Restoring the Climate Through Capture and Storage of Soil Carbon Through Holistic Planned Grazing

RESTORING THE CLIMATE THROUGH CAPTURE AND STORAGE OF SOIL CARBON THROUGH HOLISTIC PLANNED GRAZING

RESTORING THE CLIMATE THROUGH CAPTURE AND STORAGE OF SOIL CARBON

USING HOLISTICRESTORING PLANNED THE CLIMATE GRAZING BY GROWING SOIL CARBON THROUGH HOLISTIC PLANNED GRAZING1

Abstract Abstract The quantity of carbon contained in soils is directly related to the diversity and health of The quantitysoil life. of carbon All organic contained carbon in sequesteredsoils is directly in soilsrelated is extracted to the diversity from the and atmosphere health of soil by life. All organic photosynthesiscarbon sequestered and convertedin soils is extracted to complex from molecules the atmosphere by bacteria by photosynthesis and fungi in sy andnergy converted with to complexinsects molecules and animals. by bacteria An effective, and fungi profitable in synergy, and with culturally insects andrelevant animals. method An effective, for increasing profitable, and culturallysoil organic relevant carbon method is by for restoring increasing grass soillands organic worldwide carbon tois totheir restore optimal grasslands health .worldwide To to their optimalaccomp health.lish this To ataccomplish the scale andthis atpace the that scale we and need, pace Holistic that we Management need, Holistic™ Management™ and one of its and one of itsassociated associated processes, processes, Holistic Holistic Planned Planned Grazing Grazing™™ offers offers us us a tangiblea tangible way way to to restore restore ourthe climate by properlyclimate managing by properly livestock managing to build livestock soil life. toSince build the soil 1970s life. Holistic Since theManagement’s 1970s Holisti effectivenessc Management’s effectiveness has been well documented on millions of hectares on four has been well documented on millions of hectares on four continents. By restoring grasslands through continents. By restoring grasslands through Holistic Planned Grazing we have the Holisticpotential Planned Grazingto remove we excess have the atmospheric potential to carbon remove resulting the excess from atmospheric both anthropogenic carbon that soil has been the resultlos ofs over both the anthropogenic past 10,000 soilyears loss and over industrial the past-era 10,000 greenhouse years and gas industrial-era emissions. Thisgreenhouse gas emissions.sequestration This sequestration potential, potential, when applied when appliedto up to to 5 upbillion to 5 hectaresbillion hectares of degraded of degraded grassland grassland soils, couldsoils, return could 10 return or more 10 gigatonsor more gigatonsof excess ofatmospheric excess atmospheric carbon to carbon the terrestrial to the terrestrial sink annually sink thereby loweringannually greenhouse thereby gas concentrationslowering greenhouse to pre-industrial gas concentrations levels in ato matter pre-industrial of decades. levels This in while a restoring agriculturematter productivity, of decades. providing This while jobs restoring for thousands agriculture of people productivity in rural communities,, providing jobs supplying for high quality proteinthousands for ofmillions, people andin rural enhancing communities, wildlife shabitatupplying and high water quality resources. protein for millions, and enhancing wildlife habitat and water resources.

Holistic PlannedHolistic Grazing Planned in practice: Grazing inNorthern practice Great– Northern Plains, Great United States. Plains, UnitedPhoto States. by David Photo Nicola. by David Nicola

1 Adapted from a work in progress authored by Adam D. Sacks, Jim Laurie, Seth Itzkan, Karl Thidemann

______2 RESTORING THE CLIMATE © savory institute 2013 3

Introduction

The future challenges to humankind are considerable, with climate change at the top of the list. It is projected that food production, which is entirely dependent on a benign climate, will have to increase by 50% by 2050 to keep pace with global population needs (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).

Our ability to produce more food has increased dramatically in the latter half of the past century because of technological innovation driven by cheap fossil fuels (Janzen, 2011). However, this increased productivity has resulted in substantial damage to the ecosystem upon which we, and all life forms, depend. Specifically, the impacts of large urban populations and the intensive agriculture that they depend on have severely impacted the supply of fresh water (Carpenter & Biggs, 2010). In the future we will have to use water resources much more carefully and efficiently while managing the major portions of our water catchments more effectively. It has become increasingly clear that harmful changes in the earth's climate have been accelerating considerably faster than the scientific community High intensity agriculture is heavily anticipated. While there are good reasons that scientific assessments dependent on fossil fuel energy tend to be conservative (Brysse, Oreskes, O’Reilly, & Oppenheimer, 2013), imports and irrigation, as shown astonishment about the extent and rapidity of change are becoming the on this former grassland in Oregon, United States. norm in global warming circles (Carey, 2012; Efforts to limit emissions from fossil-fuel National Wildlife Federation, 2013; National Climate Assessment and combustion alone are incapable of Development Advisory Committee, 2013; Lyall, 2013). stabilizing levels of carbon dioxide in The level of urgency is thus chronically understated, the atmosphere. and our response continues to be inadequate. In theory, balancing the sources and sinks of atmospheric carbon dioxide can address, at least in part, human-induced climate change. However, natural sinks are decreasing because agricultural land, grasslands, coral reefs, and rain forests are being degraded at an increasing rate. To balance carbon dioxide flows it is believed to be necessary both to restore and protect these environments in addition to making drastic cuts in fossil-fuel use (Goreau, 1992). Efforts to limit emissions from fossil-fuel combustion alone are incapable of stabilizing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Twenty-five years ago it seemed straightforward that reducing emissions would lower the amount of carbon in the atmosphere and substituting non-carbon energy sources would be both technologically feasible and culturally acceptable. Accordingly, almost all efforts to combat global warming have only been directed at controlling sources, and primarily only fossil fuel sources at that, ignoring the extensive quantities of carbon emitted from DECADE TOTAL INCREASE ANNUAL RATE OF INCREASE degraded soils. As a 2003–2012 20.74 ppm 2.07 ppm/year result the emissions 1993–2002 16.73 ppm 1.67 ppm/year reductions strategy has, 1983–1992 15.24 ppm 1.52 ppm/year to date, been a decisive 1973–1982 13.68 ppm 1.37 ppm/year failure. Despite the fact that after almost three Figure 1 Atmospheric CO2 is accelerating upward from decade to decade. For the past decades of attempts on ten years, the average annual rate of increase is 2.07 parts per million (ppm). This rate of the part of governments, increase is more than double the increase in the 1960s, and 100x that of natural glaciation non-governmental cycles. Data courtesy of co2now.org and retrieved at http://co2now.org/current-co2/co2- trend/ organizations, the

4 RESTORING THE CLIMATE © savory institute 2013

DesertificationDesertification Causes Many Causes Problems Many Problems DesertificationDesertification plays a critical plays role a incritical many role of thein many world’s of mostthe world’s pressing most problems pressing: problems:

• Climate •Change. Climate Dry, Change. infertile, Dry, bare infertile, soil is unablebare soil to isstore unable carbon, to store releasing carbon, it releasing it into the atmosphere.into the atmosphere.

scientific community, and citizens worldwide, the • Water Issues.• Water Desertification Issues. Desertification creates large creates areas largeof Sinceexposed areas it ofsoilis exposedwell which known causes soil which that causes terrestrial total atmospheric carbon burden has increased by water to evaporatewater to or evaporate runoff instead or runoff of soaking instead into of soaking the soil .into This the increases soil. This the increases the approximately 42 parts per million (ppm) to our environments are important global frequency andfrequency severity and of floods severity and of droughtsfloods and even droughts with no even rainfall with change no rainfall in a change in a current level of 393 ppm (NOAA, 2013), and the rate of specific region.specific region. carbon sinks and the size of this sink increase is accelerating (International Energy Agency, depends on the grasslands of the world, 2012). See figure 1. • Famine/Food• Famine/Food Insecurity. Insecurity.Desertification Desertification is hurting thethe is grasslands’hurting most the feasible grasslands’capacity and to capacity cost-effective to feed billionsfeed of humans, billions ofresulting humans, in famineresulting and in faminedecreased and fooddecreased safety. food safety. Since it has become increasingly apparent that emissions approach to carbon sequestration is in

• Poverty.reductions• Desertification willPoverty. not take Desertification place is a in major a reasonable driver is a major oftimeframe, poverty driver forrestoring of entirepoverty regions, forthe entire massive hurting regions, the sink hurting in degraded the economicthere have stabilitybeeneconomic alternative of rural stability proposals pastoralist of rural for communities reducingpastoralist communities andgrassland causing and imbalanced soils. causing imbalanced consumptionthe concentrationconsumption and of demand atmospheric and patterns demand greenhouse around patterns gases the world.around the world. by actively removing them from the atmosphere. The • Socialadvantages Disruption.• ofSocial such undertakings Disruption. Because desertification include Because the desertificationopportunity is connected to bypass is toconnected drought, the impossibly povertyto drought, slow and international poverty and hunger,agreement it als processeshunger,o contributes andit als theo contributesto possibility increased of to succeedingsocial increased violence, in socialreversing abuse violence, global of women warming abuse and of in womenspite of persistent and children,ongoing emissions.culturalchildren, genocide Unfortunately, cultural and genocide emigration most of and these toemigration proposalscities and rely to other cities on high-tech countries. and other geo-engineering countries. schemes, which are largely untested for effectiveness, may be fraught with unintended consequences, and are potentially very expensiveGLOBAL in both EXTENTGLOBAL direct economicOF EXTENT GRASSLANDS and OF indirect GRASSLANDS environmental and social costs. It is well known that terrestrial environments are important global carbon sinks (Prentice, et al., 2001; Schimel, et al., 2001)

and the size of this sink Seasonally Dry Grasslands of the World depends on the grasslands Data and map courtesy of WRI Seasonally Dry Grasslands of the World Data and mapof courtesythe world of WRI (Pacala et Globally, grasslands comprise 40% of the global land surface area, excluding Greenland al., 2001) therefore, the Globally, grasslands comprise 40% of the global land surface area, excluding Greenland and Antarctica and have been degrading primarily through cultivation and improperly most feasible and cost- and Antarctica and have been degrading primarily through cultivation and improperly managed livestock practices (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Seasonally Dry Grasslands managedof the Worldlivestock practices (Millennium Eeffectivecosystem Assessment,approach to 2005).

