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AUTHOR Feral, Crystal-Helen TITLE Connectedness and Development--A Theory. Is Ecopsychology the Answer to Emotional Well-Being? PUB DATE 1999-03-30 NOTE 34p.; Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the National Association of School (New Orleans, LA, March 28-April 1, 1999). Research was supported, in part, by a Science and Technology Education Grant from the Department of Public Instruction, Madison, WI. PUB TYPE Information Analyses (070) Reports Research (143) Speeches /Meeting Papers (150) EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS At Persons; *Children; *Counseling Techniques; Elementary Education; *Emotional Development; *Program Development; Self Esteem; *Well Being IDENTIFIERS Developmental Theory; *Ecotherapy; Piers Harris Childrens Self Concept Scale; *Synergy

ABSTRACT To help mitigate the impact of multi-environmental degradation, the model program for emotionally at-risk children that uses to enhance emotional well-being (or intellect) has been constructed, implemented and researched. The six sessions that compose the program are designed to impart social-emotional understanding and prime by vicarious observance of, and interactive participation with, nature. It was hypothesized that using nature extensively in a therapeutic model would reduce the stressful impact of life and, as a result, positive emotional well-being would be evident. Based on the Piers-Harris self-concept scale and on person drawings, the students demonstrated a post-program increase in self-esteem (p<.001), happiness, educational status, and emotional development (p<.001). They also demonstrated improved perceptual skills, self-efficacy, empathy, and a significant reduction in aggression. This research offers a conceptual definition of ecopsychology, supports a new theory of development that challenges the ideation of the isolated self, and affirms that a child's is part of a vast synergistic model of connections. (Contains 104 references.) (GCP)

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Is Ecopsychology the Answer to Emotional Well-Being?

by

Crystal-Helen Feral

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BEST COPYAVATIABLE time that we are using up our planet's natural resources and people Is Ecopsychology the Answer to Emotional Well-Being?'Connectedness and Development By: Crystal-Helen Feral, Ph.D., NCSP a Theory technologicalsufferin1995). every deeply The aspect explosionindustrial from of nature's life. revolutionmaking distress people has created(seecompete Roszak, a forvast space 1992;population and Conn, rank and It is apparent that we have become in- emotionallyhavewell-beingTo constructed,help mitigate at-risk(or intellect). implemented, childrenthe impact Based that of and useson multi-environmental theresearched nature Piers-Harris to aenhance model self-concept degradation, program emotional scale for Abstract I structuresthinkingandvirulence.dividualistic, systems and thatPeople behaving are once outare held of lookingto balance.peopleeffect for a and rejuvenationanswers Society nature asneeds together. to of why the a different civilhealth, communal nature, way of competitive, and isolated, thusly intensifying our psychologyaggression.perceptualemotionalincreaseand person in development skills,self-esteem drawings, Thisand self-efficacy, researchsupports the (pc(p<.001). students001), offersa empathy new happiness, They a demonstrated theoryconceptual alsoand a demonstrated educationalof significant development definition a post-program reductionstatus, improved of eco- thatand in nature we can understand the impact of our actions and our Because the universe functions in harmony, by observing Emotions and Nature Connection psychechallenges is part the of ideation a vast synergistic of the isolated model self of andconnections. affirmsSociety that today a child's consists of violence, cruelty and injustice. Introduction whateverThisstructurepreservationconnective vast, thatweinteractive spirit. docould requires affects The be complexity as answer,moresomething interrelated than amongthen, aor linear someone toas all emotional alife cause-effect synergistic forms else. symbolizes andAs reactionary inhabitants paradigm.planetary that Swanson,aThese profound ills, along 1995) impact with said onintensifying longa child's ago environmental thatdevelopment. an environment catastrophes, Perls (citedthat havehas by I understand(andof this feedback universe, that loops,we they are are Capra,part part of one of,1996). and inseparable intricatelyWhen people web connected of consciouslyrelationships to the leadingoflives,believeexcessive helplessness. hearing tothat abuse.dangers for about children, Powerlessness canthe desolationhave who a also desensitizing threatens of endure nature emotionaldysfunctionalheightens effect on development theirhumanity. personal feelings People abuse each other, but we also abuse emotionallyempathynatural world, to includeburdened, they all willof creation. be able to expand their boundaries of When psychologists impart this complexity to those who are it may be difficult for clients to accept, ournature--the physical things and emotional that sustain health. us--resulting in retrogressive abuse of Multiple forms of deterioration impact health, but the most associatingfoundinteractioncanbecause be in both nature,in orderof frighteningpsychological a to schema understand and develops. constructs exciting. how our By actionswithexploring, symbolic impact illuminating, interactionsall life forms and these interactions with emotions As we contemplate the and behavior, special1distressing This article thank wasyoucould extractedis extended be environmental from to thea dissertation committee: degradation. in Developmental We .hear all the A Drs. Christopher J. Alexander, discovertherapistsunderstandtherapists their use couldandpsyche's Earth--body internalize help deep individuals interactivetheir connectivemetaphors who connections are nature. toin emotional to all life turmoilforms allow clients to Today, some fromMarkinformation,Research theFromm Department was and contact supported, Allen ofauthor D.Public Kanner inat part,Instruction,PO withBox by a appreciation8413, Science Madison, Berkeley, and to Wisconsin.Technology Dr.CA Frances94707. Education Culbertson. Grant 3 For program inScience,(Cahalan, the proposed says 1995; (in Kannerplan Adler, for 1996;1989)tackling Metzner,that global psychologists 1995).issues. Behavior have a majorchange role is Rationale: Oran Young, Chair of the National Academy of 4 a needed first step to global salvation. New investigations have interpret the actions of others. Pillow (1995) affirms that the ability andchologistsScienceexposedindividual to become anTask are undeniableenvironments challengedForce, adept Mayat need imparting to 1996 developourto understand societal& usefulJuly emotional 1996). messes skills the processes toIncreasinglyliteracy (Basicindividualsfrom programs Behavioral that psy- link to ForceSalovey,perceptivedevelopment.associate (May 1993; and skills 1996) However,make Moffitt (Lewis inferences & injury Silva,et or 1988).is abuse a fundamental The