Intangible Cultural Heritage Associated with Terracotta Animal Figurine of Sonepur Town,

Banti Mahapatra1 and Shahida Ansari1

1. Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute, Pune – 411 006, Maharashtra, (Email: [email protected]; [email protected])

Received: 30 October 2017; Revised: 25 November 2017; Accepted: 28 December 2017 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 5 (2017): 1030‐1053

Abstract: A large numbers of terracotta animal figurines are found in various archaeological sites in Indian subcontinent. These archaeological findings provide us with information about their artistic value, popularity, demand in the society and ancient Indian knowledge system. It also helps us in understanding the human‐animal relationship. The ongoing traditional practice and belief associated with terracotta animal figurines are often related to certain symbolic meaning and material worship. In order to know the ancient relation of human society with animal world along with associated traditional practices, various forms of worship and symbolism, a detailed ethnographic study was carried out amongst the inhabitants of Sonepur town in the state of Odisha, where terracotta animal figurines play a very important part in their culture. The present paper show case the intangible heritage associated in the form of religious practices and symbolic depiction related to terracotta animal figurines. The most popular among them is worshiping of terracotta bull and monkey figurines by observing through festival such as “Purauans” and “Lanka Podi Jatra” respectively in the month of Bhadraba (August‐September). The associated popular legends and folklores provide us with the symbolic meaning of their worship along with its contemporary traditional religious faith and belief system related to animals. Such type of ongoing tradition provides us with ample scope to draw analogy for better understanding of our past.

Keywords: Terracotta Animal Figurines, Bull and Monkey Figurine, Folklore, Lanka Podi Jatra, Pura Balada Ritual, Paschima Lanka, Intangible Cultural Heritage

Introduction The term “Cultural Heritage” may be defined as the entire corpus of material signs‐ either artistic or symbolic‐handed on by the past to each culture and, therefore, to the whole of humankind. It should be considered both in time and in space (UNESCO, 25 C/4, 1989: 57; www.google.co.in).

Cultural Heritage is divided into two groups: 1. Tangible Cultural Heritage, includes both the human and the natural environment, architectural complexes and archaeological sites, not only the rural heritage and the country side but also the urban, technical or industrial heritage, industrial design and street furniture; and 2. Intangible

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Table 1: Terracotta Animal Figurines Reported Sites in Odisha Sites District/ Culture/ Cultural findings References State Period of Terracotta Sisupalgarh Khurda Circa 200 Terracotta bullae, B.B. Lal 1949: 38 20° 13ʹ 35.9ʹʹ N.; Odisha BCE to 100 depicting animal or 85° 51ʹ 11.0ʹʹ E. CE human figures Manamunda Phulbani 3rd‐4th Terracotta elephant IAR 1991‐92: 86 20° 27ʹ N.; Odisha centuries and bull figurine C.R. Mishra and 85° 84ʹ E. BCE S. Pradhan, P.G. Dept. of History, University Puri Early Terracotta animal IAR 1984‐85: 60 19° 48ʹ N.; Odisha historical figurines Amarendra 85° 52ʹ E. period Nath, ASI Lalitagiri Historical Terracotta animal IAR 1988‐89: 66 20° 35′ 21.84″ N.; Odisha period figurines G.C. Chauley, 86° 15′ 2.16″ E. ASI Udayagiri Cuttack Historical Figurines of IAR 1988‐89: 68 20° 38′ 29.76″ N.; Odisha period mother goddess B.K. Sinha, ASI 86° 16′ 9.12″ E. and animals Barabati Fort Cuttack Period III‐ Handmade IAR 1995‐96 20° 28ʹ N.; Odisha Circa1560‐ terracotta animal A.K. Patel, M.P. 85° 54ʹ E. 1568 CE figurines Singh, R.N. Sahoo and S.K. Bhoi, ASI Bamragarh Sambalpur Medieval Terracotta animal IAR 1997‐98: 21° 40ʹ 40ʹʹ N.; Odisha period and human 144 84° 27ʹ 41ʹʹ E. figurine A.K. Bhargava, S.K. Bhoi and R.N. Sahoo, ASI Golbaisasan Khurda Period IIa Terracotta objects P.K. Sinha 2000: 20° 1ʹ 21ʹʹ N.; Odisha (Circa resembling crude 222‐355 85° 33ʹ 0ʹʹ E. 2100‐1100 human figurines BCE Radhanagar Jaipur Circa 500 Terracotta cart Jitu Mishra 20° 41ʹ N.; Odisha BCE to 350 wheel 2001: 523 86° 11ʹE. CE Ratnachira Satavahana Terracotta horse R.N. Dash 2008: Valley Odisha period and elephant 105 20° 17ʹ N.; figurine 85° 52ʹ E.