Data and Map courtesy of WRI carbon sequestration is in restoring the massive sink in degraded grassland soils. Non-woody grasslands Open shrublands Closed shrublands SeasonaSeasonally Drylly DrySavannasGrasslands Grasslands of the of Worldthe World DataData and andmap map courtesy courtesy of WRI of WRI Woody savannas Tundra Non-grasslandGlobally,Globally, area grasslands grasslands comprise comprise 40% 40% of the of theglobal global land land surface surface area, area, excluding excluding Greenland Greenland andand Antarctica Antarctica and and have have been been degrading degrading primarily primarily through through cultivation cultivation and and imp improperlyroperly Source: WorldSource: Resources Worldmanaged Institutemanaged Resources livestock - livestockPAGE, Institute practices 2000 practices - (MillenniumPAGE, (Millennium 2000 E cosystem Ecosystem Assessment, Assessment, 2005). 2005).

Grasslands are home to 1 billion people with pastoral traditions (from the Masai to the herder, to the gaucho to the cowboy). Grasslands areNot home only to do1 billion their people traditions with pastoral affect traditions the management (from the Masai of to grasslands, the gaucho to their management of this complexity affects all of humanity. the cowboy to the herder). Not only do their traditions affect the management of grasslands,Grasslands their are home to 1 billion people with pastoral traditions (from the Masai to the gaucho to management of this complexity affects all of humanity. the cowboy to the herder). Not only do their traditions affect the management of grasslands, their management of this complexity affects all of humanity.

______5 RESTORING THE CLIMATE © sa vory institute 2013 5 5

GrasslandsGrasslands are homeare home to 1 tobillion 1 billion people people with with pastoral pastoral traditions traditions (from (from the Masaithe Masai to the to gauchothe gaucho to to the cowboythe cowboy to the to herder).the herder). Not Notonly only do their do their traditions traditions affect affect the managementthe management of grasslands, of grasslands, their their managementmanagement of this of complexitythis complexity affects affects all of all humanity. of humanity.

______5 5

At least one billion people depend on grasslands for their livelihoods mostly through livestock production for food and fiber (Ragab & Prudhomme, 2002). Therefore, there are huge economic and social costs associated with the degradation of grasslands apart from the diminished role they are able to play in sequestering carbon.

Although many attempts have been made to adopt technical solutions to reverse degradation, most involve large amounts of capital and expensive technology involving At least one billion people depend on grasslands for their livelihoods mostly through Globally, grasslandsenergy comprise inputs 40% from of the global land surface area, excluding Greenland and Antarctica livestock production for foodunsustainable and fiber (Ragab sources, & Prudhomme, can 2002). Therefore, there are huge economicand have and been social degrading costs associated primarily withthrough the cultivationdegradation and of grasslandsimproperly apart managed livestock practices be culturally inappropriate, from the diminished(Millennium role Ecosystem they are able Assessment, to play in 2005) sequestering. carbon. and have not been At least one billion people depend on grasslands for successful in creating large- Although many attempts scale, sustained their livelihoods mostly through livestock production havefor food been and made fiber to (Ragab adopt & Prudhomme, 2002). Properly managed livestock used to restore and maintain the health improvements to the tecTherefore,hnical solutions there are to huge economic and social costs of this Zimbabwean grassland. landscape. reverseassociated degradation, with the degradation most of grasslands apart involve large amounts of from the diminished role they are able to play in capital and expensive The good news is that numerous instances from around the world attest to the fact that sequestering carbon. degraded grasslands can be restored by properly managing livestock to benefit technology involving biodiversity and ecosystem health (Hodgson & Illius, 1996; Savory and Butterfield, 1999; energyAlthough inputs many from attempts have been made to adopt Tainton et al., 1999). To achieve restoration and sustainable use worldwide requires low- unsustainabletechnical solutions sources, to reverse can degradation, most input technology, as well as management procedures that are adaptive and use a suitable beinvolve culturally large amountsinappropriate, of capital and expensive flexible framework to restore ecosystem function. This is being accomplished in many andtechnology have not involving been energy inputs from unsustainable successful in creating large- locations around the world by sources, can be culturally inappropriate, and have Properly managed livestock used to restore and maintain notscale, been sustained successful in creating large-scale, sustained changing the way livestock the health of this Zimbabwean grassland. Properly managed livestock used to restore and maintain the health improvements toto thethe landscape. managers make decisions to of this Zimbabwean grassland. landscape. achieve ecological restoration and The good news is that numerous instances from around enhance their livelihoods and The good news is that numerous instances from around the worldthe worldattest attestto the to fact the that fact that degraded grasslands can quality of life. degraded grasslands can be restored by properly managing livestockbe restored to benefit by properly managing livestock to benefit biodiversity and ecosystem health (Hodgson & Illius, 1996; Savorybiodiversity and Butterfield, and ecosystem 1999; health (Hodgson & Illius, A direct consequence of restoring Tainton et al., 1999). To achieve restoration and sustainable use1996; worldwide Savory and requires Butterfield, low- 1999; Tainton et al., 1999). ecological function to these input technology, as well as management procedures that are adaptiveTo achieve and restoration use a suitable and sustainable use worldwide ecosystems is that carbon flexible framework to restore ecosystem function. This is beingrequires accomplished low-input in many technology, as well as management sequestration is significantly locations around the world by procedures that are adaptable and use a suitable enhanced. By renewing the changing the way livestock flexible framework to restore ecosystem function. This managers make decisions to is being accomplished in many locations around the By renewingrelationship the relationshipof grazing ofanimals grazing to animals to grasslands through Holistic achieve ecological restoration and world by changing the way livestock managers make Plannedgrasslands Grazing,, longlong-term-term storage storage of carbonof in soils will remove carbon from the enhance their livelihoods and decisions to achieve ecological restoration and enhance carbonatmosphere in soils and will add remove vast quantities carbon of carbon to soil organic matter. qualityAn of adaptive life. and flexible framework to restore their livelihoods and quality of life. from the atmosphere and add vast ecosystem function in Colorado, United States quantities of carbon to soil organic A direct Anconsequence adaptive and of restoringflexible framework to restore Unfortunately,matter at (Judy this poin, 2011;t in timeLovell most 2011; climate ecological functionecosystem to thesefunction in Colorado,A directUSA consequence of restoring ecological function to these ecosystems advocatesItzkan, are resistant 2012). - often fiercely so - to the ecosystems is that carbon is that carbon sequestration is significantly enhanced. By renewing the use of grazing animals, particularly livestock, to sequestration is significantly relationship of grazing animals to grasslands, long-term storage of carbon sequester carbon in soils. There are several______enhanced. By renewing the in soils will remove carbon from the atmosphere and add vast quantities of 6 carbon to soil organic matter (Judy, 2011; Lovell 2011; Itzkan, 2012). reasons for this: misunderstanding of the relationship of grazing animals to capacity of soils to sequester carbon; ignorance grasslands , long-term storage of Unfortunately, at this point in time most climate advocates are resistant— of the extent of carbon emissions from soil loss carbon in soils will remove carbon often fiercely so—to the through human activity over millennia from the atmosphere and add vast use of grazing animals, (Ruddiman, 2003); the lack of understanding of quantities of carbon to soil organic particularlyAn adaptive livestock, and flexible to frameworkBy renewing to restore the relationship of grazing the extent and potential of grasslands to be a matter (Judy, 2011; Lovell 2011; ecosystem function in Colorado, USA sequester carbon in soils. animals to grasslands through Holistic carbon sink; current perception about the Itzkan, 2012). There are several reasons damage inflicted by livestock (for example, for this: misunder- Planned Grazing, long-term storage of United Nations Food and Agricultural ______standing6 of the capacity carbon in soils will remove carbon from Organization, 2006); and the almost exclusive of soils to sequester PhotoPhoto by Matilda by Matilda Essig Essig the atmosphere and add vast quantities attention to emissions reductions. carbon; ignorance of the of carbon to soil organic matter. The purpose of this white paper is to remedy this situation and shed light on a process of atmospheric carbon capture and storage that has developed6 in RESTORINGthe natural world THE overCLIMATE © savory institute 2013 millions of years, has minimal possibility for unintended consequences, and has myriad benefits for the health of lands worldwide as well as their dependent life forms which include humans.

The Life of Grasslands Soils

To address why attention has not been adequately placed on the importance of soils and the role that grazing animals can play in building healthy soils, a primer is in order.

In healthy soils, carbon is stored in complex biomolecules, which can remove atmospheric carbon from global cycles for

______7

extent of carbon emissions from soil loss through human activity over millennia (Ruddiman, 2003); the lack of understanding of the extent and potential of grasslands to be a carbon sink; current perception about the damage inflicted by livestock (for example, Steinfeld, et al., 2006); and the almost exclusive attention to emissions reductions. The purpose of this white paper is to challenge the exclusive focus on emissions reductions and shed light on a process of atmospheric carbon capture and storage that has developed in the natural world over millions of years, has minimal possibility for unintended consequences, and has myriad benefits for the health of lands worldwide as well as their dependent life forms which include humans.

The Life of Grasslands Soils

To address why attention has not been adequately placed on the importance of soils and the role that grazing animals can play in building healthy soils, a brief discussion of how soils work is helpful. In healthy soils carbon is stored in stable complex biomolecules, such as lignin and glomalin, which remove carbon from the atmosphere and store it in the soil for hundreds or even thousands of years.

When grazing animals eat perennialhundreds grasses, or even the thousands root systems of years. die back In and become feed for communitiesparticular, of bacteria the (Baskin, macromolecules 2005), leaving lignin porous and passages and carbon-rich biomoleculesglomalin are which stable are and aggregated resistant tointo bacterial a sticky substance called humus (Pucheta,decay, Bonamici,thereby capable Cabido, of and storing Diaz, carbon 2004). for The following season the rootcenturies systems or regrow longer. along with the plants above ground, and the process will repeat itself, increasing soil porosity, water and, carbon content annually. Lignin, glomalin, and protein fragments from root dieback, along with humus created by bacterial action comprise hundreds or eventhe thousands process of humification,years. In which is part of the liquid carbon pathway particular, the macromolecules(Jones, 2009a) .lignin Humus and is critically important in water retention, balancing glomalin are stableminerals, and resistant and adjusting to bacterial pH and is why healthy soils are dark in color (like PhotoPhoto by by Christine Christine Jones Jones showing showing the the dark decay, thereby capableelemental of storing carbon carbon and is shownfor in the photo to the right), relatively low in density, and clump, not crumble, when handled. darkcolored colored carbon carbon sequestered sequestered around the roots centuries or longer. around the rootsof perennial of perennial grasses. grasses.