can Basic interfere part Behavioral withof cognitive accurate Task reports aggressive acts al., 1988; Thomas, 1979; Mayer & result from mis- thatillchildhood can our stem culture to from adulthood has a dysfunction embedded (Goleman, in developmental emotions.1995; Kishton Barrows &theories Dixon, (1995) 1995).based imparts on Physical health also affects our collective well-being. Being Wilkenfeld,perceptualinterpreting ability another could person's also be behavior.related to chemicalOne reason poisons. for impacted Toxic Habitats: Exposure to chemicals, according to Irene"can cause a stunning array of physical, emotional, empathyPsychologiststions,isolation but and(which it contributes individualism. understand heavily behavior Being to individualisticour and toxicity its consequences (Garbarino, has some and 1995).attrac- that is linked to civility) is an important aspect in perceptualimpulsivity(Mendelsohn,behavioral, anddifficulty and 1996, aggression learning (Travis, disorders (Cullinan, McLean from Epstein& Ribar, asthma & 1989). Lloyd, to depression" 1983) and p. 10). Chemicals have been related to Even the person'sobtaining life emotional are in balance, and planetary health iswell optimized being. When (Swanson, all aspects 1995). of a Toxic environments am poisonous. Multiple Lifestyle Imbalances Travis, McLean and seriouslythoseplaces under webut emotionallive it is contain often stress difficult chemicals (McCunney, to distinguish that cause 1987). fear illness from particularly anxiety and for Stress and Fear: Psychologists take children's fears notshootings,lifestyles,Ribar1996). include (1989) Early thedrugs, their believechildexposure fear and of deaththat thunder,to whileviolence worry welightening, children impacts are all the vulnerableaand child's most snakes andconfidence to (NAESP,this chaotic does and is the most susceptible. Gangs, drive-by Valentine,whoarchaicstressliving are (Fimian withfears `close' 1930; environmental could & to WilsonCross, these augment and1986; fears). Kellert,catastrophes stress NAESP, 1993.levels 1996). Chronic together(particularly However, stress with for predisposed(Chandler,the children, fear of See Wickes, 1927; Bowd, 1983; findtheFarleydimensionleads solutions to (1996) disaster. ofto believesreinventemotional "ourselves"the imbalance. world isas in the Pasta badprimary APA way"destruction disciplinePresident and we needin Frank the to of This, combined with troublingnature information about habitats, can cause a ponderous liveeffective(Garbarino,In1984; becomeeither Lazarus,as case,1995)human more 1971)andpeople toxic...beings a refusalcan whoTherefore]and lead thetocope to"care social withdrawal bythe about withdrawing environmentsvicious anyone as cycle a coping else's become wherecontinues" needs.strategy they less (p.775).promise."societysolution One"reduceof This, humanity's aspect he human says, of majorhorror will horror, problems." takeis violence. we"all thewill creativityhave failed we ourcan originalmuster" If psychology cannot help feelerosion(p.157). a part of ofconnections something largerthat bind than people themselves. together allowing them to Isolation and Distrust: This erosionThis of breakdown, connections per has Rosemond lead (1997), is related to frighteningaggressivearefrontations noise, than noise thatacts war lead resultwhich "is tothe from shootings.kills young impairmentand man wounds with inthe people" the gun.... ability (p.971). All to messages accurately Violence and Aggression: Social toxicity causes con- Antonovsky (1993) says more Many peoplefamilyinteractionwatchingto withdrawal communication. have instead with with as technology a face-to-faceof coping participating Garbarino mechanism.suppresses interaction, (1995) in character says:Children the "The more developmentspend less they experience more distrust timeand life. Researchers find that 6 electroniceach other" viewing (p.35). has caused a 55 percent increase in attention Rosemond (1997) found that the explosion of Powerlessness and Depression: Connections and Emotional Health Multi-imbalances are experiencesasnotconcerndifficulties. wellowners. asfor yourself. nature's Whenhelp us you illskeep Swanson owncausing in something, touch people(1995) with to theyoubelieves be sensationstake spectators care that of interactiveof or it--nature life: renters, "Our This passive indifference also manifests in a lack of stressfuldifficulties.&lives...theyare Shamoo, often and powerless developerode 1989, the overpowering p.92) essence to change and of oftenchildhood. orfeelings influence find of no"Since hopelessness" theresolution theycourse [children] toof(Patros their Similar to adults (Seligman, 1975; DeAngelis, 1996) ofowner...thisinteractionsmodern relating" pattern ratherindoor (p. involveswith 101) than lifestylesthe causing primarily naturalthe aspect threaten world"an sensing apathetic of (p.clinging to oneself64). extinguish defense Cahalan to asthe a againstimage dynamic our(1995) meaningful of the adds "self-as-process urban- that p.30).suicide...Centersalreadyhelplessness Dr. depressed for (forAlan Disease thosecan Berman lead knowyounger Control, toof thisdepressionthe than American(Goleman,from 25) 1952 innearly childrenAssociation 1995).to 1992 tripled" and "the of those ,incidence that are of According to the (Ward, 1996, towardindustrial1987; nature's Foster dislocation & ills Little, parallels from 1987.) rootedness. the lack of concern (Also see for physicalSchwartzberg, health. Illness and Powerlessness: Apathy, and possibly guilt, causeandHopelessnessisasserts "more I tend to that predictivelead to feeling believeto is or a hopeless,explainofmuch suicidalthat more beingsuicide" or risk findingabject depressed than (p.31). way nodiagnoses solution One of itself thinking model toofis thedepression...not assertsand problems, sufficient feeling that conditionsairborneBeing1996.(Garbarino, ill Doctorspollution who 1995, are getsshow reportingp. really 5-6). the bad,Also an increase itsee is the Mendelsohn, children in stress-related with... 1996 respiratory and diseases, Rapp, is viewed as a disruptive imbalance of elements. "When effects... with greatest intensity" grievenegative.anddepression familial deeply Conn is structures, related from and dysfunctional to Roszak losses information in(in nature. Roszak, relationships about 1995b)our planet related report is to primarily thatnature. we Compounding the dysfunction that is occurring within social feelings"healthy"Beingparticularly out functioningand of our balancechronic perceptual becomes becomesfatigue grounding thatlost.... the can familiar We(Swanson, attack can norm losethe 1995, andimmune touch p.67).the with feel system. ourfor U.S.profoundlyThis loss-of-naturemay beloved, suffer from which grief iswe a are distinctly losing, differentand depression feeling results. for things Depression and Self-Esteem: depression (NBC News, 4.5 million children in the 1997). The "thesocietalinformation effects ills, ofcan social about create toxicity the intense destruction first hopelessness. and most of nature,dramatically Those compounded demonstrating are the onesThe with gloomy indicators attest that our children are at-risk and Summary relationshipemotionalHaupt(Lamarine,manifestations (1995) and 1995;to behavioralacademicfound of Moore which low performance.