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Ii a COMPARISON of INTRINSIC and TRANSPLANTED A COMPARISON OF INTRINSIC AND TRANSPLANTED CHANDELIER CELLS DURING CORTICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MICE by Michael Leary A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of The Wilkes Honors College in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Arts and Sciences with a Concentration in Biological Chemistry H. L. Wilkes Honors College of Florida Atlantic University Jupiter, Florida December 2016 ii A COMPARISON OF INTRINSIC AND TRANSPLANTED CHANDELIER CELLS DURING CORTICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MICE by Michael Leary This thesis was prepared under the direction of the candidate’s thesis advisor, Dr. Chitra Chandrasekhar, and has been approved by the members of her/his supervisory committee. It was submitted to the faculty of The Honors College and was accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Arts and Sciences. SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE: ____________________________ [Dr. Andre Steinecke] ____________________________ [Dr. Chitra Chandrasekhar] ______________________________ Dean Ellen Goldey, Wilkes Honors College ____________ Date iii ABSTRACT Author: Michael Leary Title: A comparison of Intrinsic and Transplanted Chandelier Cells during Cortical Development in Mice Institution: Wilkes Honors College of Florida Atlantic University Thesis Advisor: Dr. Chitra Chandrasekhar Degree: Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Arts and Sciences Concentration: Biological Chemistry Year: 2016 Recent findings show it is possible to genetically target Chandelier Cells (ChC) by using transgenic animals expressing a CRE recombinase under the control of a transient transcription factor. This targeting allows for continuous expression of a Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) to study ChCs intrinsic cellular processes. However, the expression of GFP in these mice is weak and the transient transcription factor limits the ability to achieve cell type specific expression of genes. To overcome these problems a technique of transplanting transfected ChC-progenitors into the cortex of developing mice, using single cell electroporation, was created. To compare both methods an analysis of the axon arborization and innervation of ChCs on post-natal day 16 and 21 in mice brains was done. The results show there is not a significant difference between the transplanted and intrinsic signal brains, and that the process of transplantation is a viable method for studying the ChC development. iv Table of Contents Introduction ...........................................................................................................1 Methods .................................................................................................................8 Results ...................................................................................................................15 Conclusion .............................................................................................................19 Discussion ..............................................................................................................21 References .............................................................................................................23 v INTRODUCTION Immanuel Kant postulated “all our knowledge begins with the senses, proceeds then to the understanding, and ends with reason. There is nothing higher than reason.” If the apex of human understanding is reason, then the brain is the location for our reasoning capabilities. The multitude of cells which allow our brain to operate are still being classified in an attempt to understand how reason is created. The study of the brain begins with its structure. Korbinian Brodmann studied the brain and elucidated the structural differentiation in the cortex. He labelled the cerebral cortex into 52 zones called Brodmann areas. They are defined by their cytoarchitecture, or histological structure and organization of cells. Brodmann published his cytoarchitectonic maps of the cortex of Homo sapiens and eight other mammals and found that some cortical areas are present in almost all species examined (Geyer et al., 2011). His ideas and mapping provided the basis for brain function being localized to specific areas, opposed to holistic idea that cognitive functions involve the brain in its entirety. The creation of cell theory established by Rudolf Virchow, allowed scientists to understand the cell was the basic unit of structure and function for all living organisms; not scientists studying the structure and function of the nervous tissue discovered it did not fit the parameters of the cell theory. This led to the idea that the nervous system was an exception to the theory. Camillo Golgi proposed the Reticular theory which postulated the nervous system is composed of a continuous reticular network of cells. This theory would be challenged by Santiago Ramón y Cajal after his own research into the structure of nervous tissue. He first 1 learned the silver chromate staining method introduced by Camilo Golgi and improved upon it by creating the double impregnation procedure. This method helped him study the cerebellum during the embryonic development of animals. His research created the neuron doctrine which states nervous cells are independent not continuous. Nerve cells always remain free, independent, and individual, and are the fundamental unit of the nervous system as a whole. Nerve impulse transmission from neuron to neuron is by contact rather than continuity” (Andres- Barquin 2002). The neuron doctrine allowed Ramón y Cajal to categorize cell types. He classified them as pyramidal cells and stellate cells with pyramidal cells projecting throughout the brain and stellate cells remain within distinct cortical regions. The stellate cells have two subsets: spiny and smooth. Spiny have many dendritic spines while smooth have none (Dowling 2011). Pyramidal and spiny stellate cells have further been classified as excitatory neurons while the smooth stellate cells are inhibitory neurons. These neurons use specific neurotransmitters. The types of neurotransmitters can be classified as either inhibitory or excitatory. The main excitatory neurotransmitter is the amino acid Glutamate, and the main inhibitory neurotransmitter is gama-aminobutyric acid (GABA) (Purves et al., 2012). A cell type which uses glutamate (glutamatergic) are Pyramidal cells (PC). PC are found in every layer of the neocortex, except layer 1. They are known as the primary excitation neurons of a human’s prefrontal cortex. A cell type which uses GABA (GABAergic), are local circuit neurons, or cortical interneurons. Interneurons help mediate overall neural networks of excitability and synaptic integration. Inhibitory local circuit neurons, or interneurons, use the neurotransmitter GABA and make up around 20% of the cortical neurons in the brain. Their roles in the brain include the 2 regulation of excitatory neurons and the synchronous activity of projection neuron ensembles (Chu and Anderson 2014). The regulation of excitatory neurons like PC, cause them to be shut down or their excitation limited in a downstream neuron in a neural circuit. It has been postulated the dysfunctions of interneurons can cause autism and psychiatric diseases. There is a large diversity of interneurons. The attempt to classify these neurons have been based on morphology, connectivity, synaptic properties, genetic markers, and intrinsic firing properties. These properties of classification lead to the idea of interneurons not having exact group to where a type may belong, but more of a spectrum. However difficult it is to classify an interneuron based on these qualities, the similarities between the different types allow for better understanding and grouping. The similarities which scientists look at include the genetics and connectivity of each cell. GABAergic Interneurons can be classified into three major subgroups according to biochemical markers. These subgroup are interneurons which express the neuropeptide somatostatin, interneurons which express the ionotropic serotonin receptor 5HT3aR and interneurons which express the calcium binding protein paravalbumin (Chu and Anderson 2014). Somatostatin is a neuropeptide found in 30% of all cortical inhibitory interneurons. They are axodendritic, innervating the dendrites of PC, and are located in all layers of the neocortex. (Taniguchi 2014). These interneurons have delayed spiking intrinsic properties, which may modulate later arriving inputs on the dendrites of principal neurons (Ma et al., 2010). Martinotti cells are a type of somatostatin-expressing interneuron. 5HT3aR is an ionotropic serotonergic receptor which makes up 30% of all cortical interneurons, and is expressed in neither the parvalbumin or somatostatin interneurons. 3 (Taniguchi 2012). These neurons are very heterogeneous physiologically, anatomically, and biochemically (tamiguchi 2014). 5HT3aR interneurons can be divided into vasoactive intestinal peptide neurons (VIP) and non-vasoactive intestinal peptide neurons (Non-VIP). VIP interneurons comprise 40% of the 5HT3aR group. They are irregular-spiking cells found primarily in layer 2/3 of the neocortex, forming connections with PC and other interneurons classifying them as axodendritic (Taniguchi 2014). Their purpose is to disinhibit PC (Taniguchi 2014). Non-VIP interneurons comprise 60% of the 5HT3aR group. Reelin-positive cells are a type of interneuron is found in layer 1 of the neocortex and are classified as late-spiking neurogliaform cells (Lee et al., 2010).
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