and different year classes do not interbreed. not do classes year different and predators away from the females. the from away predators impact of their activities on salmon. salmon. on activities their of impact
returning pink salmon were born in the same year, year, same the in born were salmon pink returning males’ conspicuous hump diverts the attention of of attention the diverts hump conspicuous males’ landowners about ways to reduce the the reduce to ways about landowners kokanee, spend their entire lives in freshwater lakes. freshwater in lives entire their spend kokanee,
Pinks spend a fixed 18 months at sea; thus, all all thus, sea; at months 18 fixed a spend Pinks other name, “humpback.” Some biologists think the the think biologists Some “humpback.” name, other We also advise businesses and private private and businesses advise also We before heading out to sea. Some populations, called called populations, Some sea. to out heading before
silvery color of smolts, and migrate directly to sea. sea. to directly migrate and smolts, of color silvery large hump on their backs, earning the species its its species the earning backs, their on hump large propagation of pure wild strains. strains. wild pure of propagation to freshwater lakes, where they spend 1 to 2 years years 2 to 1 spend they where lakes, freshwater to
the fry emerge from the gravel they already have the the have already they gravel the from emerge fry the their backs and tail fins. Spawning males develop a a develop males Spawning fins. tail and backs their habitat improvement, and hatchery hatchery and improvement, habitat Sockeye fry, after emerging from the gravel, migrate migrate gravel, the from emerging after fry, Sockeye
are typically found in shorter coastal streams. When When streams. coastal shorter in found typically are easily distinguished by the large oval spots on on spots oval large the by distinguished easily through research and monitoring, monitoring, and research through
Pink salmon rarely travel far upriver to spawn; they they spawn; to upriver far travel rarely salmon Pink Pinks average 2 to 5 pounds. Sea-run pinks are are pinks Sea-run pounds. 5 to 2 average Pinks is working to preserve wild salmon salmon wild preserve to working is jaws become hooked, and sharp canine teeth appear. teeth canine sharp and hooked, become jaws
Service Wildlife and Fish U.S. The compressed, a hump appears behind the head, the the head, the behind appears hump a compressed, Pink
green heads. The males’ bodies become laterally laterally become bodies males’ The heads. green
non-native stocks is rarely successful. rarely is stocks non-native
males and females develop bright red bodies and and bodies red bright develop females and males
lost, it will not return; transplanting of of transplanting return; not will it lost,
both sea, at years 2 typical a after water fresh
are close to oblivion. Once a wild run is is run wild a Once oblivion. to close are
few spots, and bright silver sides. When they enter enter they When sides. silver bright and spots, few
wild stocks may now be extinct; others others extinct; be now may stocks wild
Sea-run sockeye salmon have dark blue backs with with backs blue dark have salmon sockeye Sea-run (Oregon), and an estimated 104 other other 104 estimated an and (Oregon),
Sockeye (Idaho), the Wallowa River sockeye sockeye River Wallowa the (Idaho),
been lost. The Snake River coho coho River Snake The lost. been
already has legacy this of much But
legacy. legacy.
wild salmon are a precious genetic genetic precious a are salmon wild
and so on. Diverse and resilient, these these resilient, and Diverse on. so and
chinook, Snake River spring chinook, chinook, spring River Snake chinook,
origin): Sacramento River winter winter River Sacramento origin):
4 years is typical. is years 4 run (time of return) and race (river of of (river race and return) of (time run
from the gravel. They spend up to 7 years at sea, but but sea, at years 7 to up spend They gravel. the from usually refer to wild salmon by their their by salmon wild to refer usually
emerge they after soon sea the to migrate fry Chum their home rivers. Thus, biologists biologists Thus, rivers. home their
streams each year. each streams behavior are adapted to conditions in in conditions to adapted are behavior
and do not migrate far inland to spawn. to inland far migrate not do and to their native native their to
living in streams. in living are many races, whose physiology and and physiology whose races, many are
salmon return return salmon chum are fast swimmers, they are not good jumpers, jumpers, good not are they swimmers, fast are chum
of age and 8 to 10 pounds. The fry spend over a year year a over spend fry The pounds. 10 to 8 and age of appointed time. Within runs, there there runs, Within time. appointed
these endangered endangered these while females have a reddish lateral band. Although Although band. lateral reddish a have females while
waters, and return to their home streams at 3 years years 3 at streams home their to return and waters, each returning at its genetically genetically its at returning each
few hundred of of hundred few
males develop reddish vertical bars on their flanks, flanks, their on bars vertical reddish develop males
Most coho spend 18 months at sea, sticking to coastal coastal to sticking sea, at months 18 spend coho Most sockeye, and pink — has several runs, runs, several has — pink and sockeye,
(Idaho). Only a a Only (Idaho).