& problems, self-esteemoften Fine, 1990). and to O'Dell be a et strong al. (1994) predictor found ofa lead to a negativeImpacted self-image self-esteemLeary, Schreindorfer can and thatwhomentdetrimental(Garbarino, "we have can accumulated only to1995, their know p.6). emotional, ourselves the most physical,in relationdevelopmental and to other educational things, anddevelop- we and all of these are inter-connected. Wymore (1995) attests Children are living in a world that is risk factors" toconcludedKupersmidt,actionsalso the impair social of that:others the 1983). world [Understanding]ability (Rubin, Theis oneto Basic understand ofChen theBehavioral "how &most Hymel, people individual- important Task perceive1993; Force actions tasks citing and (May of respondandCoie 1996)basic the & are inexorably in a web of relationship with all things" (p.117). 3 (AlsoGolemanbehavioral see Mayer,(1995) science DiPaolofound research" that & Salovey, empathy (p. 478). 1990.) is Bybased exploring on self-awareness. the research, 8 thatan individual helps us to understand be empathic. that we are worthy to be a part of a civil, Self-esteem and Empathy: A healthy self-concept allows It is the primary emotional component animalsemotionsciting Weiner particular from (1977) the socialfacialin her 1989expressionsinteractions review, says withof peers thatother primates and animals by showingcan elicits read that:tosocietal (Leary,underlying"increase "Assimilation structure. Schreindorfer individuals'contributor refers & perceptionsto Haupt, toemotional instances 1995, that " p.308). whenthey are aPillow person's socially(p.438) (1995) included" andbelief conveys serves or Per Mayer and Salovey (1993) it is the "major activeageempathyendocrinequires of 6understanding oris anda7 givenyears autonomic ofchildren biology. of relations changes begin Pillow tobetween (1995) allowinghave an reports mental understandingthe assumption "that states around and of that thethe information-processing....[and] perspective-taking skill re- cognitive,knowledge.beyondsituation"emotion available mediatesand(p.662). This emotional Wheninformation, the development. a child isthey faced need with to something draw from that existing goes skill is representation responsible for adequate perceptual, of information about a Basiccallousnessnegative(1995)conditions Behavioralsays effect thatthat determineonthegeneralizes Research ourdecline children's ofor to(July "civility mediateother development...1996), relationships" (an them" old-fashioned 52 scientists (p.652). (p.38-39). word)foundGarbarino Inhas that the a It provokes a successDunn,(Garcia-Coll 1995).is dependent &Hoffman's Meyer, on 1993; integrating(1978) Denham term: into "Vicarious theet al., larger 1994; affective societal Youngblade response," context & A child's social development is derived from an outline where empowerment,successfulcurrenteffectivecommunal in structureseducationbuffering positive stress, promisedepends social and greater on educationalpromote a close access copingcommunity development. to healthnetworks generating care, in areour isolated environments. Holtzman (1997) agrees that thisweanothersamemeans shouldconcept affect person" that relate asalso an the (Moore observertrueto model" the of & painnature? Fine, (p.228)."responds that 1990, "Does we mightp.as it67). ifmake he inject Because were sense on experiencing others. weto talkfeel But aboutpain, isthe "Literally, it means 'feeling into' to positiveinteractionattend. interactions requires accuracywill be obligatory. in perceptive Antonosky skills (1993)and a keenattests ability that Civility results from empathy. However, Ito believe comprehend as society this heads to communal structures, that isenvironmenta moral,it1995,difficult is hypothesized p.1403).empathetic to associate can It'feel is thatrelationship... sometimes pain'an biophilia empathic or for difficult ispeople with thestructure nature?" "innateto to understand understand with emotional (Kahn nature. that& its Friedman, However,affiliation therights. natural It of rejectionkids,aggressivelyothers"civility results (p.973). by inpeersdominates isolation (Denham others.(Cillessen & AggressiveGrout, et al., 1993; 1992), behavior, Kennedy, low popularity, particularly Spence and for & "affirms plural commitments and loyalties to oneself and to An organism is not able to function healthily if one drivenit(WilsonZoologist alsohuman dullscivility & beings Kellert,E.O. perceptions might Wilson to 1993). otherbe enhanced(Goleman,purports Becauseliving organisms" thatemotionaland 1995). humansthus (Roszak,strengthened, neglect possess dulls1995c, biophiliaempathy, children p.4) and I believe that empathic- Hensley, 1989). This symbiotic scenario has portrayed immense complexity Conclusion vastness.(andplanet as adults) and perceive will become their valuableuniqueness and civil inhabitants of the Empathy and Civility: Empathy, resulting from a positive in association with its feelof workingbehaviordevelopment. Thethat twotheir together, interactions disciplines lives are may meaningful. of and offerdevelopmental purports the bestBarrows that hope psychology people (1995) of keeping needsums and to "ouritdeep perfectly:connect children , to It has demonstrated a full circle of emotional and self-conceptof the processes might be needed the root for of positive morality social (Hoffman, interaction. 1984) andBrothers, one 9 4 added].as sane If as individuals they were do when not feel they part were of a born" social (p.101) structure, they will 1 0 [emphasis (O'Rourke,not perceive 1996). that theySalisbury are in et control al. (1995) of selfsay orthat their when environments children are program, historical metaphors were included, including the Native Metaphors and Emotional Health: In designing the study theyempowered are involved they andtake a ownershipstrong civil forconcern the particular for life becomes milieu in evident. which The need for connectednessConnectedness: has recently Emotional been explored Health and by Nature tostoriesnatureprimeAmericans' each their bringassociation other. perceptions.circle to "Americanlife of holistic andlife process,provide Indianand interdisciplinary consciousculturesto help students are awareness, a ties vital understand to link the asbetweenland these and This was done to impart the human-to- waythatmeaning...many1996) aforward" holistic'free-thinkers'. who is the (p.conceptsays: 63).hope "The Oneforis the aunderstanding justbeing "only society" poethonest, Susan(p.63). thateconomical natureManyGriffin others isand a sourcefeasible believe of In this report, Carolyn Forche says, "we are (in Spayde, awarenesslivedbelievedhuman1987, cooperatively society p.99) that of "plantsand ancientand for honorednature" theand philosophies welfare animals(Caduto all forms and were& can andsurvivalBruchac, helpbrothers manifestations of children 1989, all" and (Foster p. understandsisters xxiii). of & life. Little,They and An world'sweappreciatewaybecoming wake that problems doesn't up"aware... the (p. radiance "are 69).reduce that rooted weof or theare indominate largerpsychology"all interrelated. web either of inter-relatedness,and party... Once that we therewe relate begin is an andin to a Farley (1996) believes that many of the earth"thehow[being] earth, the (p.34). 