Soil organic carbon, which constitutes approximately 60% of soil organic matter, has beneficial effects on theWhen chemical, grazing physical, animals and eat perennial biological functions of soil quality (Bardgett,grasses, 2005), and the increasesroot systems die back and water-holding capacity and contributes to soilbecome structural feed stability for communi ties of bacteria (Weber, 2011). Soil organic matter increases adsorption(Baskin, 2005) of nutrients,, leaving porous passages cations,Photo by and Christine trace elementsJones showing that the are dark of importanceand complex to plant carbon growth; molecules which preventscolored carbon nutrient sequestered leaching; around and theis integralroots toare the aggregated organic acids into that a sticky substance of perennial grasses. called humus (Pucheta, Bonamici, Left: Initially in this neighboring, paired site comparisonCabido, in Australia, and Diaz, parent 2004). mate The- following rial, slope, aspect, rainfall, and farming enterprises, as well as soil carbon in both Whenwere originally grazing theanimals same. eat On perennial the left, the 0–50cmseason soil profile the rootis from systems a pasture regrow in along grasses,which groundcover the root systems has been die activelyback and managed with (no-tilled the plants cropped aboveground, and holistically and the grazed) to enhance photosynthetic capacity. On the right, the 0–50cm soil profile Initiallybecomeis from in this a feed conventionally neighboring, for communi paired managedties site comparisonof bacterianeighboring processpaddock will (10 repeatmeters itself,through increasing the soil in Australia,(Baskin,fence) that parent2005) has ma, leavingbeenterial, set-stocked slope, porous aspect, passages and rainfall, has a longporosity history of and phosphate water and applica carbon- content andand tion.farming complex While enterprise the carbon carbons as well moleculeslevels as soil in thecarbon which 0–10cm in incrementannually. are very Lignin, similar glomalin (this surface, and protein bothcarbon paddocks results were fromoriginally the decomposition the same. On the of left, organic fragments matter (leaves, from rootroots, dieback, manure, along with areetc.) aggregated forming short-chain into a sticky unstable substance "labile" carbon, the carbon below 30cm in the the 0-50cm-soil profile is from a paddock in which humus created by bacterial action groundcovercalledleft hand humus has profile been (Pucheta, activelyhas been managed Bon sequesteredamici, (no- tilled via the liquid carbon pathway and rapidly croppedCabido,incorporated and holisticallyand Diaz,into theg razed)2004). humic to The enhance(non-labile) follow ing soil fraction.comprise the process of humification, photosyntheticseasonPhoto andthe capacity. rootResearch: systems On Christine the re rightgrow Jones.the along 0-50cm which is part of the liquid carbon Property: 'Winona', operated by Colin and Nick Seis. soilwith profile the is fromplants a conventionally aboveground, managed and the pathway (Jones, 2009a). Humus is neighboring paddock (10 meters through the fence) process willRESTORING repeat itself, THE increasing CLIMATE soil © sacriticallyvory institute important 2013in water retention,7 Initially in this neighboring, paired site comparison that has been set-stocked and has a long history of balancing minerals, and adjusting pH in Australia, parent material, slope, aspect, rainfall, phosphateporosity application. and water While and the carbon carbon contentlevels in and farming enterprises as well as soil carbon in the annually.0-10cm increment Lignin, are glomalin very similar, and (this protein surface and is why healthy soils are dark in color both paddocks were originally the same. On the left, carbonfragments results from from the root decomposition dieback, alongof organic with (like elemental carbon and is shown in the 0-50cm-soil profile is from a paddock in which matterhumus (leaves, created roots, manureby bacterial etc), formin actiong short - the photo above), relatively low in groundcover has been actively managed (no-tilled chain unstable “labile” carbon, the carbon below comprise the process of humification, density, and clump, not crumble, when cropped and holistically grazed) to enhance 30cm in the left hand profile has been sequestered handled. photosynthetic capacity. On the right the 0-50cm via whichthe liquid is partcarbon of pathway the liquid and carbonrapidly soil profile is from a conventionally managed incorporapathwayted into(Jones the ,humic 2009a (non). Humus-labile) soil is neighboring paddock (10 meters through the fence) fractioncritically. important in water retention, Soil organic carbon, which constitutes that has been set-stocked and has a long history of balancing minerals, and adjusting pH approximately 60% of soil organic phosphate application. While the carbon levels in Photo and research: Christine Jones and is why healthy soils are dark in color matter, has beneficial effects on the the 0-10cm increment are very similar (this surface Property: ‘Winona’, operated by Colin and Nick chemical, physical, and biological carbon results from the decomposition of organic Seis(like elemental carbon and is shown in matter (leaves, roots, manure etc), forming short- the photo above), relatively low in functions of soil quality (Bardgett, 2005) chain unstable “labile” carbon, the carbon below density, and clump, not______crumble, when 30cm in the left hand profile has been sequestered handled. 8 via the liquid carbon pathway and rapidly incorporated into the humic (non-labile) soil fraction. Soil organic carbon, which constitutes approximately 60% of soil organic Photo and research: Christine Jones matter, has beneficial effects on the Property: ‘Winona’, operated by Colin and Nick chemical, physical, and biological Seis functions of soil quality (Bardgett, 2005) ______8

and increases water-holding capacity and contributes to soil structural stability (Weber, 2011). Organic matter increases adsorption of nutrients, cations, and trace elements that are of importance to plant growth, prevents nutrient leaching, and is integral to the organic acids that make minerals available to plants. Organic matter also buffers soil from strong changes in soil pH. Consequently, it is widely accepted that the carbon content of soil is a major factor in overall soil health, plant production, the health of water catchments as well as being a sink for atmospheric carbon to offset climate change (Charman and Murphy, 2000; Lal, 2008).

make minerals available to plants. Organic matter also buffers soil from strong changes in soil pH (acidity). Consequently, it is widely and increases water-holding capacity and contributes to soil structural stability (Weber, and increases water-holding capacity and contributes to soil structural stability (Weber, accepted that the carbon content of soil is a major factor in overall 2011). Organic matter increases adsorption of nutrients, cations, and trace elements that soil health, plant production, and the health of water catchments as are2011) of importance. Organic tomatter plant increases growth, preventsadsorption nutrient of nutrients, leaching cations,, and is and integral trace to elements the that well as being a sink for atmospheric carbon to offset climate change organicare of acids importance that make to plantminerals growth, available prevents to plants. nutrient Organic leaching matter, and also is integral buffers to soil the from (Charman and Murphy, 2000; Lal, 2008). strongorganic changes acids in that soil makepH. Consequently, minerals available it is widelyto plants. accepted Organic that matter the carbon also buffers content soil of from soilstrong is a major changes factor in insoil overall pH. Consequently, soil health, plant it is production, widely accepted the health that the of watercarbon content ofThe extremely complex and symbiotic functions of these life forms catchmentssoil is a major as well factor as being in overall a sink soilfor health,atmospheric plant carbonproduction, to offset the climatehealth of change water cannot be replaced with synthetic chemistry, which, on the contrary, (Charmancatchments and asMurphy, well as being2000; aL al,sink 2008). for atmospheric carbon to offset climate change eventually lead to massive soil erosion and wholesale loss of stored (Charman and Murphy, 2000; Lal, 2008). carbon to the atmosphere. Conventional agriculture that uses synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, as well as improperly managed On Gabe Brown’s 4,000-acre farm in North Dakota throughlivestock no-till destroy cropping essential combined soil with biota and lead to widespread soil Holistic Planned Grazing the following results have beendegradation documented: (Neely and Fynn, 2011). It is well known that such • 265% increase in organic matter in 11soils years become "addicted" to artificial inputs, requiring larger and 12-fold increase in water infiltration: ½”/hour to 6”/hour • larger "fixes" over time while yielding diminishing outputs (Khan, • 13.6” of rain in 22 hours with zero erosion Mulvaney, Ellsworth & Boast, 2007). • 117-bushel corn yield compared to 70-bushel county average in addition to the beef produced. In terms of livestock production, the modern industrial approach to animal husbandry has so distorted society’s idea of what it means to The extremely complex and symbiotic functions of these life forms cannot be replaced Inraise terms cattle of livestock and production, other grazing the modern animals industrial that approach many to do animal not husbandryunderstand with synthetic chemistry, which, on the contrary,hashow eventu so distortedessentialally society’s lead they to idea are massive of in what creating it soilmeans erosion ato healthy raise cattle grassland and other grazers when that many do not understand how essential they are in creating a healthy grassland when properly andOn Gabewholesale Brown's loss 4,000-acre of stored farm carbon in North to the atmosphere. Conventional agriculture that managedproperly. For managed. when grazers For are when constantly grazers on the are move constantly in response to on predators, the move the usesDakota, synthetic through fertilizers no-till cropping and combined On Gabe Brown’s 4,000-acre farm in North Dakota through no-till cropping combined with searchin response for a varied to diet, predators, and avoiding the their search own wastes, for a theyvaried aerate, diet, fertilize and, and avoiding restore pesticides,with Holistic as Planned well as Grazing, the following the soils (Frank, McNaughton, Tracy, 1998). This is the opposite of what occurs under HolisticOn Gabe Planned Brown’s Grazing 4,000 the-acre following farm inresults North have Dakotaresults been through documented: have been no-till documented: cropping combined with their own wastes, they aerate, fertilize, and restore the soils (Frank, Holistic Planned Grazing the following results improperlyhave been documented: managed mainstream grassland management where cattle, protected from predators and permitted • 265% increase in organic matter in 11 years toMcNaughton, graze randomly overTracy, wide 1998) areas without. This regardis the for opposite the condition of ofwhat the grasses, occurs under • •12 -fold265% increase increase in inwater organic infiltr matteration:livestock• 278% in½ ”/hour11 increase yearsdestroy to 6”/hour inessential organic soilmatter overgraze, compact and destroy soils. • 16-fold increase in water infiltration: mainstream grassland management where cattle, protected from • •13.6” 12 -offold rain increase in 22 hours in water with infiltr zerobiotaation: erosion and ½ ”/hour lead to to widespread6”/hour 1/2"/hour to 8"/hour predators and permitted to graze randomly over wide areas without • •117 13.6”-bushel of corn rain yieldin 22 comparedhours with to zero 70- bushelerosion county average in addition to the Holistic Planned Grazing renews the proper relationship of grazing animals to grasslands soil• 13.6" degradation of rain in 22(Neely hours andwith zero byregard insuring for that the the conditionanimals are in of the the right grasses, place, at theovergraze, right time, withcompact the right and •beef 117 produced.-bushel corn yield compared to 70-bushel county average in addition to the Fynn, erosion 2011). It is well known behavior,destroy for soils. the right reasons. Through each cycle every component of this complex beef produced. that• 127-bushel such soils corn become yield compared to system nourishes all the others, resulting in rich soils which, storing vast quantities of water and carbon, remain moist even during periods of drought, raise the water table to The extremely complex and symbiotic functions"addicted" just of under these to 100-bushel artificiallife forms countyinputs, cannot average be replaced Holistic Planned Grazing renews the proper relationship of grazing in addition to the beef produced. restore and maintain perennial streams and ponds, and create habitats for richly diverse withThe synthetic extremely chemistry, complex which, and symbiotic on the contrary, functionsrequiring eventu of larger theseally and lifelead formslarger to massive cannot soil be erosionreplaced microbial,animals plant, to grasslands insect, and animal by insuring life. that the animals are in the right andwith wholesale synthetic loss chemistry, of stored carbonwhich, onto thethe atmosphere.contrary,"fixes"On pastures over eventu timethatConventional allywere while lead seeded to agriculture massive with perennial soil that erosion place, at the right time, with the right behavior, for the right reasons. and wholesale loss of stored carbon to thegrasses atmosphere. organic matterConventional went from agriculture under 2% that uses synthetic fertilizers and yieldingto 7.3% with diminishing grazing alone. outputs pesticides,uses synthetic as well fertilizers as and (Khan, Mulvaney, Ellsworth pesticides, as well as improperly managed & Boast, 2007). livestockimproperly destroy managed essential soil A typical, modern way to raise beef in feedlots. livestock destroy essential soil biota and lead to widespread ______soilbiota degradation and lead (Neely to widespread and 9 soil degradation (Neely and Fynn, 2011). It is well known thatFynn, such 2011).soils become It is well known "addicted"that such to soils artificial become inputs, requiring"addicted" larger to andartificial larger inputs, "fixes"requiring over time larger while and larger yielding"fixes" diminishing over time while outputs (Khan,yielding Mulv diminishinganey, Ellsworth outputs (Khan, Mulvaney, Ellsworth & Boast, 2007). A typical, modern way to raise beef in & Boast, 2007). A typical,feedlots. modern way to raise beef in feedlots. ______A typical, modern way to raise beef in feedlots. On the right, a mixed herd of goats and cattle managed to mimic the On the right a mixed herd of goats and cattle managed to mimic the wildebeest on the left. ______9 wildebeest and zebra on the left. 9