Pacific salmon, weighing up to 40 pounds. Spawning Spawning pounds. 40 to up weighing salmon, Pacific
salmon — chinook, coho, chum, chum, coho, chinook, — salmon
River fall chinook chinook fall River
of spawning males often become grotesquely hooked. hooked. grotesquely become often males spawning of canine teeth of spawning males, are the second largest largest second the are males, spawning of teeth canine
Each of the 5 species of Pacific Pacific of species 5 the of Each
Above: Snake Snake Above:
winter run chinook, which is now listed as endangered. as listed now is which chinook, run winter greenish backs. Spawning females are paler. The jaws jaws The paler. are females Spawning backs. greenish Chum, also known as “dog” salmon from the large large the from salmon “dog” as known also Chum,
fresh water. The Sacramento River also hosts a unique unique a hosts also River Sacramento The water. fresh
sides, spawning males develop bright red sides and and sides red bright develop males spawning sides,
Chum
smaller tributaries. Their fry spend a year or more in in more or year a spend fry Their tributaries. smaller teeth are white. Although sea-run coho have silver silver have coho sea-run Although white. are teeth
earlier, but delay spawning until fall, and spawn in in spawn and fall, until spawning delay but earlier, upper lobe of the tail fin. The gums at the base of the the of base the at gums The fin. tail the of lobe upper
3 to 4 months in fresh water. Spring chinook migrate migrate chinook Spring water. fresh in months 4 to 3 They have small black spots on their backs and the the and backs their on spots black small have They
spawning grounds, usually large rivers. The fry spend spend fry The rivers. large usually grounds, spawning can jump falls that most salmon cannot negotiate. negotiate. cannot salmon most that falls jump can
Fall chinook spawn soon after arriving at their their at arriving after soon spawn chinook Fall Coho (or silver) salmon are powerfully built, and and built, powerfully are salmon silver) (or Coho
Coho not as brightly colored when spawning. when colored brightly as not
while spring chinook are smaller, slimmer, and and slimmer, smaller, are chinook spring while
are gray. Fall-run chinook are robust and deep-bodied, deep-bodied, and robust are chinook Fall-run gray. are
dorsal fin, and tail fin. The gums at the base of the teeth teeth the of base the at gums The fin. tail and fin, dorsal
recorded. Chinook have small black spots on the back, back, the on spots black small have Chinook recorded.
averaging 18 to 24 pounds with up to 127 pounds pounds 127 to up with pounds 24 to 18 averaging
The chinook (or king) salmon is the largest species, species, largest the is salmon king) (or chinook The Chinook
Pacific Salmon Pacific
on the Brink the on
Salmon
Journey of the Salmon and the U.S. Fish A Resource U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Pacific Salmon and Wildlife Service In Decline The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s Salmon fisheries program is one of more than 20 resource agency programs that share responsibility for management of the Pacific of salmon and steelhead trout in the Northwest. We help restore degraded fish habitat, and operate hatcheries to Coast compensate for habitat and fish loss caused by dams and water diversions. In 1996, 66 million salmon and steelhead fry were released from 17 national fish hatcheries in the western states. Hatcheries contribute 900,000 adult salmon annually to sport, commercial, and Tribal fisheries. To ensure the health of hatchery fish, we conduct genetic, disease and What You Can Do nutrition research at four fish health centers and a technology center. ● Speak up for salmon restoration. Request that Through our eight fishery resource agencies provide adequate stream flows and other offices, we monitor salmon habitat protection. Oregon Historical Society #Gi7193 populations and work to restore wild ● Be an informed consumer. Don’t use products salmon and steelhead runs. We also Right: Fishery In recent years, the plight of salmon Above: biologist with that are harmful to the environment where safer has received much attention. But the Columbia River identify endangered and threatened alternatives exist. salmon cannery, runs, determine their habitat needs, summer chum problems of salmon are not new. In salmon, Quilcene the late 1800s, overfishing caused a c. 1880 and propose actions that would allow ● Don’t dump antifreeze, motor oil, or other National Fish species to recover. chemicals into street drains. Many drains empty rapid decline of chinook salmon in Hatchery, Oregon, Washington, and California. Perhaps most importantly, we work Washington directly into rivers! By 1890, scientists predicted the in partnership with Federal and State The migration of Pacific salmon from ● Conserve water and electricity; recycle and reuse collapse of the fishery. And even then, agencies, private organizations, Below: ocean feeding grounds to the streams Trapping smolts paper products. Reducing demand will help save logging and mining operations were businesses and private landowners of their birth—a journey of 3,000 for migration destroying spawning habitat. to find ways for salmon and people to habitat and fish. miles