'First distanced contrary Nations' to from our (Armstrong, the"understanding reality of 1995) life andlived understood knowledge physically and ofclose sharednature" to the ecopsychologydiverse,important ranging "need movement.for from a truly Jung's global Frances collective psychology" Wickes unconscious, (p.(1927) 773). found to the memory current Historical Overview: The psychology-to-nature etiology is symbolsmetaphors....ancientchologists inbecause therapy are Counselors healers "the (Heinrich work and of mustet shouldhealing al., be 1990). drawableis most They toon identifyeffectively the attest wisdom what that done psy-ofthese withthe Counselors also use Native American metaphors and culturalsheexperiences.to magic.be states a andstorehouse Per thatcollective DrawingSwanson images of attitudeson adventures(1995) Jungianthat are itof appears society Psychologycontained that enables thatparallel consciousnessinand the theprimitive the deepcomparison unconscious, godslevels is onand of the butchangeledgepsychologymetaphors we to rarely the"raise are world?is seekpowerful.thewithin human "We the the specializewhole Heclient's vision" wonders picture... reality" (p.776) in bits why (p.131). and[we]and we to piecestrycan't teachFarley to useput of each (1996) the thethis puzzle, other piecesknow- says to tion"cuttingbehaviorhealth"(p.51).role of Jung's edge is deeply Depthfor Recently, the rootedPsychology. human Aizenstat in sciencesnature This and(1995) conceptin that:recognizing portrayed "The imparts rhythms thea that new powerful ofhumanour genera- nature relationship to the environment plays in mental. puzzlereducedtogether... is to the avoidingHow understanding will the children ugly ofthings, howknow mentalwhat what is healththereto aspire to professionals seek?" to? (p.776) can Current Trends in Nature Therapy: One piece of this If life is greaterthesaysexploitedunderlie natural that:sense all psychicand "Journeys of of humanentire commonality, pulse, species interaction...Wheninto people nature areand and threatened"offerunderstanding. societies metaphor, these (p.93). humanget We sick,identification, experienceforms nature betray is a Park (1996) nature"world,Perpsychehelp Swansoncreate to (p.75).nature identify a more (1995), with with civil "Mother it,we society. to need experience Nature" to learn in ourtherapy to "assimilatekinship to effectwith the the healing? natural rest of Ecopsychologists express the benefits of feeling Is it possible to combine our inner something greater than ourselves" (p. 322). 11 5 plants,andclose Friedman to andthe earth,parks (1995) or are nature found important (Cohen, that to to inner-city1995;their lives.Kanner, children, 1996). animals, It 12is becoming Kahn apparentbetween that nature vigorous and research humans. is needed As Kunc to show(1992) the contends, relationship by (p.14).standing Barrows historical (1995) gulf betweenbelieves thatthe psychologicalwe need to transition and ecological" from the otherfundamental,achieving and aif wedeep and neglect senseI will add, this of belonging imperative,challenge, within ourto emotional survival the child's is health. at community stake. True is It is time to change the way we relate to nature and to each withmeable,paradigm all living and ofbeings" interconnectedthe isolated (p.103). self not to only a new with vision other of human "self thatselves, is per- but Developmental Models: In the Centre for Psychology and goal.self-loveapproachesourselves,as yourself.To lovederived your What have from neighbor we self-actualizationnot love been as we yourself will available protect, could and to esteembutalso help unless mean isus the lovewechange ultimatetruly nature love our there is no love for other. Previously, practical socialchildReser,"psychology'sSocial development milieu, 1995,Change p. butattribution 238).Newsletter also that This within considersof concepta (Februaryprivate,an ecological aseems childindividual 1994) isto context. born,lead selfHillman to notis Barrowsa delusional" newonly concludes, theory within (1995) (in ofa requiresunderstandingpsychologistsrelationship a digression to nature,to human include into per dimensions. the the Swanson world natural of (1995),subatomic Tosciences augment therefore, physics.in explaining he calls and for this concept mentalseparationMahler...popularityreports healththat [who] of and aby psychology professionalsindividuation"traces insisting the ondevelopmentthat (p.105). being acknowledgeemphasizes... independent of the thethat child theory we "has as possess a of ledprocess Margaret to "anthe of Barrows believes that when arrangeatomphysics,of probability within andthere rearrangepatternsan are object, no 'things'and themselves there interconnections only is connections.a aroundprobability (Capra,the Whennucleus that 1982). theyou electronslook In atomic at an Using science as a metaphor we find that life is a collection they are mustadds,livingthis,ecological weexpand. thingsour need perceptionself and to it willacknowledge to thechange of earthindividuals, their itself that therapeutic children(p.107). families, are interaction.and connected social systems "to all Based on this, she To do connections.ifcomposedremainseverywhere we look stable. deep of atTheatoms, theenough, parts same at arethe we time thelevel are whole ofall exchange part picture. of one Capraof inseparablematter (1996) and explains energy, web of This seems then, that because all of nature is but the object and, or, pattern (p.244).contrastpurport theto the "untenability experiential of and an biologicalindividual, reality disembodied of relational self self Conversely, Reser (1995) arguesConn that(1992) ecopsychologists asserts that when "we develop a way of in ofthis developmentlife metaphor formation as andand the inter-relatedness.calledcognitive, for aemotional paradigm (mind-consciousness) shift in the understanding web Psychologists could use this analogy to prescribe nature in tryingthenotconnecting justhealing to personalbring theof thisthe self release world"understanding and the (p.3-4).but world, also into participationthen the the therapeutic goals in ofand therapy domain. contribution become to Therefore, modern therapists are studentsinnerperson'sworkingthe emotional nature environment arelife; canshowing and, healing develop. simultaneously, aand process."strong theProfessors outdoors interest Swanson healthier have inneed environmental (1995) noticed torelationships be believes integratedthat issues"psychology withthat into andthe a There(p.beRalph transported10). is Metzner, alsoTherapy new towho asouterdirection abelieves function space emerging that and of ecopsychologyin it thiswould within day not and and make age, embraces for any therapy'Ecological difference" holism. "could Therapeutic Models: Roszak (1995a) citing a colleague, thatsciencecourses the departments"aregoal being of ecopsychology offered (Murray, in "both 