8 RESTORING THE CLIMATE © sa vory institute 2013

______10

Through each cycle every component of this complex system nourishes all the others, resulting in rich soils which, storing vast quantities of water and carbon, remain moist even during periods of drought, raise the water table to restore and maintain perennial streams and ponds, and create habitats for richly diverse microbial, plant, insect, and animal life.

Holistic Planned Grazing: Making Grasslands Whole Again Holistic Planned Grazing: Making Grasslands Whole Again Although many grasslands have been badly degraded it is possible to manage them to Although many grasslands have been badly degraded, it is possible toreverse properly deg manageradation. livestock Well-managed to grasslands have a very important role to play globally reverse this trend. Well-managed grasslands have a very important roleas providers to play globally of livelihoods, as providers water of catchments, and bio-diverse habitat for a multitude of livelihoods, water catchments, and biodiverse habitat for a multitudep lantsof plants and andanimals animals (Milchunas (Milchunas & La &uenroth , 1993; Savory and Butterfield, 1999). In Lauenroth, 1993; Savory and Butterfield, 1999). In addition, they holdaddition, a large reserve they hold of soil a largecarbon reserve which, of soil carbon which, when released under when released under degradation, contributes to carbon dioxide emissions.degradation, However, contributes under restorative to carbon dioxide emissions. However, under restorative management degraded grassland can enhance soil carbon sequestrationmanagement (Derner et degraded al., 2006; grassland Allard et al.,can enhance soil carbon sequestration (Derner et al., 2007; Soussana et al., 2010; Teague et al., 2011). 2006; Allard et al., 2007; Soussana et al., 2010; Teague et al., 2011).

An innovative biologist in Zimbabwe named Allan Savory An innovative biologist in pioneered Holistic Management and its planning process, Holistic Zimbabwe named Allan Savory Planned Grazing. Thanks to Savory and others, for decades we pioneered Holistic Management have been learning how to restore grasslands by mimicking and its planning process, Holistic nature. In fact, the synergistic nature of eco-restoration is a Planned Grazing. Thanks to prominent theme throughout Holistic Management. The process Savory and others, for decades we involves re-establishing the evolutionary relationships between have been learning how to restore grazing animals and their habitats. Successful conservation- grasslands by mimicking nature. In minded grassland managers practicing Holistic Management fact, the synergistic nature of eco- enhance the health of the ecosystem upon which we depend, as restoration is a prominent theme well as improve their profitability and quality of life. This is done throughout Holistic Management. while simultaneously providing ecosystem services desired by The process involves re-establishing society through building soil, water, and plant resources (Walters, the evolutionary relationships 1986; Holling & Meffe, 1996; Stinner et al., 1997; Reed et al., 1999; between grazing animals and their Savory and Butterfield, 1999; Barnes et al., 2008; Teague et al., 2009). habitats. Successful conservation Allan Savory,Allan Savory, Founder Founder of Holistic of Holistic Management Management minded grassland managers To accomplish this, Holistic Management practitioners combine practicing Holistic Management scientific principles and local knowledge to manage animals to enhance the health of the ecosystem upon which we depend, as well as improve their influence the following four ecosystem processes: profitability and quality of life. This is done while simultaneously providing ecosystem 1. Efficient sequestration of solar energy by plants, otherwise knownservices desired by society through building soil, water, and plant resources (Walters, as energy flow; 1986; Holling & Meffe, 1996; Stinner et al., 1997; Reed et al., 1999; Savory and Butterfield, 1999; Barnes et al., 2008; Teague et al., 2009). 2. Interception and retention of precipitation in the soil, thereby creating an effective water cycle; To accomplish this, Holistic Management practitioners 3. Optimal cycling of nutrients through an effective mineral cycle; combineand scientific principles and local knowledge to adaptively manage animals to influence the following 4. Promotion of high ecosystem biodiversity with more complex four ecosystem processes: mixtures and combinations of desirable plant species, otherwise

known as community dynamics. 1. Efficient sequestration of solar energy by plants, A typical illustration of the essential process of soil restoration through Holisticother Management,wise known as beginning energy flow ; with mostly bare, dry ground and using any of a wide variety of animals as grazers, from cattle to goats to sheep to bison is as follows: 2. Interception and retention of precipitation in the soil, thereby creating an effective water cycle;

3. Optimal cycling of nutrients through an effective mineral cycle; and

RESTORING THE CLIMATE © savory institute______2013 9 11

4. Promotion of high ecosystem biodiversity with more complex mixtures and combinations of desirable plant species, otherwise known as community dynamics.

A typical illustration of the essential process of soil restoration through Holistic Management, beginning with mostly bare, dry ground and using any of a wide variety of animals as grazers, from cattle to goats to sheep to bison is as follows:

First and foremost a Holistic Grazing Plan is created in order to properly manage livestock. This plan anticipates when and how long the animals will be in any given area.

4. Promotion of high ecosystem biodiversity with more complex mixtures and combinations of desirable plant species, otherwise known as community dynamics.

First and foremost a Holistic Grazing Plan is created in order to properly manage livestock. This plan anticipates when and how long the animals will be in any given area.

Holistic Grazing Plan and Control ChartHolistic Grazing Plan & Control Chart

First and foremost, a Holistic Grazing Plan is created in orderWhen to properly implementing manage livestock. the Holistic This plan anticipates when and how long the animals will be in any givenGrazing area. Plan the animals are herded in When implementingHolistic Grazing the Plan Holistic & Control Grazing Chart Plan, animals aretight herded groups, in tight confined groups, confinedto relatively to relatively small Whensmall implementing paddocks (either the Holistic bypaddocks permanent (eitherfence, but by more permanent likely now fence, with Grazingtemporary Plan telectriche animals fence are and/orherdedbut more in herding), likely having now intensewith temporary but brief impact tight(several groups, hours confined to a tofew relatively days)electric onsmall the fence land. Theyand/or eat theherding) grasses,, havingforbs, and paddocks (either by permanent fence, shrubs available—the more diverse the better (Provenza, 2007). but more likely now with temporaryintense but brief impact (several hours to electricThe plants fence and/orthat are herding) eaten ,are ahaving few carefully days) observed on the land.for signs They of overgrazing. eat the intense but brief impact (severalgrasses, hours to forbs, and shrubs available, the a Thatfew days) is, land on the managers land. They focus eat theon adjusting the amount of time in any given grasses,paddock forbs based, and shrubson continuous available,more theobservation div erse the and better plan modification. (Provenza, 2007)This . morefeedback diverse loop the better is an (Provenzaessential , element2007). of Holistic Management, that is, managers plan (and assumeThe that plants the original that areplan eaten may be are wrong), carefully monitor Holistic Grazing and Land PlanningThetheDuring plants plan, intheir thatcontrol Zimbabwe firstare eaten impact(that are is, on carefully make adjustments as necessary), replan, and HolisticHolistic Grazing Grazing and Land and Planning Land Planningin Zimbabwe observed for signs of overgrazing. That obseagaindegradedrved monitor for soilssigns the andof overgrazing.properly control (Savory That and Butterfield, 1999). in Zimbabwe is, managedland managers animals focus break on adjustthe is,ing land the managers focus on adjusting the amount of timeamount in any given of paddocktime in based any ongiven continuousDuringsoil paddock cap their observationwith theirfirstbased hooves, impactand on plan continuous on degraded observationsoils, the properly and planmanaged animals modification. This feedback loop is an essential elementbreakfertilize ofthe Holisticit soilwith capurine Management, with and their thathooves, is, fertilize it with urine and dung rich in managers planmo (anddification. assume that the This origin feedbackal plan may loop be wrong), is an m essentialonitor the plan,element of Holistic Management, that is, gutdung bacteria, rich in gutand bacteria, trample plant matter into the soil surface, including dead control (that ismanagers, make adjustments plan as(and necessary), assume replan andthat, andtrample the again origin plant monitor matteral planand control may be wrong), monitor the plan, (Savory and Butterfield, 1999). grassesinto the which soil surface, when left standing and oxidizing interfere with new growth. control (that is, make adjustmentsThis disturbance as necessary), stimulates replan biotic, andactivity again by facilitating monitor circulationand control ______including dead grasses which (Savory and Butterfield12 , 1999ofwhen oxygen,). left standing carbon anddioxide and other gases, by providing nutrients, by

allowing______oxidizing penetration interfere with of new water (Weber, 2011), and by providing land cover growth. This disturbance to minimize or eliminate12 bare ground. Most important, in fact, is to cover thestimulates ground biotic with activity dung and by trampled grass which holds water in the soil, facilitating circulation of therebyoxygen, raisingcarbon dioxidethe effectiveness and of the rainfall. Grassland biodiversity South Africa with very erratic 200mm flourishesother gases, as by the providing area of bare soil diminishes. Thus ruminants are organs as South Africaof rain. with The very land erratic on 200mm the left of hasrain. been The land on theholistically left has been managed holistically since managed the since 1970s. the essentialnutrients, to by living allowing grasslands as stomachs and hearts are to mammals. 1970’s. The right is an example of what results with over-rest. The land on the right is an example of penetration of water (Weber, 2011), and providing land what results with over-rest. In response to the suffering grassland habitats worldwide (Suttie, Reynolds cover to minimize or eliminate bare ground. Most important,& Batello, in fact, is 2005) to cover conventional the wisdom prescribes "rest" for deteriorated ground with dung and trampled grass in order to raise the effectiveness of the rainfall, as it holds the water10 in the RESTORINGsoil. Grassland biodiversityTHE CLIMATE flourishes © assa thve orareay of institute bare soil 2013 diminishes. Ruminants are as essential organs to living grasslands as stomachs and hearts are to mammals.

