Introduction to English Linguistics

Introduction to English Linguistics 5: Grammar and Syntax II Cognitive Grammar Understands language as an abstract symbolic system directly rooted in the same cognitive processes used for other thought processes and thus not routed through a syntactic subsystem.

Syntactic Schools

Generative (or Transformational) Grammar A linguistic model postulating an innate set of syntactic rules from which all linguistic utterances are generated, involving a transformation from an underlying deep structure to the apparent surface structure.

[Deep Structure] → [Subsystem] → [Surface Structure] Syntactic Schools

[Deep Structure] → [Subsystem] → [Surface Structure]

Cognitive Grammar Understands language as an abstract symbolic system directly rooted in the same cognitive processes used for other thought processes and thus not routed through a syntactic subsystem. Generative Grammar Phrase Structure Rules Rules for parsing syntactic structures, deﬁning the constitution of phrases with a view to ﬁnding structural correspondences across languages.

S → NP VP: A sentence consists of a noun phrase followed by a verb phrase.

NP → (Det) (A) N (PP): A noun phrase consists of a noun preceded by the optional elements determiner and adjective and followed by the optional element prepositional phrase.

NP Noun phrase AP Adjective phrase VP Verb phrase PP Preposition phrase AdvP Adverbial phrase Det Determiner Deg Degree word Aux Auxiliary verb Con Conjunction S Sentence (Generative) Syntactic Constituents (Cf. parts of speech.)

Label Description N Noun V Verb A Adjective ▶ Lexical P Preposition ▶ Can head a phrase Adv Adverb T Tense C Complementizer Det Determiner ▶ Nonlexical Deg Degree word ▶ Aux Auxiliary verb Cannot head a phrase Con Conjunction

▶ Pronoun ≡ N without specifier or complement ▶ Possessive ≡ N X-Bar Theory Models all phrases as specifier-head structures by positing a projected head, raising specifiers above the level of complements.

Multiple Branching Schema X-Bar Schema

XP XP

′ (specifier) X (specifier) head (complement) head (complement) X-Bar Theory Models all phrases as speciﬁer-head structures by positing a projected head, raising speciﬁers above the level of complements.

Multiple Branching Schema X-Bar Schema NP NP

′ Det N Det N PP a N PP a house P NP ′ house P NP of N ′ P N cards of N

cards X-Bar Theory Models all phrases as speciﬁer-head structures by positing a projected head, raising speciﬁers above the level of complements.

Multiple Branching Schema X-Bar Schema NP NP

′ Det N Det N PP a N PP a house P NP house P NP of N of N cards cards

′ X level only required in phrases with both specifier and complement. X-Bar Theory Models all phrases as specifier-head structures by positing a projected head, raising specifiers above the level of complements.

Multiple Branching Schema X-Bar Schema NP NP

′ Det N Det N PP a N PP a house P N house P N of cards of cards

(You may also omit XP where it’s just a head, but I won’t here.) X-Bar Phrase Structure

Full Schema Compact Schema NP NP ′ Det N Det N

the N the law law X-Bar Phrase Structure

Full Schema Compact Schema AdvP AdvP ′ Deg Adv Deg Adv

rather Adv rather intently intently X-Bar Phrase Structure

Full Schema Compact Schema PP PP ′ P NP P NP ′ P Det N in Det N

in the N the rain rain X-Bar Phrase Structure

Full Schema Compact Schema VP VP ′ V NP V NP ′ V Det N read Det N

read a N a book book X-Bar Phrase Structure

Full Schema Compact Schema PP PP

′ Deg P Deg P′

hardly P NP hardly P NP ′ on Det N on Det N

the N the level level X-Bar Phrase Structure (Full Schema)

Det N′

the N PP

sound P′ NP

P Det N′

of the N

surf X-Bar Phrase Structure (Compact Schema)

Det N′

the N PP

sound P NP

of Det N

the surf X-Bar Sentence Structure (Full Schema) TP

NP T′

′ N T VP

N +pst V′ NP

You V NP N′

ate N′ N

N lunch

my X-Bar Sentence Structure (Compact Schema)

NP T′

N T VP

You +pst V NP

ate NP N

N lunch

my X-Bar Auxiliary Structure (Full Schema) TP

NP T′

′ N T VP

N did V′ NP

You V NP N′

eat N′ N

N lunch

my X-Bar Auxiliary Structure (Compact Schema)

NP T′

N T VP

You did V NP

eat NP N

N lunch

my X-Bar Sentence Structure (Full Schema) TP

′ NP T

′ N T VP N -pst ′ V NP We V ′ Det N miss the N PP

′ sound P NP

′ P Det N

of the N

surf X-Bar Sentence Structure (Compact Schema) TP

′ NP T

N T VP We -pst V NP

miss ′ Det N

the N PP

sound P NP

of Det N

the surf X-Bar Yes/No-Movement (Full Schema)

′ C TP

′ V C NP T

′ are +q N T VP

′ N -pst V NP

′ you V N

t N

Tarzan X-Bar Yes/No-Movement (Compact Schema)

′ C TP

′ V C NP T

are +q N T VP

you -pst V NP

t N

Tarzan X-Bar Wh-Movement (Full Schema) CP

′ AdvP C

′ Adv C TP Adv V ′ where +q NP T is ′ NP N T VP

′ ′ N N -pst V AdvP

′ N food V Adv

my t Adv

t X-Bar Wh-Movement (Compact Schema)

′ AdvP C

Adv C TP where V ′ +q NP T is ′ NP N T V

N food -pst V AdvP

my t Adv

t P. S. Langeslag