1996, is psychology "to p.51). bridge ourand culture'senvironmental long- 13 Roszak (1992) says 6 forecologistsSocial therapeutic Work' and wherein methodsthe ecopsychology social to help workers them movement" are"shift looking away (Park, tofrom " 1996, the medical p.321) 14 fordisease the mental model towardhealth profession,an ecological then, model" is to (p.322). develop The therapeutic challenge the connected aspects of nature, the sessions include nature as a theandprograms formationto generate to enhance of positive social character, interaction standards to within reducebegins society. negativeearly and competition, should be The Basic Behavioral Task Force (May 1996) suggests that biologicalprogramfacilities.reviewedlearning formodel. and Togetherthe two human outline yearsAfter with sciences. usingdraftingand a co-leader,subsequently a variety the sessions, of we activities implementedoffered school extracted the administrators use the from of model their the (1985)parentalcognitivemore"amenable research suggest interactiondevelopment to intervention thaton theprograms and developmentto chaoticduringsocial that childhood"messes supportsocial of social structures. thatthe (p.484). integration resultprocesses from Bellah of negativethat vulner- et link They call for al. seeminglyTheory"methodologicaloriginal (1975) have base. thatno control, Onewhen was facedpeople Seligman's with can events feel "Learned hopeless over Helplessness which and eventhey The Program and Learningin Theories: The sessions are design, however, several models provided a andofable community. thesourcepeople lives ofin of inspiration,social Whenour clients situations, "we weunderstandand will the reflect be Earth" able naturea society (Park,to transform as 1996, thatsustainer, values p.322). our own mentor,a sense lives emotionallydifficulttrue.aboutdepressed. strength to explain Conversely, and and empowerment. cognitively when people interpret, Skeels, take (1966) itaction, is arduous found this can thisfor thosebringto(Also be see DeAngelis, 1996.) Because interconnectedness is impacted, who also have difficulty with abstract ecopsychologyQuitethe ultimate possibly answer nothing is one to a stepelse just closerseemsand civil than to society be the close others. might to the be far-reaching.answer, and To say that ecopsychology, as a therapeutic model, will be Conclusion Whatever the model,information.understandpsychologicalreasoning, which to and understandincludesrhetoric? connect totemPeople and new selection,internalize need meaning a backdrop, role-play, its torelationship an art association, therapy, to complex and to This developmental framework was the basis for the previously learned (1995)tomysteryresult, psychologygenerosity believes of life and"in in that athe love.context, webroadest willWe and notshould sense, bemost able accept importantly,uplifting, to restore no less"ennobling, ourshowing (p.776). health placing the orBrown roadwell- the I agree with Farley (1996) who says it is possible to use thatmodelnature by visualizationis increasing also original anexercises. individual'sin design. One understanding underlying assumptionthat he or she was is Program Framework: The therapeutic method used in the isbeing up to unless the childrenbut we first correct they thewill healthneed our of theguidance! Earth. This, I believe, Development of the Program: As a School , Methods Participantsobservancesocial-emotionalsixpart sessions of an intricate are that encouragedunderstanding composeweb of relationships theto andobserve program prime would and perceptionsare participateenhance designed bycontrol. within tovicarious impart Thethe of, and interactive participation with, nature. dysfunctionalourclassesconcernone natural impetus that that home, explored educatorspersonalfor the the disturbing formation Earth.lives, were teaching issues of the regarding mandatedmodel program the environmental destruction was my of I witnessedFor how those hearing who about also hadthe to endure Thebeingprojectobservationscherished sessions connected into structures the to teach humanbigger will participants ofemergeboth pictureactions. their natural of tonature, associatewith environment thean intrinsicself familial and and awareness structureswith relate others. their ofof It fosters the theory that when we extinct.studentsdesolation Because cry of naturewhen social-emotional theyintensified learn abouttheir reciprocity helpless how animals seems feelings. toare beEven becoming similar today, to 15 7 impactnature extensivelywithof life human and, in asinteraction. a a therapeutic result, positive model emotional would reduce well-being the stressful would It was hypothesized that by using 16 primarybe evident. method A non-directive of interaction. therapeutic approach was used as the (Miljkovitch & Landry, 1. Emotional Development: Psychologists in clinical practice 1984; Pfeffer, 1984; Cummings, 1986; theschoolers 4thfinal through sample served 8th consisted as grades mentors. designated of After13 males permission to beand emotionally four forms females were at-risk. (N=17).signed, High Participants: The target population consisted of students in emotionalitycliniciandrawings.Culbertson,Person: Screening 1987; and compare McNeish Procedure them & Naglieri, with for a Emotional1993) normal often sample. Disturbance use human The Draw figure (DAP: A to Scoring is based oncount a holistic approach allowing the 'signs' considered to be associated with selectedemotionalbinationprofessionalThis of from aspectsleaders alongthose effectedof attending withthe program. a a certified balance regular The sciencebetween summer control teacher.thegroup school scientific was classes This randomly and com-researcher andthe co-led the sessions as the mental health longitudinalthroughLie(NaglieriSPED) (1994) 17, was et inter-raterstudy al.,used 1991). ofin person theadjudicated reliability present drawings andstudy boys. retest tobefore determine stability the first emotional are offense adequate. growth in a Developed on over 2,000 subjects aged 6 Findings show, without shouldstatisticalwithlimitationssubjects a benormal were analysis evaluated(per notO'Dellgroup....created problem"designated using et al., matched 1994)(p. to231) both bein groups. "comparingandemotionally a matchingsuggested the at problem thatat-riskrisk. differences There students and are a offense"exception,psychopathological (p.23). that future offenders had abnormal test results and that 2. Cognitive Development: Although human figure drawings "differences were present before the first nesspost-psychometric program measures implementation. and observations As theorized, were emotional conducted connected- pre- andis Analysis: multi-faceted and In order to evaluate the therapeutic sessions, interactive. Thus, the benefits of growth.tativedevelopment.reportedhave Scoring not that been a System potential shown (DAP:QSS) existsto be accuratefor elicitingwas used measures a crudeto estimate index of intellect, cognitiveof mental It provides an objective scoring system normed on a repre- In the present study, the Draw A Person: Quanti- it is documentedenhancemeasuresimpacting.participation wasThe by