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Cultural Heritage, covers the non‐physical cultural heritage, which includes the signs and symbols passed on by oral transmission, artistic and literary forms of expression, languages, ways of life, myths, beliefs, and rituals, value systems and traditional knowledge.

The occurrence of large amount of terracotta objects in archaeological context with various forms gives us a complete platform to understand our past culture, history and society. The tangible material i.e. terracotta art, indicates the artistic and technological evolution of the contemporary society. The word ‘Terracotta’ is derived from an Italian term, which means ‘baked clay’ and ‘fired clay’ in Latin. Tangible materials are generally associated with certain intangible cultural heritage which passes from one generation to another. Terracotta art play an important role in understanding the socio‐ economic and religious aspects of the human culture. The earliest evidence of terracotta object in archaeological context especially in south west Asia is found from Mehrgarh (Period III 6500±80 BP, belonging to Chalcolithic occupational level; Singh: 2008).

Previous work done on terracotta objects in Odisha are done by scholars like; B. B. Lal (1949), P. Kumar (2000), S.C. Pradhan (2000), K.B. Barik (2000), G.C. Chauley (2000), K.K. Basa and P. Mohanty (2000), P.K. Behera (2001), Jitu Mishra (2001), W.B. Garnayak (2001), B.K. Thapar (2008) and R.N. Das (2008). Their research works have given general information and idea about the recorded terracotta style, technique and symbolism of terracotta objects (Table 1).

These studies have shed very little light on different tangible and intangible aspects associated with the practice of worshiping animal figurine in Odisha.

This paper documents the surviving traditions related to making of terracotta animal figurines in (especially Sonepur town) along with the associated traditional and oral belief system during Pura Balada ritual and Lanka Podi Jatra. Traditional and functional role related to the survival of terracotta tradition has been studied, observed and recorded. Intangible Cultural Heritage is studied through the documentation of associated religious and ritualistic practices related to terracotta object.

The data are collected through participatory field work in villages across the Sonepur town in western Odisha, documentation of terracotta making tradition and its associated form of worship, photography, and interviews of the elders and the craft specialist to understand the religious, rituals and legends related to terracotta tradition.

Study Area The study area i.e. Sonepur town (also district headquarters) is situated on the confluence of the rivers and Ong in Sonepur district (20.85° N.; 83.9° E.), Odisha State in eastern India. The district is also known as Subarnapur and was a subdivision of Bolangir district till 1993, when it became an independent district of

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Odisha. It is bounded by districts of Sambalpur in north‐east, in north, Baud in south, and Bolangir () in west (Figure 1), covering a total area of 2284.4 sq. km.

According to historians the Sonepur district was known as Paschima Lanka (Western Lanka) around 10th‐11th century CE. The evidence comes from a Copper Plate Charter issued during 10th century CE by a Somavamsi prince named Kumara Someswaradeva of Sonepur and who identified himself as the King of Paschima Lanka. It was further found that the Mahada Copper Plate Grant of Kumara Someswaradeva was registered on the bank of river Chitropala (Mahanadi) and near to the province of Lanka. The presiding deity of Paschima Lanka was goddesses Lankeswari (http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/subarnapur district).

Figure 1: Study Area, Sonepur district, Odisha

Manufacturing Process Involved in the Production of Terracotta Figurine, Sonepur Town Presently, tradition of terracotta art continues in modern society in Sonepur. Practice of clay modeling seems to be restricted only to a selected group of people in Sonepur. Almost every aspect related to ceramic and terracotta productions along with supply are dealt by local potters i.e. Kumbhars.

The survey in the villages of Sonepur district has resulted in understanding of the terracotta objects in the regional perspective. The stages involved in making of

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terracotta figurines and associated miniature pots and toys are: preparation of clay, production of the form, working on minor details and decoration, drying, pre firing slip and wash (if any), baking and firing, and finally painting or coloring (if any).

There are three kinds of soil available in Sonepur such as: a. Sticky soil (black soil in which clay amount is more) b. Silty soil (the amount of sand and clay is same), and c. Sandy soil (the amount of sand is more)

Sticky soil (chikinamati) is used for the preparation of the terracotta objects due to its sticky nature. Clayey soil is useful for making pots and ceramics. Sandy soil is used as mixture and is rare in this area. Soil is mostly obtained from the river banks, lakes or ponds. And also purchased from the owner of a particular land where the type‐soil is available.

After the transportation (by tractor or bullock cart) of the soil from source site to the potter’s workshop, it is allowed to dry in the sun or shade (Figure 2). The soil is sun dried till it is devoid of humidity. Then the pebbles, stones, wood pieces, and grass roots are removed. On the hard ground the milling operation of the soil is done (Figure 3).