In response to the suffering grassland habitats worldwide (Suttie, Reynolds & Batello, 2005) conventional wisdom prescribes "rest" for deteriorated grasslands, that is, removal of animals for years or decades. However, such rest does not work to restore grasslands in semi-arid or arid climates (what in Holistic Management terms are called "brittle" environments, which comprise 75% of all grasslands on the planet). Despite clear evidence that over-rest is destructive, not restorative, the application of over- rest remains firmly entrenched in the dominant paradigm (Beschta, Dying plant and deteriorating soil due to over-rest. et al., 2012).

______13

During their first impact on degraded soils the properly managed animals break the soil cap with their hooves, fertilize it with urine and dung rich in gut bacteria, and trample plant matter into the soil surface, including dead grasses which when left standing and oxidizing interfere with new growth. This disturbance stimulates biotic activity by facilitating circulation of oxygen, carbon dioxide and South Africa with very erratic 200mm of rain. other gases, by providing The land on the left has been holistically managed since the nutrients, by allowing 1970’s. The right is an example of what results with over-rest. penetration of water (Weber, 2011), and providing land

cover to minimize or eliminate bare ground. Most important, in fact, is to cover the ground with dung and trampled grass in order to raise the effectiveness of the rainfall, as it holds the water in the soil. Grassland biodiversity flourishes as the area of bare soil diminishes. Ruminants are as essential organs to living grasslands as stomachs and hearts are to mammals.

In response to the suffering grassland habitats worldwide (Suttie, Reynolds & Batello, 2005) grasslands—that is, removal of animalsconventional for years wisdom or decades. prescribes However, such rest does not work to restore grasslands"rest" for in deteriorated semi-arid or grasslands,arid climates (what in Holistic Management terms arethat called is, removal "brittle" of environments), animals for which comprise 75% of all grasslands onyears the orplanet. decades. Despite However, clear evidence such that over-rest is destructive, not restorative,rest does the not application work to restore of over-rest remains firmly entrenched in the dominantgrasslands paradigm in se (Beschta,mi-arid etor al.,arid 2012) . climates (what in Holistic It should be noted that Holistic ManagementPlanned Grazing terms acknowledges are called the tool of rest as essential in brittle environments"brittle" environments, when used for which plant recovery. The purpose of such rest is, aftercomprise proper grazing 75% of and all animalgrasslands impact, on bitten plants and their roots are allowedthe to planet). recover andDespite regrow. clear The evidence rest period Dying plant and deteriorating soil may be anywhere from 30 days tothat 2 years over -dependingrest is destructive, on factors not such as the due to over-rest.It should be noted that climate, time of year, animal density,restorative, precipitation, the application and many of otherover- factors Holistic Planned Grazing (Savory & Butterfield, 1999). Thisrest period remains of rest firmly is an entrenched essential part in of the acknowledges the tool of rest

holistic planning process, whichthe always dominant includes paradigm the return (Beschta, of intense Dying plant and deterioratingas essential soil in due brittle to over -rest. environments when allowed It should be noted that et al., 2012). Holistic Planned Grazing short-term grazing and animal impact pressure after the recovery period, for plant recovery. The acknowledges the tool of rest mimicking the way nature cycles animal impact in wild herds. Being eaten purpose of such rest is, after as essential in brittle above the growth point is necessary for health in many grasses, which, in proper grazing and animal ______environments when allowed evolutionary terms, may be why the most nutritious grasses taste so good impact, bitten plants and 13 for plant recovery. The to the animals. Holistic Planned Grazing’s rest period is measured in a time their roots are allowed to purpose of such rest is, after recover and regrow. The rest span based on how long it takes the plants to recover, not several years proper grazing and animal period may be anywhere impact, bitten plants and or decades, over which time the deleterious effects of over-rest become from 30 days to 2 years their roots are allowed to increasingly apparent. depending on factors such as recover and regrow. The rest the climate, time of year, period may be anywhere By using the tools of grazing and animal impact and paying attention to animal density, precipitation, from 30 days to 2 years adequate plant recovery, in a period of as fewDuring as three a multi years,-year, worstmany recorded long- drought in history cattle and many other factors depending on factors such as the climate, time of year, disabled processes come back to life. For example,return to a insectsrecovered suchsagebrush as dungsteppe pasture in DuringWyoming, a USAmulti-year, (Savory worst-recorded & Butterfield, 1999). that had been rested for 570 days to give plants adequatedrought time in tohistory, cattle return to a animal density, precipitation, beetles return. They retrieve ruminant excretarecover. and In “typical”store it years more with than adequate 18 precipitation (10 in./yr) This period of rest is an Duringrecovered a multi-year, sagebrush-steppeworst essentialrecorded drought part of inpasture thehistory holistic cattle and many other factors inches beneath the surface creating new soil and storingplants would carbon tend to inrecover the in aboutreturn 180 to a days. recovered sagebrush steppe pasture in Wyoming, USA in Wyoming, Unitedplanning States process, that had which (Savory & Butterfield, 1999). that had been rested for 570 days to give plants adequate time to This period of rest is an process (Richardson & Richardson, 2000).always Worms includes and thesmall return mammals of intense recover.short-term been In “typical” grazing rested years and for with 570animal adequate days impact precipitationto give pressure plants (10 in./yr) after adequate time to recover. In "typical" essential part of the holistic such as moles and prairie dogs churn the thesoil, rec whileovery deep-rootedperiod, mimicking perennial the way natureplants cycles would animal tend to recover impact in aboutin wild 180 herds. days. Being years with adequate precipitation (10. planning process, which grasses regrow and create channels for watereaten and above gases. the growth Mycorrhizal point is necessaryfungi,always includesforin./yr.), health the plants in return many would of grasses, intense tend which,short to recover-term in grazing in and animal impact pressure after with literally thousands of miles of hyphaeevolutionary in a small terms, patch, may transport be why the the most rec overynutritiousabout period, 180 grasses mimickingdays. taste sothe good way tonature the animals.cycles animal impact in wild herds. Being nutrients which they have the unique abilityHolis totic obtain Planned minerals Grazing’s from rest period soileaten is notabove measured the growth in apoint time is span necessary of several for health years in or many grasses, which, in decades, over which time the deleterious effects of over-rest become increasingly and exchange them for carbohydrates from photosynthetic plants. The evolutionary terms, may be why the most nutritious grasses taste so good to the animals. apparent, but how long the plants takeHolis totic recover. Planned Grazing’s rest period is not measured in a time span of several years or fungi synthesize a stable glycoprotein, glomalin that holds 4 to 20 timesdecades, its over which time the deleterious effects of over-rest become increasingly weight in water. Microorganisms join the Byelaborate using the fray, tools and of grazing in the and process animalapparent , but how long the plants take to recover. create complex carbon molecules that storeimpact carbon and payingdeep in attention the soils to foradequate a By using the tools of grazing and animal long period of time (Jones, 2009a). Theseplant are the reco healthyvery, in asoils period that of asHolistic few as three years, many long-disabled impact and paying attention to adequate Managers throughout the world strive to processerecreate,s come capturing back to carbon, life. For plant recovery, in a period of as few as providing food, re-establishing balanced example,hydrological insects and such nutrient as dung beetlescycles,three years, many long-disabled and imparting beauty to the land (see nextthat page) retrieve. excreta and store it moreprocesse s come back to life. For than 18 inches beneath the surface example, insects such as dung beetles that retrieve excreta and store it more creating soil return (Richardson & than 18 inches beneath the surface Richardson, 2000). Worms and smallcreating soil return (Richardson & mammals such as moles and prairieRichardson, 2000). Worms and small dogs churn the soil, while deep-rootedmammals such as moles and prairie perennial grasses regrow and createdogs churn theDung soil, beetles while building deep-rooted soil becaus e sheep were Dung beetles building soil because channels for water and gases. perennial grassesbrought regrow back to andthis oncecreate over -rested grasslandsDung beetles in building soil because sheep were sheep were brought back to this once Mycorrhizal fungi, with literally channels for water and gases.Patagonia, Chile. brought back to this once over-rested grasslands in thousands of miles of hyphae in a smallMycorrhizal over-rested fungi, with grassland literally in Patagonia, Patagonia, Chile. thousandsChile. of miles of hyphae in a small ______14 ______14 RESTORING THE CLIMATE © sa vory institute 2013 11

These pictures are of neighboring properties in Mexico, Arizona, and Zimbabwe, respectively. They are taken These on pictures the same are day,of neighboring have similar properties soils, and thein Mexico, same precipitation. Arizona, and The Zimbabwe pictures on respectfully the right are taken examples of theThese properlysame daypictures managing and whichare of livestock neighboringhave similar through propertiessoils Holistic and theManagement in sameMexico, precipitation. Arizona, to restore and Thegrasslands. Zimbabwe pictures On onrespectfully the the left right we takensee examples arethe examplesThese same pictures day of properlyand are which ofof managingneighboring improperly have similar livestock managedproperties soils throughand livestockin the Mexico, sameHolistic as precipitation. Arizona,well Management as exclusion and Zimbabwe The tofrom restorepictures grazing. respectfully grasslands. on the right taken On are thethe examples left same we daysee of andexamples properly which managingof have improperly similar livestock soils managed and through the livestock same Holistic precipitation. as well Management as exclusion The pictures to fromrestore on grazing. grasslands.the right TheseTheseTheseOnare the pictures examples picturespictures left we are aresee ofare properlyof ofexamples of neighboring neighboring neighboring managing of improperly properties properties properties livestock m in inanaged through Mexico, inMexico, Mexico, livestock Holistic Arizona, Arizona, Arizona, asManagement welland and and Zimbabwe asZimbabwe exclusion Zimbabwe to restore respectfully respectfullyfrom respectfully grasslands. grazing. taken taken taken thethethe Onsame samesame the day dayleftday andweand and seewhich which which examples have have have similar ofsimilar similar improperly soils soils soils and and mand anagedthe the the same same samelivestock precipitation. precipitation. precipitation. as well as The The exclusion The pictures pictures pictures from on on grazing.the theon right theright right areareare examples examplesexamples of of of properly properly properly managing managing managing livestock livestock livestock through through through Holistic Holistic Holistic Management Management Management to to restore restoreto restore grasslands. grasslands. grasslands. OnOnOn the thethe left left left we we we see see see examples examples examples of of ofimproperly improperly improperly m m anagedmanagedanaged livestock livestock livestock as as wellaswell well as as exclusion exclusionas exclusion from from from grazing. grazing. grazing.