teachersprimaryto determine purposeand parents the ofeffectiveness the were pre- also and evaluated. of post-intervention the sessions to emotional in the sessions were also assumed to be multi- health. Interviews, and overt behaviors measures.Criterionbeensentative1972; used Goodenough, validitysample to estimate correlates per Naglieri 1926; developmental significantly Harris,(1988) 1963;who (p affirms< levelsMiljkovitch .01) withthatsince other drawings& theLandry, cognitive 1800s. have 1984; (Also see Laosa, Swartz & Holtzman, 1973; Pikulski, sessions.administeredren's Self-Concept Many duringpsychological Scale the (P-H) first evaluations were week used. and begin These the with final instruments a weekchild drawing of were the Instruments: Person drawings and the Piers-Harris Child- developedwasHavighurst, chosen for Gunther because research. & Pratt, it Results can 1946.) be evaluate given quickly attributes and and was "focuses primarily on 3. Self-Esteem: The Piers-Harris (P-H) Self-Concept Scale interpretedchildreninteraction.comfortablea picture ofdo based themselves. andnot knowtoon break its content.that down their barriers masterpiece between the child-adult Drawings are less susceptible to faking, as most It is an excellent way to help them feel In such a situation, the ambiguity is going to be appearance,questions(Pageconsistencya child's & consciousChandler, in six estimatesanxiety, areas 1994,self-" ofpopularity, forperceived p.345). the total and Itesteem: isscore(Piers, happiness. composed Behavior,range 1984, Piersoffrom p.1). 80school and.88self-report tostatus,Harris .93" "Internal serves to reduce anxiety. 17 8 determineand(1969) intellect. believe the effectsthat a positiveof counseling correlation for at-risk exists 9th between graders self-esteem and found Page and Chandler (1994) used the measure to 18 that:usedthat their "Ourthe P-H self-esteemmodem to analyze society significantly educationally has produced improved. at-risk numerous youngsters cases concludingof children O'Dell et al. (1994) Fouryielding of thean improvementclusters demonstrated in the participants' significant overall increases: self-concept. Behavior factornot getting to the the increasing attention number they need, of at-risk and students"this may (p.be 231).a contributing Piers-HarrisstratedHappinessand Physical the Children's most& SatisfactionAppearance pronounced Self-Concept (p<.01). (p<.05); difference. Scale The Intellect Happiness & School cluster Status demon- and perceptiveduring,cooperation) skills and while educational interacting well-being with others were (such recorded as being bumpedbefore, 4. and Behavior: Overt behaviors (empathy,after civility,the sessions. aggression, Subjects were observed for Cluster(n=10)T-Score Means and Standard Deviations - Study Group pre-intervention T-Score Means post-intervention pre-intervention Standard Deviations post-intervention Basicandlistby someoneaugmenting totem Behavioral selection accidentally). observed Task can be behaviorForce Leaders used (May within changes.completed 1996) a therapeutic thefound behavior that model. "when check- The Role-play, artwork, AppearanceIntellectBehavior &School Status 38.940.137.8 52.247.5 10.8612.8911.07 11.9911.758.59 AnitaO'Dellexperimentalpracticepersuade Barrows et al. having themselves(1994) subjects (1995) each used discussed role-play person asartwork a result" in andin how front (p.479) role-play tribal of an to inaudience...change their program. behavior. they their community "accompanied societies culturally SatisfactionHappinessPopularityAnxiety & 38.642.451.3 51.651.458.747.8 12.8913.878.77 10.69 7.716.82 linkalongthrough with with thelife other bynatural a names,totem world" animal, and (p.102). whose-function whose name is a tochild embody might the be child'sgiven Procedure: Before the program began and after the six esteemTotals** p < .001 The control group demonstratedpre- little difference in 43.3 and post-regular summer school 53.6** 8.89 involvement. 8.97 self- indicatorsparticipatedprocedureselvessessions, and eachof was incomplete the a participantregular followedperson the summer drawings self-esteem was schoolasked were program.to questionnaire.tabulated. draw a Psychodiagnostic picture One Thepoint of them-same was for the control group subjects who affirmedallyThedemonstratedHowever, at-risk DAP:SPED the (n=15), validity the pre-intervention most(two of thesignificantsubjects pre-program did meanincrease not completeselection(M=44.93) (F [7, 721=2.69, acriteria. secondfor the The emotion-drawing)p<.016). post- based on analysis of variance, the study group tabulated.percentagegiven for the appearance of each of the indicators and the total of the pre- and post-intervention drawings were DAP:SPEDstudentssessionsintervention (t= significantly T-score 4.486,mean p(M=38.47)Means <.001). improved and demonstratedStandard the overall Deviations emotionalthat participation health ofin the wereperson unable drawings to complete were recorded the second for each questionnaire, subject. Several thus reducingstudents Pre- and post-intervention scores derived from the P-H and Results (n=15)Pre and Post-Intervention M SD p value significant43.3the analysis and post-intervention difference group (n=10). (t=6.01, Results mean p <.001) show of 53.6. betweena pre-intervention Analysis the total affirmed meanscores, ofa 19 9 PostPre Intervention Intervention 38.4744.93 3.765.02 .001 20 didanalyzed.ability not as differ Thedemonstrated topre- any (M=89.5) significant on andthe post-interventiondegreeP-H cluster, (t=.213, the (MpDAP:QSS >.10).=90.4) Thismeans was is To further examine the increase in perceived intellectual wasrevealseducation implemented that is the fun. children inSerendipitously, the summer, felt smarter the the and students P-H more School willingdiscovered Status to be cluster activethat Educational Development: Even though the study program clusterincreaseserendipitoushigher the (psignificantly, participants'< .01). in that basedeven perception though on the of P-Hthe their IntellectDAP:QSS intellect and was scores School significantly did Status not becauseofO'Dellaboutstudents academic theiret ofwithinal.'s educationaltheir accomplishment" (1994) an history educational finding ofcapabilities. success that system. (p.227), "self-concept to Results continue They and ofchildrenbecame to thisis be the studysuccessful. -morearebest documentmotivated predictor positive percent,AnxietypercentPost-intervention ofdecreasedand the barriers pre-session by between 66 percent, drawings the self serious contained and environmentspathology aggressive decreased decreased symbols. 73 Psychodiagnostic indicators demonstrated that almost 70 drawings contained no aggressive symbols. self-efficacyeffectskills to change. help werethem Overt evident handle manifestations asdifficult they becamesituations of empathy, empowered and give cooperation, them to take power action and to Behavioral Development: As demonstrated, children need intervention.theOvertcartoonby 100teachers behaviors figurespercent. Nature with engaged portrayed Many positive visualization, post-interventionin somesignificantchanges particularlytype sustaining improvementof enjoyable drawings when up the outdoor toas teacherwerea reported year activity. happy post-used by thattoetbehavior improve socialincreasedal. 