Figure 2: Storing of Collected Soil Figure 3: Drying and Removing Rootlets etc

The powdered soil is then soaked in water according to its requirement. When the soil is soaked in the water properly it’s rubbed and mixture of sand and ash is added to it. Once the strengthening ingredients are mixed with the clay the entire mixture is rubbed by feet and thereafter by hands on a wooden plank or on the hard ground for some time. In order to avoid sticking, sand, cow‐dung ash and water are sprinkled from time to time over the hard ground. This is followed by kneading operation; here the clay is kept under shade in the form of small dome which is to be used for modeling. The pile of earth is entirely covered by a thick jute cloth in order to retain the humidity. When the terracotta object has got their actual form, they are sun baked in open area for three to four days (Figure 4). Later on figurines are dipped in to the solution of red earth (manjanmati) for a day (Figure 5) and sometimes specimens are

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Figure 4: Sun Baking of Terracotta Figure 5: Pre‐firing slips and washes Figurines in Sonepur done by manjanmatii, Sonepur

When the specimens are properly sun baked and the slip/wash is applied it is ready for firing. Both special and non‐special arrangements are made for firing the figurines. The specimens are mostly fired in open kiln which is usually near the workshop (Fig. 6). For firing they collect fuel from forest which is easily available to them. The main materials used are dry leaves (mainly Mahul patar), twigs, straw, cow dung cakes (chena) and wooden logs (mainly kendu kaatha).

The base of the open kiln is generally covered with straw or dried leaves and later by cow dung cakes. The clay figurines are placed over it and a layer of cow dung cakes and straw or dried leaves is used to protect the material from breakage. Finally they cover the entire heap and the firing process is always held in the afternoon and fired for six to twelve hours (Figure 6). The fired specimens are recovered from the kiln after 3 to 4 days (Figure 7) and are stored in workshop in the settlement area.

Figure 6: Open Kilns for Firing Figure 7: Post‐firing, Terracotta Objects, Terracotta Objects, Sonepur Open Kiln, Sonepur

We didn’t see any painted and colored specimens but they do apply colour during the time of festivals. During festivals we see terracotta objects are decorated with pattern of dots and linear lines made by paste of rice and turmeric (Figure 22). Terracotta making process includes both handmade and wheel‐made techniques:

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Making Procedure of Handmade Terracotta Bull Figurine Associated with Purauans or Purā Balada Ritual Bull figurines are known as deheri‐peheri, generally made by handmade technique. A portion of the prepared clay is shaped it into cylindrical roll and turn into a semicircular round at the middle part/portion. Then they bend it at the middle portion which forms of legs of the bull.

Small conical horns and ears are made by clay are then attached on the top part of the head. Again they take prepared clay for top portion of the face and elongate it to give the shape. Two circular clay balls with perforation are attached on the face which serves the purpose of eyes. Appliqué clay ribbons with horizontal line are applied on the mouth and on the base of horn and neck for decoration purpose (Figure 8a). The tail is attached on one of the legs due to its durability and not left hanging. The fold of loose skin hanging from throat of bull i.e. dewlap is then affixed, which is flappy in appearance (Figure 8b).

Figure 8 (a): Terracotta bull Figure 8 (b): Terracotta bull figurine (Front view), figurine (Side view) Sonepur Associated with Purauans

Four legs of the bull figurine are generally uneven in form or shape but are well balanced. The body counter of the bull figurine does not match the real bull but is more akin to that of a stylized bull. These bull figurines are made only for worshiping and so potters never make any hole on any part of the body (Figures 8a and 8b).

Making Procedure of Handmade Terracotta Figurine of Monkey God (Hanuman) Associated with Lanka Podi Jatra Small terracotta figurines of monkey God (Hanuman) are made for entertainment purpose and have highly ornamented features. Prepared clay is made into thick

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Mahapatra and Ansari 2017: 1030‐1053 cylindrical roll which is turned into semicircular shape and finally separated into two halves, The middle portion serves as the body part whereas, the two halves serve as leg portions. The monkey face is added to the body which contains eyebrows, nose, moustache, two perforated eyes, protruding mouth, and a head gear which appears like a crown (Figure 9a).

Figure 9(a): Small handmade terracotta (Figure 9(b): Small handmade terracotta figurine of Monkey God (Hanuman) on figurine Monkey God (Hanuman) on toy toy cart (Front View) cart (Side View)

The ears have thick round kundala or ear rings (Figure 9a). The tail is raised up and touching the head of the monkey (Fig. 9b). A number of circular perforations are there in the figurines i.e. below the tail, on both the sides of the body and back of the ears. The lower part of the legs contains hole so that they can be used for inserting stick to wheel when used as toy (Figures 9a and 9b).

