorganisms can be found in all three kingdoms of life including Eukaryotes (for example protozoa, algae and some fungi), Bacteria and Archaea. 8 Some microorganisms, primarily bacterial and WHERE ARE THEY? archaeal species, are the only life forms that survive While the individuals are invisible to the naked eye, such harsh conditions. Temperatures can be up these micro-communities can be “seen” in some to 122°C, the pH can range from highly acidic characteristic features of a geothermal ecosystem. to strongly alkaline, and there can be elevated concentrations of salts and/or heavy metals. These unique forms of microorganisms are appropriately termed ‘extremophiles’.
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