1992; exclusionalso their Rubin self-esteemdecreased personal iset theal., after andresult1993;tends thesurrounding oftoLeary intervention. aggressivereduce et al., violence, habitats. 1995). behaviorJenson others InAggressive (1990) (Cillessenthe foundpresent stated Zaichkowsky'stureschildrenthe term by were using'extinct,' amazed et relaxation al., helped (1986) at how participantstechniques.findings. they could becomeThiscontrol result their calmer skin tempera-and the is similar to study,neglectbehaviorpracticedimportant the childrenthey ofhow in animals. the experiencedto webrecognizebecame of life. part emotions from of andfamily in accepted each members other by bythe and observing group projected and the They seemed to overcome the emotional Those who participated learned and Astherapeuticment hypothesized, evidenced model byparticipationfor an the increased children lead whoself-concept to positiveparticipated andemotional ain greater the sessions.develop- ability to The purpose of this study was to examine the benefits of the Discussion togetherthemselves(Salisburydiscuss and their intoet al.,cooperate innera larger1995). thoughts, "family" without therebyof acceptance.competition, learning When theymore children can about openly workothers participatingthatshow theythey empathy felt liked happy, andthemselves. civility.lucky, andAfter cheerful, the sessions, easy to the get children along with, reported and in a program that used nature as a visceral and This researcher believes that by destroyquestionednature clearly part where ofincreased. the they chain stepped While of walking wondering through if they the were woods, going some to As the sessions progressed, the children's empathy for life. These and other behaviors life forms belonginggrowth.belonginteractive toKunc awas teacher,intricate (1992) one of communityaffirmsthe the children factors that ofwhen cameresponsible connections a childto understand achieves for and their this emotionala that sensesense they of within their milieu, this is fundamental to both understandingconnectivecapacity(Hoffman,authenticate for 1984). empathy their (Brothers, As understanding demonstrated, and 1989; that Goleman, of thethe neuro-cortexdistress 1995; Azar, of all controls 1996). The the healing of the pathways it may be possible to achieve a that underlie empathic psychological and physical health. 21 10 furtheretiology exploration. of the behavior changes noted in the children is worth 22 lifestylemany innate can be fears virulent, and posingcompounding a threat theseto physical fears health.with a Bystressful using Physical Development: As demonstrated, children have theyperceived were not the the change, only benefactorsothers perceived of this the changetheir change and, parents, above all, The sessions had a _positive impact on the students. They achievesessionstakenaturemental some visualization balance helpedhealth control problems,theand over childrenexercises, physical their inaccurate ownunderstand health. participants physiology. perceptions, that realized theyStress have and canthat the isolation. alsothey power causecould Theto Using nature to help reduce thegrieftheirbenefactors.siblings, present perceivedthrough pets,research self-efficacy. peers,participation that teachers, empowerment inThe its sessionscommunity,destruction, can reduceprovide itand has environmentalnature beena resource shown were for allby If people are depressed about the environment and themselvescloserevaluationchild,stress not levelskinship just demonstrates with could thoseto animals. the be who aanimal part that Oneare of kingdommany emotionallythementor educational of wishedthe and children at-risk. wanted curriculumto acquire Supplementalexperienced to associate herfor everypet's a Nation'smentalchildren.rolementoring. models processPhiladelphia Mentors Hamburg that of can provide a Presidential (1992)child--so be mentors an believes importantoften Conference or there neededcross-age aspect is (Aprila as lack forpeercalled 1997). of the dependablehelpers fordevelop- in our for sessions,loving,positive kind, the and students a best friend. notably engaged in aggressive behavior Emotional Development:characteristics: During the early part of the Quiet, unassuming, strong, expressive, participantsthanfeel powerless adults becausein tothe effect sessions of change their found circumstantial and a if waychildren to engage are more themselves. powerless Mitigation of Hopelessness: If the greatest sorrow is to hopelessness, the general,andwaterinteraction.using often for all balloonthey grabbedaspects used fights, ofliving elements nature. rocks species to They throwof natureto used atplay each tree inwith other branches and and put at infor animals, jars. swords, In As the sessions progressed, this behavior waned. cathartic aggressive solutionscouldstatesmayThey have demonstrated bethat feeling to beenwhen their instrumentalhopelesschildren problems. that theypresent This,indid reducing asnot he being feel says, depression.helpless depressed, is "more anymore. Wardpredictiveinstead, (1996) they of and cannot or may not know how to find This at-risk"counselingChandlerempathicWhen depressive (p.349). to(1994) is the a viableThenatural write: characteristics variability way life forfound mentalin the around diminished, affect health them. of counselors the theySimilarly, participants became to Pageaffect raisesmore and the "This research shows that small-group violencebecleanprojectedsuicidal an upexample risk theirresults the than needsurroundings. for afrom diagnosesthe to powerlessness,cleanyouth Thisupof America.depression"their type inner of rejection, emotionalWhile life (p. by31). the andfinding propensityprojection loss ways of egocan forto The students istherefore,the pressionsignificantworth question further depressive in of forthe transient review.depression, present characteristics depressive sample? and later The arecharacteristics. thenoanswer longerstresses to -manifested, this are is crucial,mitigated; this as Was it hopelessness masking as de- If a client is workpositivecontrol and (Cillessenplayimpact together that et may al.,and help1992; improve to Rubinreverse immediate et violent al., 1993), environments tendencies. learning hashow a to Neural Development: The children in this study could have andgriefcharacteristicscompoundenvironmental livefrom in loss "cement stress. of degradationto nature determine cities," habitats, totally continues the particularlyremovedrelationship to permeatefrom for between thosenature ourwho in unresolved theirworld are lives.in and jail Future research should explore depressive stratesummer.stersperceptions.experienced who pseudo had autonomicBehavior ADDstopped due takingchange tochanges the theirhighly was in medication the evidentwired neural and even forpathways rapid ADHD in imagesthose duringthat young- foundprime the Rosemond (1997) believes that some children demon- 23 11 furtherin electronic review. communicative technology and this certainly demands 24 naturalstudy activities