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EXTENDING THE LINE: EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY AMERICAN WOMEN’S SONNETS by ELEANOR GRACE WAKEFIELD A DISSERTATION Presented to the Department of English and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy June 2017 DISSERTATION APPROVAL PAGE Student: Eleanor Grace Wakefield Title: Extending the Line: Early Twentieth Century American Women’s Sonnets This dissertation has been accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in the Department of English by: Paul Peppis Chairperson John Gage Core Member Henry Wonham Core Member Veronica Alfano Core Member Helen Southworth Institutional Representative and Scott L. Pratt Dean of the Graduate School Original approval signatures are on file with the University of Oregon Graduate School. Degree awarded June 2017. ii © 2017 Eleanor Grace Wakefield iii DISSERTATION ABSTRACT Eleanor Grace Wakefield Doctor of Philosophy Department of English June 2017 Title: Extending the Line: Early Twentieth Century American Women’s Sonnets This dissertation rereads sonnets by three crucial but misunderstood early twentieth-century women poets at the intersection of the study of American literary history and scholarship of the sonnet as a genre, exposing and correcting a problematic loss of nuance in both narratives. Genre scholarship of the sonnet rarely extends into the twentieth century, while early twentieth-century studies tend to focus on nontraditional poem types. But in fact, as I show, formal poetry, the sonnet in particular, engaged deeply with the contemporary social issues of the period, and proved especially useful for women writers to consider the ways their identities as women and poets functioned in a world that was changing rapidly. Using the sonnet’s dialectical form, which creates tension with an internal turn, and which engages inherently with its own history, these women writers demonstrated the enduring power of the sonnet as well as their own positions as women and poets. Tying together genre and period scholarship, my dissertation corrects misreadings of Edna St. Vincent Millay, Sarah Teasdale, and Helene Johnson; of the period we often refer to as “modernism”; and of the sonnet form. iv CURRICULUM VITAE NAME OF AUTHOR: Eleanor Grace Wakefield GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED: University of Oregon, Eugene Gonzaga University, Spokane DEGREES AWARDED: Doctor of Philosophy, English, 2017, University of Oregon Master of Arts, English, 2011, University of Oregon Bachelor of Arts, English and Philosophy, 2007, Gonzaga University AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST: Poetry and Poetics Twentieth Century Poetry Modernisms African American Literature American Literature PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: Graduate Employee, University of Oregon, 2010-present Adjunct Instructor of Composition, Tacoma Community College, 2008, 2011, 2012 Adjunct Instructor of Composition, Muckleshoot Tribal College, 2009 Research Assistant, Mary Moody Emerson Almanacks, 2011-2013 Writing and English Tutor, U. Washington, Tacoma, 2009 AP Literature Exam Reader, College Board, 2016-present v GRANTS, AWARDS, AND HONORS: Fulbright Teaching Assistantship, Fulbright Commission, 2007-2008 Horn Travel Award, University of Oregon Department of English, 2015 PUBLICATIONS: Wakefield, Eleanor. “Helene Johnson.” Scribner’s American Writers Series Supplement XXVI, 2016, pp. 163-76. vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my committee first and foremost for their time, energy, and dedication during this dissertation writing process: Paul Peppis, Veronica Alfano, John Gage, Henry Wonham, and Helen Southworth. The years and hours Dr. Peppis especially has committed to this project have enabled me to grow as a writer, thinker, and scholar. I also owe thanks to Karen Ford and Corbett Upton, among many others in the department of English. Our department administrators Kathy Furrer and Mike Stamm also deserve unending praise for their diligent management of my progress and paperwork. For their consistent, cheerful, enthusiastic assistance analyzing and finding poems, I owe a debt of gratitude to the Modern and Contemporary Poetry Reading Group (MoCoPo): Paul Bellew, Jeni Rinner, Lizzy LeRud, Bill Fogarty, Rob Zandstra, Kate Huber, and others who so often let me select our readings so we could discuss Millay, Teasdale, and Johnson. Their insights have improved these interpretations immeasurably. My other tireless peers who worked with me and, often, listened to me when we ought to have been working, include Karl McKimpson, Meaghan Wetherell, Annie Caruso, Dina Muhic, and others. I would additionally like to thank Aletta Biersack and her dissertation workshop of 2016: Cary Fontana, Rose Maier, Anna Moore, Deb Parker, Rupa Pillai, Anna Sloan, and Rory Walsh. This group read more iterations of this dissertation than anyone else, and their feedback was both positive and valuable. More importantly, the camaraderie of this group consistently renewed my enthusiasm for my project. My parents, Catherine and Richard Wakefield, gave me a lifetime of support, encouragement, and assistance to try anything; without them, I am certain I would not be vii here. My interest in poetry comes from my dad, whose commitments to literature and teaching have long guided me, and whose own work on Robert Frost inspired the initial version of this dissertation. My sister, Mary, and her husband Chris, have been tireless cheerleaders during this process, and their curiosity and enthusiasm for my work have been invaluable. Above all, I want to thank my husband, Dave Nyland. He has been by my side— sometimes only figuratively—the entirety of my time in this doctoral program. I am motivated to work harder, be more thoughtful, and take more care because of him. I was able to spend these years thinking about poetry in large part because Dave committed himself so tirelessly to building our shared life: while I wrote my exams, he painted our apartment; while I worked on this dissertation, he single-handedly moved us; while I read poetry or revised conference papers, he made us meals, cleaned house, drove between Eugene and Portland, and much, much more. He only rarely helped me to interpret poems, but he has done almost everything else to make this possible. viii To Dave and to my parents. ix TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1 The Pulitzer Prize in 1918...................................................................................... 6 Poetry at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century ................................................ 13 Women and Women’s Writing at the Turn of the Twentieth Century .................. 18 Chapters ................................................................................................................. 31 II. SARA TEASDALE’S SONNETS TO DUSE AND THE VISION OF THE NEW WOMAN ................................................................................................................. 37 “To L.R.E.”: The Search for a Female Role Model ............................................... 44 Sonnets to Duse and Performing the Self .............................................................. 49 Poetic Role Models ................................................................................................ 66 Teasdale’s Poetic Self Fashioning ......................................................................... 83 III. TIME IN SEQUENCE: EDNA ST. VINCENT MILLAY’S SONNETS OF MOURNING ...................................................................................................... 109 The Ungrafted Tree Sonnets in Context ................................................................ 114 “I, Being Born a Woman and Distressed” and New Womanhood ........................ 128 Moderner Love....................................................................................................... 140 The Female Speaker and Cyclical Time ................................................................ 148 Gender in Sequence and Cycle .............................................................................. 167 IV. “WAITING FOR THE LIGHT”: MULTIPLE IDENTITIES IN HELENE JOHNSON’S HARLEM RENAISSANCE SONNETS ....................................... 197 Biographical Overview .......................................................................................... 204 “Sonnet to a Negro in Harlem” and Sonnets about Race....................................... 214 Christian Faith in “A Missionary” and “Magula” .................................................. 232 x Chapter Page Abstraction and Concreteness in Two “Sonnets” from Opportunity ..................... 243 V. CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 264 REFERENCES CITED ................................................................................................ 268 Chapter I................................................................................................................. 268 Chapter II ............................................................................................................... 269 Chapter III .............................................................................................................. 270 Chapter IV .............................................................................................................