12 RESTORING THE CLIMATE © savory institute 2013

Calculating Soil Carbon Sequestration Potential

When looking at the potential for soils to sequester carbon the discussion and research has focused almost solely on soils that already exist which are geological in origin and accumulate slowly, over thousands of years. Very little attention has been placed on biological soil that can be created quite quickly through Holistic Planned Grazing (Jones, 2002). This has lead to a dramatic underestimation of soil organic carbon storage capacity in assessing sequestration potential with respect to global warming. Furthermore, there is the predominate assumption that soils have a carbon sequestration capacity that is limited. Both estimates, however, effectively remove new soil creation from the equation and thereby underestimate soil sequestration capacity by a yet unknown but potentially significant magnitude. Thus soil creation of biological origin, which can be rapid in grasslands, remains unaccounted for. As Christine Jones notes:

The rates of soil formation provided in the scientific literature usually refer to the weathering of parent material and the differentiation of soil profiles. These are extremely slow processes, sometimes taking thousands of years…. Topsoil formation is a separate process to rock weathering and can occur quite rapidly under appropriate conditions. In fact, soil building occurs naturally in most terrestrial habitats unless reversed by inappropriate human activities, or prevented by lack of disturbance [i.e., grazing]…. If the land management is appropriate, evidence of new topsoil formation can be seen within 12 months, with quite dramatic effects often observed within three years (Jones, 2002, p.3)

Calculating Soil Carbon Sequestration PotentIAL

When looking at the potential for soils to sequester carbon the discussion and research has focused almost solely on soils that already exist. These are geological in origin and accumulate slowly, over thousands of years. Very little attention has been placed on biological soil that can be created quite quickly through Holistic Planned Grazing (Jones, 2002). This has lead to a dramatic underestimation of soil organic carbon storage capacity in assessing sequestration potential with respect to global warming. Furthermore, there is the predominant assumption that soils have a carbon sequestration capacity that is limited. Both estimates, however, effectively remove new soil creation from the equation and thereby underestimateNeighboring, paired site comparison in Australia. The soil on the left is from a paddock in which soil sequestration capacity by a yet unknown but potentially significantgroundcover hasNeighboring, been actively managed paired (no-tilled sitecropped comparison and holistically g razed) to enhance photosynthetic capacity. On the right the soil is from a conventionally managed paddock (10 meters in Australia.______The soil on the left is from through the fence) that has been set-stocked and has a long history of phosphate application. magnitude. Thus soil creation of biological origin, which can be rapid in a pasture in which groundcover16 has grasslands, remains unaccounted for. As Christine Jones notes: been actively managed (no-tilled cropped and holistically grazed) to The rates of soil formation provided in the scientific literature usually enhance photosynthetic capacity. On refer to the weathering of parent material and the differentiation of soil the right, the soil is from a conventionally managed farm (10 meters through profiles. These are extremely slow processes, sometimes taking thousands the fence) that has been set-stocked of years…Topsoil formation is a separate process to rock weathering and has a long history of phosphate and can occur quite rapidly under appropriate conditions. In fact, soil application. Photo courtesy of Chris- building occurs naturally in most terrestrial habitats unless reversed by tine Jones. inappropriate human activities, or prevented by lack of disturbance [i.e., grazing]… If the land management is appropriate, evidence of new topsoil formation can be seen within 12 months, with quite dramatic effects often observed within three years (Jones, 2002, p.3).

Since most of mainstream soil and rangeland science has yet to seriously investigate complex biodiversity and the biological creation of soils, at this point in time we must rely mostly on the experience of practicing Since most of mainstream soil and rangeland science has yet to seriously investigate farmers and ranchers and some pioneering researchers both in and out complex biodiversity and the biological creation of soils at this point in time we must rely of academia to estimate soil carbon sequestration potential. mostly on the experience of practicing farmers and ranchers and some pioneering For calculation purposes a discussion of soil characteristics is in order. researchers both in and out of academia to estimate soil carbon sequestration potential. First of all, mineral soil has a higher bulk density (is more compact) than biologically created soil, and is far more easily eroded. Soil loss For calculation purposes a discussion of soil figures usually assume an average bulk density (weight per unit volume) characteristics is in order. First of all, of around 1.4 g/cm3 (Edwards & Zierholz, 2000). If one millimeter of soil mineral soil has a higher bulk density (is is eroded (about the thickness of a 5-cent coin) that represents about 14 more compact) than biologically created tons/hectare (t/ha) soil loss. When new topsoil is forming, it will have soil, and is far more easily eroded. Soil loss better structure and will contain more air and more pore spaces than figures usually assume an average bulk degraded soil, so the bulk density will be less. That is, a given volume density (weight per unit volume) of around 3 of new topsoil will weigh less than an equal volume of mineral soil. The 1.4 g/cm (Edwards & Zierholz, 2000). If bulk density of healthy topsoil may be as low as 0.5 g/cm3. In practical one millimeter of soil is eroded (about the thickness of a 5-cent coin) that represents terms, a one-millimeter increase in the height of new soil would about 14 t/ha soil loss. When new topsoil is Properly managed livestock building equate to the formation of around 5–10 t/ha of organically enriched Properly managed livestock building soil organic soil organic matter in Patagonia, Chile, forming, it will have better structure and topsoil (Jones, 2002, p. 5). Therefore, for our estimations we will make a matter in Patagonia, being moved as planned to being moved as planned to ensure will contain more air and more pore spaces reasonable assumption of bulk soil density in healthy biological soils of ensure adequate plant recovery. adequate plant recovery. than degraded soil, so the bulk density will 1g/cm3. be less. That is, a given volume of new topsoil will weigh less than an equal volume of mineral soil. The bulk density of healthy RESTORING THE CLIMATE ©topsoil sav ormayy beinstitute as low as 2013 0.5 g/cm133. In practical terms, a one-millimeter increase in the height of new soil would equate to the formation of around 5 to 10 t/ha of organically enriched topsoil (Jones, 2002, p. 5). Therefore, for our estimations we will make a reasonable assumption of bulk soil density in healthy biological soils of 1g/cm3.

Since there are 1 x 108 cm2/ha, to a depth of 1 cm, we have 1 x 108 g of soil per hectare, or 100 t/ha. Soil organic matter will vary according to soil characteristics. For example, Jones (personal communications, 2013) says that it ranges from 50%-62%. Lal, (2001) states that soil organic matter is generally estimated at 58% of soil organic matter, which we will use in our examples. If we reasonably calculate that 1% of total topsoil weight is composed of soil organic matter (Troeh, 2005), then the weight of soil organic matter will be:

Total % Soil Organic % Soil Organic Weight of SOC per Weight of x Matter x Carbon = cm of soil depth Soil (SOM) (SOC)

100 t/ha x .01 (1%) x 0.58 (58%) = 0.58 tC/ha/cm

______17

To calculate the quantity of carbon captured from the atmosphere and stored in organic molecules in the soil in terms equivalent to those used by climate advocates, the equivalent formula is expressed as follows:

Total weight of soil 100 t/ha x Soil organic matter as a percent of total soil weight 1 % x Soil organic carbon – 58% of soil organic matter 58% x Soil density in g/cm3 1 x Depth in cm. 30 x Billions of hectares 1 = Total weight of carbon in soil in gigatons per billion hectares 17.4 Gt C

That is, at a standard soil measurement depth of 30 cm, we would have a total soil carbon weight of 17.4 Gt carbon captured per billion hectares. Or, in terms of atmospheric carbon dioxide, 8.7 ppm. This does not account for the greater and more stable carbon accumulation in the soils, up to 4 meters deep, which are created by the interactions of plant roots, mychorrhizal fungi, bacteria, small mammals and insects as the health of the land returns.

Since there are 1 x 108 cm2/ha, to a depth of 1 cm, we have 1 x 108 g of soil per hectare, or 100 t/ha. Soil organic matter will vary according to soil characteristics. For example, Jones (personal communications, 2013) says that it ranges from 50–62%. Lal, (2001) states that soil organic matter is generally estimated at 58% of soil organic matter, which we will use in our examples. If we reasonably calculate that 1% of total topsoil weight is composed of soil organic matter (Troeh, 2005), then the weight of soil organic matter will be:

Total Weight % Soil Organic % Soil Organic Weight of SOC x x = of Soil Matter (SOM) Carbon (SOC) per cm of soil HolisticallyHolistically managed managed bison bison in South in Dakota, South United Dakota, States restoringUnited their ancestral soils. depth States, restoring their ancestral soils. 100 t/ha .01 (1%) 0.58 (58%) 0.58 tC/ha/cm Just to explore the potential possibilities, here is an example of applying the formula x x = above to a soil which, at 100 tons per hectare we increase the soil organic matter by 2% of which 58% is soil organic carbon: At a density of 1 g/cm3, 40 cm deep over 1 billion hectares of grasslands would yield 46.4 gigatons of carbon. To calculate the quantity of carbon captured from the atmosphere and stored in organic molecules in the soil in terms equivalent to those used by climate advocates, the equivalent formula is expressed as follows: ______18

Soil organic matter as a percent of total soil weight 1 % x Soil organic carbon – 58% of soil organic matter 58% x Soil density in g/cm3 1 x Depth in cm. 30 x Note that sequestration of 46.4 gigatons of carbon is equivalent to about 23 ppm, or Billions of hectares 1 = approximately 11 times the carbon currently added to the atmosphere annually. Total weight of carbon in soil in gigatons per billion hectares 17.4 Gt C Even on the conservative end if we estimate an mere net soil sequestration of roughly 3.5 ppm per year, after subtracting the current annual carbon emissions (assuming they stay That is, at a standard soil measurement depth of 30 cm, we would have a total soilthey carbon same), inweight principle of this returns us to pre-industrial atmospheric CO2 levels within half a decade. The absolute validity of these numbers is not completely known, since the 17.4 Gt carbon captured per billion hectares. Or, in terms of atmospheric carbon dioxide, 8.7 ppm. bases for them have yet to be fully vetted. However, it is apparent that beyond the This does not account for the greater and more stable carbon accumulation in thecurrent soils, limited up to conventional 4 perspective on soil sequestration of carbon the potential is meters deep, which are created by the interactions of plant roots, mycorrhizal fungi,extremely bacteria, promising small while providing no negative consequences, but instead many mammals, and insects as the health of the land returns. opportunities.