Making Procedure of Wheel for Toy Cart (Geddie) Associated with Lanka Podi Jatra Wheel making is one of the most important features of the terracotta figurine. Wheels are made by wheel and handmade technique. Two side of wheel are joined at the center by attaching prepared clay (Figure 10a). The wheel making technique is visible from the circular perforation of the wheels and its cup like appearance (Fig. 10b).

The inner side of the cup of the wheel is circular in form and perforation of the wheel is small and area around is scraped but outer cup of the wheel is elongated in form and perforation is larger which is made while making the bowl. This is specifically made so when it is put in the toy cart can move easily (Figures 9‐10).

The exterior one is little concave in shape having axel for locking purpose and the interior cup is convex in shape for smooth running (Figure 10b). The middle part of wheel joint has plain ridge.

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Figure 10 (a): Terracotta wheel for toy cart Figure 10 (b): Terracotta wheel for toy (Top View) cart (Side View), Sonepur

Making Procedure of Wheel made and Handmade Terracotta Figurine of Monkey God (Hanuman) Associated with Lanka Podi Jatra Wheel and handmade technique is used to make the figurine of big monkey god (Hanuman). Four cylindrical clay roll made by wheel are used for legs and the body is also made on a wheel made cylindrical clay roll. Both side of the cylindrical body roll are fixed to cylindrical leg roll (Figure 11a).

Two wheel made cups are attached in the middle and fixed on either side of the body (Figures 11a and 11b). The outer part of the cup is shaped into a face of monkey. The face contains eyebrow which is made of thin cylindrical clay ribbon and is fixed in semicircular form. The shape of the nose is just like humans. Two circular clay pellets with perforation features are fixed just below the eyebrow. Below the nose they attach moustache (having line incision). It has pouted lips having five to six teeth. The head is decorated with crown which comprise of cowry shaped beads and the ears are ornamented with thick double ring (kundala) (Figure 11a).

Figure 11(a): Terracotta Figurine of Figure 11(b): Terracotta Figurine of Monkey God (Hanuman) (Front View), Monkey God (Side View) associated with Sonepur Lanka Podi Jatra, Sonepur

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The tail is raised upward and fixed to the back the head. It has a hole below the tail and on all four legs and the body. The size of the body of the figurine is elongated. This is absent in the smaller ones. The bottom part of the four legs contains holes so to be fixed to the wooden toy cart (Figure 11b).

Miniature Pots (Kudhi and Kanchi)‐Associated with Purauans or Purā Balada Ritual Tambi (Measuring Pot): Tambi is used for measurement rice grain (Figure 12). According to the people one tambi is equal to a kilo of rice. The pots are well fired, wheel made, red ware, medium sized globular pot with slopping shoulder slightly elongated convex neck and a slightly undercut rim with flat base. It is associated with terracotta bull figurine rituals at Sonepur.

Figure 12: Minature Pots; Maan, Tambi and Kudhi, Sonepur

Maan (Measuring Pot): Maan is another pot used for measuring pulses like dal (Figure 12). One maan is equal to 250 gm of dal. Maan is a small miniature pot, well fired, red ware and is wheel made. It has sloping shoulder slightly convex neck, slightly beaded undercut rim with flat base.

Kudhi (Miniature Storage Pot): Kudhi is generally used for the of salt storage purpose (Figure 12). The mouth of the kudhi is wide so that one can take out the salt from the pot easily. It is well fired, wheel made, red ware, flat base globular pot with, round undercut rim.

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Miniature Toy Pots‐Associated with Purauans or Purā Balada Ritual Ghada‐1: Ghada‐1 is a miniature water storage pot used for playing (Figure 13). It a well fired, wheel made, red ware having flat base with short vertical neck, which is slightly straight at the tip portion.

Ghada‐2: Ghada‐2 is a miniature pot made for playing purpose (Figure 13). It a miniature pot well fired, wheel made red ware and having flat base without rim and neck.

Figure 13: Miniature toy pots; Ghada‐1 and Ghada‐ 2, Sonepur

Kadhai (Frying Pan): It is a wheel made well fired, red ware having flat base (Figure 14). The mouth portion rim has two handles affixed. The handles have perforation at the center.

Figure 14: Miniature Toy Pots: Kadhai, Sonepur

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Miniature Toy Pot Cover, Bowl and Hearth‐Associated with Purauans or Purā Balada Ritual Dhanken (Miniature pot cover: Lid‐1): Miniature lid is used to cover the handi (pot). It is wheel made, red ware, well fired, disc shaped having irregular base (Figure 15).