sciences wereof biology, designed geology, to effectand herpetology a balance and between the health the Development of Well-being and Ecopsychology: The awareness.therapy helps clients to open up, explore, and develop an expanded thesciences.presentmentalused essence throughout health Instudy, ofaddition, ecopsychology professionals. along the Native sessions. with otherAmerican and whatcause history, its and proponents effect art, and inferences are music asking were may of However,This the integration sample size of the of sciencesthe is groupproposed:writers,the development therapy the following within of nature.the conceptual sessions, (2) It uses anddefinition nature the ideas asof aecopsychology meansof contemporary to parallel is Definition of Ecopsychology: (1) It is a therapeutic model that combines individual or Based on the impetus for newprocess.mentalusingdictate theory nature cautionhealth of did development, professional, in improve generalizing development the gained the data results. invaluablefrom and the It this has present informationresearcher, been study shown clearlyasin that thethe If the proponents of ecopsychology wish to catapult to a relationship(4)orderpsychologyhuman It usesto behaviorhelp nature to andindividuals all systems' life byto forms.helpobservation. understand individuals ideation thewithin understand self a in therapeutic relation the toself life's model and web. our in (5) It teaches participants to use their (3) It incorporates ecology, realpsychologyfindsemotionsshow work' thethat benefits with "ecopsychologists (p.237)as thea discipline of synergismof such finding a andmodel. ourselves ofare profession natural "throwing real life to withinforms. get out involved thea challenge world. with Conn 'the to It incorporates the synergism of Reser (1995) toenvironmentalthesenses improve loss in of order themselvesnature degradation. to primeand along global perceptions. (7)with catastrophes It naturehelps clients environments. relative understand to all theforms need of (6) It addresses fears about psychologyour(1992) place says: in theis "We based whole, need on to a systems developway to view trueand ecologicaltheecological self, a responsibility"(p.5).new thinking experience that inte- of Holtzman (1997) recently expressed that "community thatdemonstratedaffirmedsignificant by understanding that, developmental that quite they possibly,this are connection, growth.eminently by knowing The they connected results wereand feeling ableof withthe to presentpartbringnature of about a andstudy vast New Theory of Development: In this study, the children leavesThecitizengratesmodel. economical empowerment,health,wide-open Kahn humanand povertyfuture Friedman andresources, implications culturalof children (1995) valueseducation, forfound confined such into that onesocialan toanimals, ecopsychologicalstrategy" the interventions, inner plants, (p.382). cities and Therefore,modelsynergistic should this consider researcher that: proposestheory of(1) thatan A isolated achild's new developmentalconnectiveself because nature the development does not substantiate of self is the structure elicits positive self-esteem and efficacy. constructivecommunalparks are formnaturevery of important communalof gangs to interactioncould these be children. transferredwith nature. Quite possibly, the In the program, we were able to show the children that a to a more experienceinteractiveintricatenature.not separate place a fromvast in all thenumber of environmentlife's ofsynergistic natural of andother structures. familial human connections beings and (2) A child needs to understand andconnections feel his or her are intrinsic and a child must (3) Global ecologicaldominanceconstrainedcooperativenature. "In principles hierarchy" thenetworkby cooperativenatural should of systemsinteractions not strategies becompetition studied complements such in within isolation as territoriality species competition and isaffirms always and in (Clark, 1989, p.60). Clark believes that empathicchildeffectprimedin all aspectsneeds maximum by modelsbeing to of be life. exposedperceptual exposed in (4) order All to of to to development.nature's the positiveeffect human sensationsmaximum multi-environmental senses (5) From needemotionalin order birth, to beto a that nature systems demonstrate cooperative strategies. Gestalt 25 12 developmentallydevelopment. destructive spiral are needed. (6) Strategies to reverse our 26 isolated aspectsdoeschologists not of work humansneed anymore. to andfind nature. theThe whole gestalt Swanson picturejust encompasses (1995) having believes all thethe thatvariouspieces the Future Implications: Farley (1996) says that we as psy- mustGolemannaturalhas shown be (plantdevelopmentally (1995) that and individuals says animal) that age-related; theenvironmentsare optimal able beginto designlearn asearly towell of bein these aslife, empathic each and programs involve other. with those(proposedneedlong-time(natural, towho come separate byphysical, understand President together. disciplines emotional, Clinton)and The are of and"bridge would partthe social). naturalof be a completed,system "As and we human ofdevelop connections I believe, sciences a way by of into the 21st Century" haveinvolveschools, a responsibilitywell-defined families, and skills tocommunities. enhance related healthto Also, accurate and qualities bring perceptual such about as ability.emotional empathy There is little doubt that society is toxic and professionals demonstratedtheconnectinglearnnot healing just to personal,live theof in thehowself a globalworld" andreleasemental the community. (Conn, healthworld,but also 1992, thenprofessionals participation the p.3-4). goals canofin therapyand help contribution humanity become to This research has powerandintellectbringdisciplines:shift the-- our andto interactivewithin comeintricate createSociology, individuals. together a attributescollection connective Ecology, asBy professionalsofcombining of ecologysociety. Archaeology,knowledge willdevelopmental fromenable to the form our Humanitieshumans individualistica psychologycommunal to take and It is time for a paradigm idealsomething life must more consist than individualism"of people who (p.can vii). live together in trust, love, B. F. Skinner (1948) said the "problems of society call for Conclusion He suggested that an timeaboundsnetworkto to act. withWe learn canresearch from help societyeach on human other. heal. 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ComparingCalifornia: the & behavioralenvironmental Ribar, Wadsworth.theories C. Eds.and of field. sociocultural(1989). child The development. Environmental Gestalt aspects, Journal, 1973-1989. toxins: 18(1), 47-85. Valentine, C.W.Psychology,Bibliographies (1930). The 37, in innate394-418. Psychology, basis of No. fear. 5. JournalWashington, of Genetic DC:APA 2:1 16 34 U.S. Department of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI) National Library of Education (NLE) ERIC Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) REPRODUCTION RELEASE (Specific Document) I. DOCUMENT IDENTIFICATION: Title: toy* s vs. c9 _t_t -e_ f y

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