or more—is a remarkable feat study, Elwha From the 1930s on, dams blocked off coexist in years to come. River, Washington ● Volunteer for stream enhancement projects with of endurance and homing. It is a long, spawning habitat and made migration ForFor more more informationinformation contact:contact: strenuous, and desparate race, with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service or your State fish and wildlife agency. more difficult for both adult salmon every obstacle taking an enormous and smolts heading out to sea. Fisheries toll. Only one out of a thousand ● Report violations of fishing laws and seasons. An expanding human population U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Region salmon may live to reach the stream impacted what habitat remained. In Eastside Federal Complex where it was hatched. ● Anglers: Know the difference between trout and California, for instance, 85 percent of 911 NE 11th Avenue salmon smolts, and release any smolts you catch. Human cultures have seen the death the spawning streams that existed in Portland, Oregon 97232-4181 of adult salmon on their spawning ● Avoid boating, canoeing, or kayaking through 1850 are now either inaccessible or too Telephone: 503/872 2763 grounds as a symbol of ultimate spawning areas when adult salmon are in the river. polluted for salmon to use. No single FAX: 503/231 2062 sacrifice, and the generosity of cause is to blame: urban growth, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ● Enjoy watching salmon courtship and spawning nature. But to the salmon it is an agriculture, industry, logging, mining, from a distance, using glasses with polarized lenses. http://www.fws.gov investment in the future of the and grazing have all played a part in Salmon may be frightened from their nests if you species. The bodies of the adults help the loss of salmon habitat. The future Illustrations ©Shari Erickson 1994 approach too closely. enrich otherwise infertile streams, Above: of Pacific salmon depends on all of us May 2019 setting a higher priority on Item FW 2007 ensuring an abundant crop of insects Pink salmon ● Educate others about salmon and what they can to feed the next generation. ascending falls do to help. preserving these magnificent fish for future generations. Reprinted April 2017 The Pacific Salmon Life Cycle: Survival Against the Odds
Spring chinook Female chum salmon digging nest
Once they enter fresh water, the salmon stop feeding. Their stored fat and muscle must last long enough to When a female salmon arrives at her home stream, she take them past numerous obstacles, and sustain them chooses a nesting site with just the right combination of Pink salmon, ocean phase while they build nests, fight for dominance, and spawn. clean gravel, adequate depth, and good flow to provide Their bodies undergo many changes: bright spawning oxygen for her eggs. She digs her nest by rolling onto her colors appear, their stomachs and intestines shrink, and side and pumping her tail against the gravel. Stones are Salmon live in the ocean for 1 to 7 years. Pacific salmon their ability to fight disease and heal injuries declines. loosened and carried downstream by the current. Every range as far south as Monterey, California and as far east so often she checks the depth of the nest by “crouching:” Males develop hooked jaws, sharp canine teeth, and in Sockeye salmon, fighting as the coast of Siberia. When conditions are right, an some species, humped backs. lowering herself into the nest and inserting her anal fin unknown signal tells them to begin the migration home. into the spaces between the stones. males (above) and spawning Somehow they find their way across trackless miles of pair (below) ocean, even in overcast weather, when sun and stars cannot help their navigation. When they reach the coast, Challenges: Adult Migration Males fight for access to nest-building females. The they pick up the scent of their home river with noses so dominant male courts the female by quivering and sensitive that they can detect dissolved substances in ● Salmon are confused and slowed by slackwater pools above dams Challenges: Spawning crossing over her back. When she is ready to lay, he parts per 3,000,000,000,000,000,000! and turbulence below dams, using up their energy reserves. moves alongside her and together they release eggs ● People can disrupt courtship or frighten spawning salmon by approaching too closely. and milt. At the last moment subordinate males rush ● High temperatures in slackwater pools contribute to ● Drought and water diversions lower water levels, making nests vulnerable to freezing in winter. in and may manage to fertilize some of the eggs. “warmwater disease,” a major killer of adult salmon. The eggs settle into the spaces between the stones. ● Erosion, following clearcutting or fires, smothers nests with silt. The nest is covered with loose gravel as the female ● Adults run a gauntlet of predators: humans, sea lions, bears, builds another nest upstream. Both male and female and others. ● Floods can sweep eggs out of gravel. soon die after spawning, but females will defend the nest until they are too weak to do so. ● Poorly constructed dams and natural rockslides block migration. ● Fish and birds eat salmon eggs.