Figure 15: Miniature pot covers: Dhanken Lid‐1 and Dhanken Lid‐2, Sonepur

Figure 16: Miniature Toy Bowl: Handi Figure 17: Miniature Toy Hearth: Chulha

Dhanken (Miniature pot cover: Lid‐2): It is wheel made, red ware, well fired, and bowl‐shaped. It appears like a lamp. It has incurved sided featureless rim with flat base (Figure 15).

Handi (Miniature Toy Bowl): It is a wheel made, red ware, well fired miniature bowl having flat or disc base, with turned neck and short inverted rim (Figure 16).

Chulha (Miniature Toy Hearth): It is a wheel made, red ware, well fired miniature globular hearth. It has short slightly out turn collar like rim. On the front portion of the body it has perforation and on the tip portion of rim there are three conical knobs at a regular distance with a flat base (Figure 17).

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Belief systems are those most deeply embedded ideas that underlie and motivate culture. They frequently arise from a particular religion and originate in philosophical postulates, and ethical proclamation; or in all of them.

Formative belief system have had an essential role in the historical beginnings of a settlement that became a society; they have entered an ongoing culture as an adaptation strategy at a moment of crisis; or have replaced forcibly other system for the most part to reside at the level of assumptions and presupposition. They are extraordinary powerful and those that persist over generations and centuries are rich in opinion on a variety of subject. Fundamental beliefs generate everyday practices, custom, expectations and laws. They contain views of time and history (Iyer 2006: 2).

Religious beliefs in the tribal societies stress upon short term pragmatic functions of the religion. The clans have their own totems, which serve as their guardians. They are not meant to be ritualistic but are magical and sacrificial in nature. They are meant for the fertility of man and for the success in hunting. Desires expressed through paintings are naturalistic and utilitarian in character.

But the religion of the peasantry is both pragmatic and transcendental. The pragmatic aspect implies the fertility of the soil and seasonal rain. This leads to the creation of the rain god such as Indra, Varuna and the goddess such as Prihtibi (Sharma 1972‐73: 62).

Intangible Cultural Heritage Associated with Bull Figurines and Miniature Pots (Kudhi and Kanchi) during Purauans or Purā Balada Ritual and Lanka Podi Jatra The most important ritual associated with terracotta bull figurine, is Pura Amavaysa or Purauans observed mainly by the farming community of Sonepur, Odisha. In this ceremony not only the terracotta figurines but also the wooden and metal figures of monkey, horses and elephants are included. Although the clay product is much cheaper than the other figurines, hence terracotta figurines are largely used during the Purauans ceremony.

This ceremony is also observed by the Brahmin, Kshatriya (like Khandayata, Karana, and Mohanty), Vaishya (represent by Kulta, Gauda, Agria, Meher, Kewat (Fisherman), Dhoba (washer man), Mali (Gardener), Teli (oil man) and Badhai (Carpenter) society. But the tribal people such as Binjhal, Mirdha, Sahara, Savara, Turei, and Gond are not involved in this festival which clearly indicates that it is performed by the Hindu society.

Purauans Ritual Bhadraba Amavasya is known as Saptapuree Amavasya which falls generally in the month of September (according English calendar). In western Odisha it is generally known as Purauans. The word purauans is derived from the word pudha i.e. burning. The bull figurines worshiped by people are baked in fire.

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Cow and bull are an integral part in rural life. They are considered as wealth because they play an important role in agriculture. The bulls are made to work for long and help the farmer in agricultural works. As a result, in order to give relief to hard work done by bull after the kharif crop farmers thank the bull by worshipping them.

The ceremony initiates with women taking bath early in the morning and getting involved in the decorations. They decorate the wall, floor of the house and also terracotta bull figurines along with associated miniature pots. The decoration includes application of linear, circular and doted designs (Figures 18a and 18b).

Figure 18a: Women applying rice paste Figure 18b: Woman applying rice paste (jhoti) in courtyard (www.google.in) (jhoti) on house wall (www.google.in)

On the other hand the bulls are adorned with Puraa flower (a kind of local flower). Then, in front of the Sathi (grinding stone‐ the Goddess of longevity) the terracotta bull and miniature pots are worshipped (Figures 19a and 19b). In the miniature pot different type of local foods like puffed rice (Leea), Jugar (a sweet made of by puffed rice and jaggery), hudum, Ukhuda (puffed rice with jaggery), sesame sweet balls (Rasi Laddu), groundnut sweet balls (Chinabadam laddu) and rice cakes are then offered to the goddess (presiding deity).