Just to explore the potential possibilities, here is an example of applying Conclusions the formula above to a soil which, at 100 tons per hectare we increase the soil organic matter by 2% of which 58% is soil organic carbon: a density of There are several conventional assumptions 1 g/cm3, 40 cm deep over 1 billion hectares of grasslands would yield 46.4 in different mainstream disciplines that are obstacles to re-establishing the evolutionary gigatons of carbon. grassland-grazer relationship for long-term sequestration of carbon in soils and restoring If we were to capture 1 ton of carbon per acre per year on the roughly 5 atmospheric carbon dioxide to pre-industrial billion hectares of grasslands worldwide, we would remove 12 Gt of C from levels. Each of these disciplines - climate the atmosphere per year, that is, 6 ppm annually. If gross soil sequestration science and advocacy, rangeland science, and soil science - contributes its own were approximately 6 ppm/year, after subtracting current annual carbon prevailing assumptions. Holistically managed grassfed emissions of 2.5 ppm/year net sequestration would be 3.5 ppm per year. beef at Two Dot Ranch, Montana, Holistically managed grassfed beef at Two Dot United States. Ranch, Montana, United States

The following erroneous prevailing assumptions are barriers to restoring climate at the 14 RESTORING THE CLIMATE © savory institute 2013 scale and pace necessary:

• Grazing animals chronically overgraze rangelands and destroy soils which must be "rested" to be restored;

• Climate action should be focused on reducing emissions;

• Soils are a limited carbon sink, and new biologically generated soils are not part of the equation; and

• Soil sequestration of carbon is only significant in the first 30 cm, and soil carbon cycles through the atmosphere in 25 years or less.

Collectively these assumptions create a mechanistic view of how the world works and should be seriously questioned. These views interfere with a necessary paradigm shift. On the other hand if the necessary paradigm shift occurs it will allow us to act more effectively on planetary eco-restoration, affecting such fundamental biogeodynamics as ______19

carbon and water cycles, not the least of which is the reversal of an extremely destructive anthropogenic atmospheric carbon burden.

In order to realize the potential hope that the grasslands of the world provide for us, we need to make the following shifts in perspective that underlie Holistic Management:

• Nature functions as complex, interactive wholes, and humans need to define and work within their given, localized holistic contexts.

• Nature is self-organizing, and when all the elements of biodiversity are in place ecosystem health is the norm, not the exception. There have been significant changes in geophysical and biological contexts over the ages, and these are exceptions that have altered the conditions affecting life many times throughout the earth's history; but that nonetheless functional, resilient states of ecosystem In principle this returns us to pre-industrial atmospheric CO2 levels in less than 40 years. How realistic health have been the prevalent condition under which living creatures have these numbers are is unknown, since the bases for them have yet to be tested. Nor does it yet take evolved and thrived. into account how to address potential pulses of carbon from melting permafrost and seabed sinks. • HealthyHowever, soils areit is complexapparent collections that beyond of interdependentthe current limited life forms,conventional and as aperspective on soil sequestration synergisticof carbon system the potential soil activity may may indeed become be promising.seriously impaired The absolute when anyvalidity of its of these numbers is not elementscompletely are compromised known, since or the destroyed, bases for as them currently have occursyet to be worldwide fully vetted. with However, it is apparent that chemicalbeyond agriculture, the current mismanagement limited conventional of grazing perspective animals ,on and soil over sequestration-rest. of carbon the potential is extremely promising while providing no negative consequences, but instead many opportunities. • Effective eco-restoration, of which Holistic Planned Grazing is an essential component, can restore grasslands and geophysical cycles and stabilize carbon in the atmosphereCoNCLUSION to mitigate the adverse and lethal effects of global warming.

Since the advent of agriculture, There are severalhumanity conventional has been movingassumptions in different mainstream disciplines carbonthat are in obstacles the wrong to re-establishingdirection – the evolutionary grassland-grazerout of relationshipthe soils and forinto long-term the sequestration of carbon in soils and restoringatmosphere. atmospheric We plow carbon and dioxide to pre-industrial levels. Each of thesehave disciplines—climate a tendency to mismanage science and advocacy, rangeland science, andlivestock soil science—contributes leaving land bare for its own prevailing assumptions. much of the year, exposing soil The followinglife erroneouslyand humus to prevailing sunlight, assumptions are barriers to restoring climatedesiccation at the, andscale oxidation. and pace necessary:On • Grazing bareanimals ground chronically photosynthetic overgraze rangelands and destroy soils Holistic planned grazing in the fore- energy necessary for ground. Loss of soil organic matter due which must be "rested" to be restored; humification is not harvested. to lack of ground cover and conven- • Climate action should be focused on reducing emissions; tional management in the distance. We make matters worse by And of course, we emit massive amounts of carbon from burning fossil fuels. These kinds HolisticPhoto byplanned David grazing Marsh, in Australia. the foreground. Loss of soil• organicSoils areusing a limited fertilizers, carbon seriouslyof sink, decisions and may newhave seemed biologically right at the time, generated but now we know soils that they are leading us matter due to lack of ground cover and conventional to a soil and climate catastrophe. are not partinhibiting of the theequation; flow of and energy to management in the distance. fungi that make stable,Today we carbon are in the early- stages of understanding the extent to which soils can sequester Photo by David Marsh, Australia. • Soil sequestration of carbonatmospheric is only carbon. significant It seems clear, inhowever, the thatfirst improper 30 managementcm, and of livestock sequestering moleculesand soil models and have led us to underestimate significantly such potential for reversing soil carbon cycles throughcl imatethe change.atmosphere As a result, few in see 25 that years restoring or the less. evolutionary relationship between stimulating growthgrazing in bacterialanimals and their grassland habitat is an essential part of the equation to restoring populations destructive to soil fungi. Unnecessary use of fire also exposes barethe climate ground,. Furthermore, there are so many ecological, social and economic benefits Collectively these assumptions create a mechanistic view of howthat the accrue world from proper works grassland and management should that,be seriouslynotwithstanding uncertainty with destroys organic soil matter, and emits massive amounts of carbon into the atmosphere.respect to ultimate carbon storage capacity, we are well advised to pursue such eco- questioned. These views interfere with a necessary paradigm shift.restoration On withthe all other due dispatch. hand, if the necessary paradigm shift occurs______it will allow us to act more effectively on planetary eco-restoration, affecting such

20 fundamental biogeodynamics as carbon and water cycles, not the least of which is the reversal of an extremely destructive anthropogenic atmospheric carbon burden. In order to realize the potential hope that the grasslands of the world provide for us, we need to make the following shifts in perspective that underlie Holistic Management: • Nature functions as complex, interactive wholes, and humans need to define and work within their given, localized holistic contexts. • Nature is self-organizing, and when all the elements of biodiversity are in place ecosystem health is the norm, not the exception. There have been significant changes in PhotoPhoto of of Streamstream in Wyoming, in Wyoming, USA - Taken United moments States,apart standing taken on a bridge. mo -Left: Upstream Land - Properly managed using Holistic Management (150% increase in geophysical and biological contexts over the ages, and ments apartlivestock standing numbers); Right: on Downstream a bridge. Land Left: - Managed Upstream conventionally Land these are exceptions that have altered the conditions - properly managed using Holistic Management (150% increase in livestock numbers); Downstream Land - affecting life many times throughout the earth's history. managed conventionally.

RESTORING THE CLIMATE © savory institute 2013 15 ______21

Nonetheless functional, resilient states of ecosystem health have been the prevalent condition under which living creatures have evolved and thrived. • Healthy soils are complex collections of interdependent life forms, and as a synergistic system soil activity may become seriously impaired when any of its elements are compromised or destroyed, as currently occurs worldwide with chemical agriculture, mismanagement of grazing animals, and over-rest. • Effective eco-restoration, of which Holistic Planned Grazing is an essential component, can restore grasslands and geophysical cycles and stabilize carbon in the atmosphere to mitigate the adverse and lethal effects of global warming. Since the advent of agriculture, humanity has been moving carbon in the wrong direction—out of the soils and into the atmosphere. We plow and have a tendency to mismanage livestock leaving land bare for much of the year, exposing soil life and humus to sunlight, desiccation, and oxidation. On bare ground, photosynthetic energy necessary for humification is not harvested. We make matters worse by using fertilizers, thereby seriously inhibiting the flow of energy to fungi that make stable, carbon-sequestering molecules and stimulating growth in certain bacterial populations destructive to soil fungi. Unnecessary use of fire also exposes bare ground, destroys organic soil matter, and emits carbon into the atmosphere. And of course, we emit massive amounts of carbon from burning fossil fuels. These kinds of decisions may have seemed right at the time, but now we know that they are leading us to a soil and climate catastrophe. Today we are in the early stages of understanding the extent to which soils can sequester atmospheric carbon. It seems clear, however, that improper management of livestock and soil models have led us to underestimate significantly the potential for reversing climate change by restoring soils. As a result, few see that restoring the evolutionary relationship between grazing animals and their grassland habitat is an essential part of the equation to restoring the climate. Furthermore, there are so many ecological, social and economic benefits that accrue from proper grassland management that, notwithstanding uncertainty with respect to ultimate carbon storage capacity, we are well advised to pursue such eco-restoration with all due dispatch.

16 RESTORING THE CLIMATE © savory institute 2013 References

Allard, V., J.F Soussana, R. Falcimagne, P. Berbigier, J.M. Bonnefond, E. Ceschia, P. D’hour. 2007. "The Role of Grazing Management for the Net Biome Productivity and Greenhouse Gas Budget (CO< sub> 2, N< sub> 2 O and CH< sub> 4) of Semi-natural Grassland," Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 121 (1):47-58.

Bardgett, R.D. 2005. The Biology of Soil: A Community and Ecosystem Approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Barnes, K., Norton, B.E., Maeno, M., and Malechek, J.C. 2008. "Paddock Size and Stocking Density Affect Spatial Heterogeneity of Grazing." Rangeland Ecology & Management 61(4): 380-388.