● Pollution can weaken or kill adult salmon. ● If good spawning habitat is scarce, females may dig up each others’ nests. ● Clearcutting along streams raises water temperatures and reduces oxygen in water, causing eggs to suffocate. ● By controlling and diverting water, human activity interferes with natural cycles of flushing Salmon fry hatch in and gravel deposition that create new spawning habitat. their gravel nest
Coho fry
Subadult chinook
Reaching an estuary, an area near the ocean where fresh and salt water mix, the young salmon linger to allow their bodies to adjust to salt water. They feed voraciously; the larger a young salmon can grow before entering the sea, the more likely it will be to survive. Finally, they head The eggs lie in the gravel through the winter, as the out to sea. Some species, such as coho, will stay in coastal embryos within develop. In early spring, yolk-sac fry, waters, while others migrate over 2,000 miles to feeding also called alevins, hatch. The tiny fish carry a food supply grounds in the north Pacific. (a sac of egg yolk) attached to their bellies. They will not Chinook smolts leave the protection of the gravel until the yolk is used up, 12 weeks or more. At that time the young salmon, now called fry, swim up to the surface, gulp air to fill their swim bladders (a sac-like organ that provides buoyancy), Challenges: Smolt Migration and begin to feed. ● Without currents to carry them downstream, smolts use extra Environmental cues cause physical and behavioral changes Challenges: Stream Life time and energy to swim through slackwater pools above dams. called smolting: scales become larger, color turns silvery, tails lengthen and become more deeply forked. Smaller ● Water diversions and natural droughts dry up creeks and strand fry ● The warm, quiet waters of slackwater pools have created ideal smolts let the current carry them downstream, tailfirst, in pools, making them easy prey for birds and other predators. Presented By habitat for predatory fish that eat young salmon. while larger smolts may swim actively. They do much of Several species of salmon fry spend from 6 months to a year ● Agricultural, urban, and industrial pollution kills salmon fry. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service—Pacific Region their travelling at night to avoid predators. Human activity or more in their home streams, feeding on insects and other ● Many smolts are killed and injured passing through has created additional hazards, from dams to pollution, small animals. The fry of some species head for the sea ● Floods, either natural or caused by human activity, can sweep fry hydroelectric turbines or over spillways. which reduce smolts’ chances of survival. soon after emerging from the gravel. Healthy streams are from streams before they are ready to migrate. ● Smolts are preyed on by birds, mammals, and larger fish. important for all young salmon. Streamside vegetation keeps water temperatures cool and supports many of the ● Coho and spring chinook smolts are taken by anglers who mistake ● Pollution of estuaries kills or weakens smolts, and reduces their insects the young fish will eat. Snags, roots, and boulders them for trout. provide hiding places and act as “brakes” that keep floods food supply at a critical time. ● By removing streamside vegetation, clearcutting and livestock use from sweeping the fry downstream. remove shade along streams, raise water temperatures — sometimes to lethal levels — and reduce insect food available to young salmon. Illustrations ©1994 Shari Erickson