After worshiping, the prasada is distributed not only to the family members (Figures 20a and 20b) but also to the bull because they are considered as an important member of the family. After providing prasada to bull (Balada), animal is touched softly with a stick (Dheu). This releases tiredness and pain which is incurred due to Kharif labour.

At the completion of rituals figurines and miniature pots (Figures 12‐17) are given to the children to play. The boys are generally seen playing with wooden toy cart (Geddie), whereas girls are engaged in playing with miniature pots.

In the evening girls celebrate the Khudurkunie Osaa in a temple or in veranda. The girls also visit their neighbouring houses along with the Prasada of this Puja. After visiting they go for the collection of Rugudi (soil) in a bamboo basket. After collection they return to home and throw half basket of Rugudi in the cattle pen and half is kept in the worshiping area.

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Figure 19a: Worshiping of Deity Figure 19b: Offering of food to Gods

Figure 20a: Child Receiving the Figure 20b: Child Taking Blessing from the Prasad Elder

After the completion of all the rituals, they go to a nearby stream, pond, or a river at night and immerse the terracotta bull figurine in the water and cry loudly by singing the folk song:

“Kahi Gala Mor Deheri Peheri, Kahi Gala, Dhubenbudhi Neigala”

Translation: Where did you go my Deheri‐Peheri where did you go? That washerwoman has taken them away….

Later celebration continues with singing and dancing. People gather with their terracotta figurine of monkey God (Hanuman) on toy cart and there is a toy cart race at night.

Sonepur town is locally known as Paschima Lanka and its regional deity is Devi Lankeswari. Therefore, to commemorate the Lanka Podi (i.e. Lanka Dahan episode of Ramayana) the people of Sonepur celebrate Lanka Podi Jatra. Young boys play and race till mid night with the terracotta figurine of monkey God (Hanuman) with toy cart by tying oil dipped cloth around the tail which is lit during the race (Figure 21a). Besides, mud figurine of monkey God (Hanuman) is also made during Lanka Podi Jatra procession (Figure 21b).

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Figure 21a: Children playing with Figure 21b: Teenagers move around in the terracotta figurine of Monkey God village with mud figurine of Monkey God (Hanuman) on toy cart (Hanuman) in Lanka Podi Jatra (www.google.in) (www.google.in)

Popular Legend and Folklore Associated with Terracotta Bull Figurine and Monkey God (Hanuman) We observed the development and continuation of terracotta tradition of this region. The custom, tradition and beliefs of the people are incredible sometimes. The rituals and practices performed by the people are for their own profit or in some cases people believe that it will help in their prosperity. The local traditional festival of Pura Balada is celebrated for the better agricultural production.

Custom and tradition are eternal and they are practiced in the society to adjust in any way. The society associates them with a number of legends and stories which are easily acceptable by the people. The legends associated with Purauans ceremony are;

Legend 1: Radha Charan Panda (resident of Sonepur): once Indra the Lord of rain robbed the cows and bulls of Gopabalakas from the field. As a result the economic life of Gauda community had fallen into severe crisis. But Lord Krishna created thousands of cows and bulls, to save them from the economic crisis on this very day (Purauans). Hence in order to commemorate this episode, Pura Balada, ceremony is performed.

On the auspicious day of Bhadraba Amavasya Lord Krishna played with Gopabalaka and Gopibalika along with terracotta bull, miniature pots and dishes. Sand and soil are offered in these miniature pots and dishes by the Gopibalika to Lord Krishna. Lord Krishna happily ate the offerings and granted them their wishes. In order to get Lord Krishna’s blessing, girls play with miniature pots, whereas boys play with terracotta figurine of monkey God (Hanuman) on toy carts. Every year in order to remember that auspicious occasion both boys and girls play with their friends in groups. This festival reflects the social relationship amongst the people.

Legend 2: Kartika Rana (Potter of Sonepur town): this festival is celebrated to glorify Lord Ram and Lord Hanuman. In this month of Bhadraba (August‐September) Lord

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Hanuman met Lord Ram. And the former also went to Lanka in order to locate and meet Mata Sita. Moreover, to break Ravan’s ego Lanka Nagari was burnt by Lord Hanuman.

Legend 3: Amuly Panda and Giridhare Mahapatra (Residents of Sonepur): The king and queen of Sonepur were childless, they used to pray to Lord Ram for a child. One day a great saint came to the king’s palace and said to the king that the god is satisfied with their worship and if they wished for anything it will be fulfilled. Therefore king promised to build a temple and start a festival of Lord Hanuman (Lanka Podi Jatra) if his wish gets fulfilled. Finally in order to thank god for his blessing he constructed a temple and started the festival which is still going on in Sonepur town.