Baskin, Y. 2005. Under Ground, How Creatures of Mud and Dirt Shape Our World. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.

Beschta, R.L., D.L. Donahue, D.A. DellaSala, J.J. Rhodes, J.R. Karr, M.H. O’Brien, T.L. Fleischner, C.D. Williams. 2013. “Adapting to Climate Change on Western Public Lands: Addressing the Ecological Effects of Domestic, Wild, and Feral Ungulates." Environmental Management 51 (2): 474-491.

Brysse, K., N. Oreskes, J. O’Reilly, and M. Oppenheimer. 2012. "Climate Change Prediction: Erring on the Side of Least Drama?" Global Environmental Change 23(1): 327-337.

Carey, J. 2012 "Global Warming: Faster Than Expected?" Scientific American. (November): 50-55.

Carpenter, S.R., R. Biggs. 2010. “Freshwaters: Managing Across Scales in Space and Time.” In: Principles of Ecosystem Stewardship, edited by F.S. Chapin, G.P. Kofinas, and C. Folke, 197–220. New York: Springer Science + Business Media.

Charman, P.E.V. and B. W. Murphy, eds. 2000. Soils: Their Properties and Management. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Derner, J.D., T.W. Boutton, and D.D. Briske. 2006. "Grazing and Ecosystem Carbon Storage in the North American Great Plains." Plant and Soil. 280(1): 77-90.

Edwards, K., and C. Zierholz. 2000. "Soil Formation and Erosion Rates." In: Soils: Their Properties and Management, Second Edition, edited by P.E.V. Charman and B.W. Murphy, 39-57. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Frank, D.A., S.J. McNaughton, B.F., Tracy. 1998. “The Ecology of the Earth’s Grazing Ecosystems". BioScience. 48:513-521.

Goreau, T.J. 1992. “Control of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide.” Global Environmental Change 2(1): 5-11.

Hodgson, J. and A.W. Illius, eds. 1996. The Ecology and Management of Grazing Systems. London: CAB Holling, C.S. and G.K. Meffe. 1996. "Command and Control and the Pathology of Natural Resource Management." Conservation Biology 10(2): 328-337.

RESTORING THE CLIMATE © savory institute 2013 17 International Energy Agency. 2012. Global Carbon-Dioxide Emissions Increase by 1.0 Gt in 2011 to Record High. (May). Retrieved from http://www.iea.org/newsroomandevents/news/2012/may/name,27216,en. html

Itzkan, S. 2012. "Reversing Global Warming with Livestock?" TEDx Talk, Somerville, Massachusetts. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lOpoRdpvlh0

Janzen, H.H. 2011. “What Place for Livestock on a Re-Greening Earth.” Animal Feed Science and Technology 166(167): 783-796

Jones, C. 2002. "Building New Topsoil." Stipa Native Grasses Changing Landscapes Forum Armidale (May).

Jones, C. 2009a. "Inquiry into Soil Sequestration in Victoria," Submission to Environment and Natural Resources Committee, Australia (December 12). Retrieved from http://www.amazingcarbon.com/PDF/ JONES-SoilSequestrationInquiry(17Dec09).pdf

Jones, C. 2009b. "Mycorrhizal Fungi - Powerhouse of the Soil." Evergreen Farming Newsletter (September). Retrieved from http://amazingcarbon.com/PDF/JONES-MycorrhizalFungiEVERGREEN (Sept09).pdf

Judy, G. 2011. "The Healing Effects of Holistic High Density Grazing on Land, Livestock & People's Lives." 12th Annual Virginia Biological Farming Conference, (February). Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=W6HGKSvjk5Q

Khan, S.A., R.L. Mulvaney, T.R. Ellsworth, and C.W. Boast. 2007. “The Myth of Nitrogen Fertilization for Soil Carbon Sequestration.” Journal of Environmental Quality 36(6):1821-1832.

Lal, R. 2001. "Soils and the Greenhouse Effect." In, Soil Carbon Sequestration and the Greenhouse Effect, edited by Ratan Lal. Madison, WI: Soil Science Society of America, Inc.

Lal, R. 2008. "Promise and Limitations of Soils to Minimize Climate Change." Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 63(4).

Lovell, T. 2011. "Soil Carbon: Putting Carbon Back Where It Belongs," TEDx Talk, Dubbo, New South Wales, Australia. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wgmssrVInP0

Lyall, S. 2013. "Heat, Flood or Icy Cold, Extreme Weather Rages Worldwide." New York Times (January 10). Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/11/science/earth/extreme-weather-grows-in-frequency- and-intensity-around-world.htm

Milchunas, D.G. and W.K. Lauenroth. 1993. "Quantitative Effects of Grazing on Vegetation and Soils Over a Global Range of Environments." Ecological Monographs 63(4): 327-366.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Biodiversity Synthesis. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute.

National Climate Assessment and Development Advisory Committee. 2013. (January). Retrieved from http://ncadac.globalchange.gov/download/NCAJan11-2013-publicreviewdraft-fulldraft.pdf

18 RESTORING THE CLIMATE © savory institute 2013 National Wildlife Federation. 2013. Wildlife in a Warming World (February). Retrieved from http://www. nwf.org/~/media/PDFs/Global-Warming/Reports/NWF_Wildlife-Warming-World_Report_web.pdf

Neely, C. and A. Fynn. 2011. “Critical Choices for Crop and Livestock Productions Systems that Enhance Productivity and Build Ecosystem Resilience.” SOLAW Background Thematic Report – TR11.

NOAA. 2013. Carbon Dioxide Annual Means (January). Retrieved from ftp://ftp.cmdl.noaa.gov/ccg/co2/ trends/co2_annmean_mlo.txt

Pacala, S.W., G.C. Hurtt, D. Baker, P. Peylin, R.A. Houghton, R.A. Birdsey, L. Heath et al. 2011. "Consistent Land and Atmosphere Based US Carbon Sink Estimates." Science 292(5525): 2316-2320.

Prentice, I.C., G.D. Farquhar, M.J.R. Fasham, M.L. Goulden, M. Heimann, H S. Kheshi, Le Quere et al. "The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide." In: Climate Change 2001 The Scientific Basis: Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Provenza, F.D., J.J. Villalba, J. Haskell, J.W. MacAdam, T.C. Griggs, and R.D. Wiedmeier. 2007. "The Value to Herbivores of Plant Physical and Chemical Diversity in Time and Space." Crop Science 47(1): 382-398.

Pucheta, E., I. Bonamici, M. Cabido, and S. Diaz. 2004 “Below-Ground Biomass and Productivity of a Grazed Site and a Neighbouring Ungrazed Exclosure in a Grassland in Central Argentina.” Austral Ecology 29:201-208.

Ragab, R. and C. Prudhomme. 2002. "SW – Soil and Water: Climate Change and Water Resources Management in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions: Prospective and Challenges for the 21st Century." Biosystems Engineering 81(1):3-34.

Reed, F., R. Roath, and D. Bradford. 2006. "The Grazing Response Index: A Simple and Effective Method to Evaluate Grazing Impacts." Rangelands 21(4): 3-6.

Richardson, P.Q. and Richardson, R.H. 2000. "Dung Beetles and Their Effects on Soil."Ecological Restoration 18:116-117.

Ruddiman, W.F. 2003. "The Anthropogenic Greenhouse Era Began Thousands of Years Ago." Climatic Change 61:261–293.

Savory, A. and J. Butterfield. 1999. Holistic Management: A New Framework for Decision Making. Washington D.C.: Island Press.

Schimel, D.S., J.I. House, K.A. Hibbard, P. Bousquet, P. Ciais, P. Peylin, B.H. Braswell et al. 2001. Recent Patterns and Mechanisms of Carbon Exchange by Terrestrial Ecosystems. New York: MacMillian Publishers.

Soussana, J.F., T. Tallec, and V. Blanfort. 2010. "Mitigating the Greenhouse Gas Balance of Ruminant Production Systems Through Carbon Sequestration in Grasslands." Animal. 4(3): 334-350.

RESTORING THE CLIMATE © savory institute 2013 19 Steinfeld, H., P. Gerber, T. Wassenaar, V. Castel, M. Rosales, C. De Haan. 2006. Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. Rome: United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization.

Stinner, D.H., B.R. Stinner, and E. Martsolf. "Biodiversity as an Organizing Principle in Agroecosystem Management: Case Studies of Holistic Resource Management Practitioners in the USA." Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 62(2): 199-213.

Suttie, J.M., Reynolds, S.G., and Batello, C. eds. 2005. Grasslands of the World. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Tainton, N.M., A.J. Aucamp and J.E. Danckwerts 1999. Principles of Managing Veld. In: Veld Management in South Africa, edited by N.M. Tainton, 169-193. Pietermaritzburg, South Africa: University of Natal Press.

Teague, W.R., F. Provenza, B. Norton, T. Steffens, M. Barnes, M. Kothmann, and R. Roath. 2009. "Benefits of Multi-Paddock Grazing Management on Rangelands: Limitations of Experimental Grazing Research and Knowledge Gaps." In: Grasslands: Ecology, Management and Restoration, edited by H.G. Schroder, 41-80. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers.

Teague, W.R., S.L. Dowhower, S.A. Baker, N. Haile, P.B. DeLaune, and D.M. Conover. 2011. "Grazing Management Impacts on Vegetation, Soil Biota and Soil Chemical, Physical and Hydrological Properties in Tall Grass Prairie." Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 141(3): 310-322.

Troeh, F.R. and L.M. Thompson. 2005. Soils and Soil Fertility, 6th Edition. Ames, Iowa: Blackwell Publishers.

Walters, C.J. 1986. Adaptive Management of Renewable Resources. MacMillan, New York.

Weber, K.T. and B.S. Gokhale. 2011. "Effect of Grazing on Soil-Water Content in Semiarid Rangelands of Southeast Idaho." Journal of Arid Environments 75:464-470.

Weber, K. and S. Horst. 2011. "Desertification and Livestock Grazing: The Roles of Sedentarization, Mobility and Rest." Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice 1(19):2-11.

Restoring the Climate Through Capture and Storage of Soil Carbon Using Holistic Planned Grazing is adapted from:

Sacks, A.D., R. Teague, F. Provenza, J. Laurie, S. Itzkan, K. Thidemann. In Press. "Re-establishing the Evolutionary Grassland-Grazer Relationship for Long-Term Sequestration of Carbon in Soils: Restoring Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide to Pre-Industrial Levels." In Innovative Methods of Soil Fertility Restoration, Carbon Sequestration, and Reversing CO2 Increase, edited by Thomas J. Goreau, Ronal W. Larson, and Joanna Campe. In Press. Boca Raton, FL:CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group.