The terracotta animal figurines were seen fixed on the roof tile in some of the houses in Sonepur. It is done due to belief that it provides safety to the family from evil spirits (Figure 22a and 22b).

Figure 22a: Terracotta Animal Figurines Figure 22b: Decorated terracotta figurines Fixed on Roof Tile of Hanuman and wheel toy cart

Socio, Economic and Religious Aspect of the Indian Society with the Animal World and its Associated Material Culture The socio‐economic and religious aspect of the ancient terracotta animal figurines as well as the ongoing traditional practices associated with them is very important. It enables us in understanding the long as well as continuous traditional belief system and relationship between human society and the animal world. Besides, it also explains how oral beliefs developed in to a cultic form of worship.

The approach that has been carried out in this study uses literary data, ethnographic survey and interview. These approaches have given an ample source to draw analogy. Moreover has helped in getting an idea about the socio‐economic and religious aspect of human society with animal world as well as individual animal both directly and indirectly.

Following are the socio‐economic and religious aspect of the human society associated with animal world:

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Domestication: The relation between man and animals transcended the purely utilitarian level even during the hunting stage. Man felt close emotional affinity to the animals which formed the source of his food and shared his environment. Domestication of animal is highly developed man and animal relationship which has forced man to settle down and have a sedentary way of life.

If one looks at the diversity of wild animal spices exploited during the hunting‐ gathering and later period, the number of domestication animal are few. Not all the wild animals were domesticated, only animals with certain characteristics like docile nature and sociability were found domesticated. This particularly shows the knowledge of early human populations about the animal behavior (Pawankar 1995: 3).

Animal are mostly domesticated for the purpose of agriculture as well as other purpose mainly related to human subsistence. Animal are considered as dhan which means wealth in Indian context. The close context/ involvement of the Indian society with the animal world led to the development of various cultic beliefs associated with animal, for example;

Cow/Cattle: Among the cults of domesticated animals the most important is that of cattle. The question of the origin of the cult is complicated by the problem of the origin of domestic animals; for if the pastoral people who in historical times have revered or worshipped their cattle obtained them from a single center, where they were originally domesticated, possible, in part at least, through practices connected with religion, we cannot base any argument on the attitude of the cattle‐keeping tribes of the present day. If, on the other hand, no sanctity is attached to cattle when they came to them, the respect and even love which these peoples feel for their herds is important as a factor in the evolution of the more definitely religious attitude ( 1908, Vol. I: 506‐507).

The origin of the Hindu respect for the cow is an unsolved problem. Unlike Egypt, it is clear that Indian developed a respect for the animal in historical times. Of actual worship there is little to record; but the Pancha‐gavya, or five products of cow, are important factors in exorcism and magic; as a means of annulling an unlucky horoscope, re‐birth from a cow is stimulated; the pious Hindu touches the tail of a cow at the moment of dissolution, and believes that it will carry him across the river of death; just as, in the last reincarnation before the assumption of the human form, the cow receives the spirit and brings it across the river Vaitarani, which bounds the lower world. Cattle festivals are celebrated in Nepal and Central India, but their object seems to be mainly magical the nomadic Banjaras, however, devote a bullock to their god Balaji, and call upon it to cure them in sickness (Hastings 1908: Vol. I: 507).

In the Hindu society the wealth of a person was judged on the basis of the number of cattle he/she owned. The beliefs and attitude of the Hindu society with regard to their socio‐economic and religious life is mostly connected with cow/cattle. People worship the cow/cattle and consider it as mother (Gomata). Killing cow/cattle is considered a

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highly unforgivable offence. Godan (gift of cow, bull or ox) is considered very sacred as it helps to relate a person from the bondage of sin.

Monkey: Even if it was not a common savage trait to believe in the descent of man from one of the lower animals, the resemblance between human beings and monkeys would be sufficiently strong to suggest such a tale. Consequently we find not only that man is regarded as an involved monkey, but also that the monkey is explained as a degraded man (Hastings 1908: Vol. I: 522).

The chief home of the cult monkey is India, with its monkey‐god, Hanuman. In orthodox villages the life of monkey is safe from harm, and its magic influence is implored against the whirlwind, while it is also invoked to avert sterility. The bones of a monkey are held to pollute the ground. Mentioning a monkey brings starvation for the rest of the day, but it is regarded as lucky to keep one of the stable. As at the famous monkey‐temple at Benares, monkeys are said to be worshipped in Togo, Africa, where the inhabitants of a village daily put meals for their benefit (Hastings 1908: Vol. I: 522).

Food Purpose: Use of animal for the purpose of food is a universal phenomenon. The subsistence pattern of ancient man was based on hunting and gathering. Even after settled life, the human society continued activity. Certain animals were domesticated mainly for the fulfillment of the food requirement of humans. However, the use of various animals for the purpose of food is prohibited due to certain reasons. For example, there is a prohibition in some place with regard to the consumption cow/cattle.

Genetic Classification: We find a gradual change in custom, but the causes behind these is mostly based on the convenience of the people, which are generally offered by religious, social, political and other such factors. It may also be due to foreign influence or the development of new faiths.

Secondly, in order to trace the origin of this cultic form of worship associated with the animals, we have material evidence in the form of terracotta animal figurines as well as legendary accounts. However, they do not help us to prove anything. As far as the pastoral community is concerned, they are cultic beliefs and worship with regard to specific species based purely on their economic subsistence pattern (Hastings 1908: Vol. I: 487).

Cult: The evidence for ‘cultic form of worship’ is associated with animal and also the figurine of some animals is found even today. The terms ‘worship’ and ‘cult’ are also in the case of animal worship. These terms appear in two different way of practice (Hastings 1908: Vol. I: 486); o Animal regarded as the ‘god body’ which is known as the direct but temporal incarnation of god.

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o The second one included the respect of the name and bone of animal excluding the ‘cult practice’.

Further, the term ‘cult’ can also be divided in to two ways:

o According to their outward form (in the first form of cult animal is worshiped by anthropomorphically cult). o According to their genesis (in the second form it is associated with the beginning or earlier stage of belief).

‘Cult’ can be divided yet in to a formal classification. In the formal classification animal may be divided in to two classes, the whole species without exception is sacred and fixed named of species is sacred.

The transition of ‘worship’ form of practice and its evolution can be divided into four parts. They are; o A simple progress from ‘theomorphic to anthropomorphic ideas’: in this transition certain number of animal and species is regarded as having an important or sacred role in society. o Custom of sacrificing the ‘sacred animal’ annually: Some of the animals are scarified during annual event example‐ animals (especially hen and goat) are sacrificed annually to the village deity and similarly the same animals are also scarified during Durga puja annually. o ‘Folklore’: In folklore local animals are associated with god and sometime also human form. o The custom of selecting an ‘animal for special honor’: In this type of transition of belief, we get two type of practice; firstly the pastoral people who regard certain animal like bull and cattle as sacred or special one. Secondly, animals which are annually scarified after a certain period of time.

Messenger and Representative of God: According to legend animal play two important roles i.e. Messenger and Representative of God. For example, cow is regarded as the form of goddess Lakshmi and Arnapurna (Hastings 1908: Vol. I: 487).

Iconography: Iconographic depictions of various animals and birds associated with different deities have also been found. For example‐ cow is the representation Kamdhenu cow who was the representative of goddess Arnapurna. Similarly Hindu believes monkey is representative of lord Hanuman.

Medicine: Cow dung is used for cleaning the house floor, clarified butter is used as a form of medicine for cold and some other casual diseases.

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Entertainment: Monkeys dance is widely popular in India. For entertainment monkey are captured and trained to entertain the audience.

Conclusion The agricultural and pastoral communities largely depended upon their surrounding environment for the development of their settlement and subsistence pattern. In this process they were bonded with the animal world. As a result, the ancient man considered the animal as part of their lifestyle and hence developed a religious form of tradition and practice of animal worship. The ethnographic observation indicates that there is a long and continuous process involved in the worship of terracotta animal figurine. Archaeologically also animal worship is observed as a universal phenomenon from country to country and region to region.

The process of the illustration of thought, belief and surrounding culture of human art belongs to ancient time and it is still practiced by the human society. In case of rural area, particularly in Sonepur town the terracotta animal figurine making tradition is practiced even today. In this tradition the terracotta animal figurines is worshipped by the people along with presiding Hindu deities such as Lord Krishna, Devi Durga (in the form of Sathi and Khudurkunie) and domesticated animals.

The legend associated with terracotta animal figurines indicates that any tradition or oral belief in course of time survives and merges with its contemporary religion. The legends can be factual episodes and can also be moderately based on imagination factors. While this tradition may vary during fairs, festivals, and it’s making process from one region to another, but it does reflect that tangible culture when collected or documented needs wider attention than previously thought. Hence, collection of the associated intangible cultural data along with tangible data can provide us with ample data not only in regional perspective but also with variation in their representation.

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Mr. Balaji Gajul for elaborating the technique and procedure involved in making of terracotta animal figurine. To Dr. Alok Kumar Kanungo, for going through the text. To Dr. Mohan Pardhi, Neha Datta and Shikha Sharma for their academic support and comments. To Charak Choudhuri and Murli for help during field work in Sonepur town.

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