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Toward A Major Strategic Shift? History of Terrorist Violence in AQI has exploited local conditions to The French Approach to From the mid-1970s, France and other transform Ninawa into one of its main Counterterrorism European countries faced threats from strongholds. Yet this achievement separatist or left-wing terrorists. In could represent just one element of a By Charles Rault 1985, for example, General René Audran, broader strategic shift by AQI aimed at the chief of arms sales for the French reversing the debacle it suffered during in the last five years, a number of Ministry of Defense, was assassinated the last three years. In this regard, the terrorist attacks have occurred in by the urban guerrilla group Action creation of a solid base in the province Western Europe. In March 2004, Directe.2 In 1986, the same group was and the completion of the Iraqification Islamist terrorists attacked Madrid’s blamed for the murder of Georges Besse, process of the group that started after commuter train system, killing 191 the director of the French automotive al-Zarqawi’s death has been coupled people. On July 7, 2005, Islamist company .3 with a series of initiatives aimed at terrorists struck London’s public adapting the movement’s strategy transportation system, killing more From 1982 to 1987, terrorist violence to local conditions and to exploit its than 50 people. A number of other in France peaked after state-sponsored traditional strengths. plots in Western Europe have been terrorist groups from the Middle East disrupted. Since the 9/11 attacks on the targeted French interests in the context The recent terrorist attacks that hit United States, France has managed to of East-West tensions generated by indicate that AQI is increasing escape a terrorist attack. Nevertheless, the Cold War.4 Groups such as the high-profile coordinated attacks against the threat to France remains high, and Palestinian Abu Nidal Organization Iraqi political targets and institutions, French authorities believe that it is only (ANO) and Lebanese Hizb Allah, in in addition to continuing its campaign a matter of time before their country is addition to “The Jackal,” were aimed at fostering sectarian divisions. targeted successfully, likely by militants the most active. In 1988, the ANO The decision to focus on these types of associated with al-Qa`ida in the Islamic executed four French citizens on a attacks—widely recognized as an AQI Maghreb (AQIM).1 Greek tourist boat, the City of Poros. trademark—could indicate a shift from Hizb Allah conducted a campaign of the “ISI paradigm” of transforming There are a number of reasons why 13 terrorist attacks beginning in 1985 areas under jihadist control into states France has not suffered a terrorist that culminated with an attack against or mini-states administrated according attack in more than a decade. One reason the store “Tati” at Rue de Rennes in to Shari`a.23 By concentrating on high- is due to the successes of the country’s in 1986, killing seven people profile attacks, AQI could be moving experienced and well-established and wounding 66.5 Known for having toward a more traditional terrorism counterterrorism apparatus. France’s planned the attack on the headquarters campaign, aimed at reasserting AQI’s security apparatus was strengthened of the Organization of the Petroleum role in the country and limiting the huge in the last two decades in response to Exporting Countries (OPEC) in Vienna losses experienced by the movement multiple terrorist attacks that struck in 1975, Venezuelan terrorist Carlos since 2006. the country in the 1990s—effectively “The Jackal” first joined the Palestinian foreshadowing today’s threat of cause as a member of the leftist Popular Andrea Plebani is a Ph.D. candidate at Islamist terrorism. It is useful to review Front for the Liberation of Palestine Catholic University of the Sacred Heart of France’s domestic counterterrorism (PFLP) before operating undercover for Milan and Program Manager of the Italian efforts to better understand how other ’s and Romania’s think-tank Landau Network-Centro Volta governments have met this growing .6 In 1982, Carlos was (LNCV). Mr. Plebani would like to thank challenge. This article will provide Professor Riccardo Redaelli and all the background on previous terrorist attacks 2 Frederick Painton, William Dowell and William Iraqi and American friends of the LNCV targeting France, the government’s McWhirter, “Terrorism New Generation of Violence,” Group who contributed to the ideas in overall view toward counterterrorism, Time Magazine, February 11, 1985. this analysis. and finally the tactics it uses to combat 3 Action Directe denied any responsibility. In Domin- the ongoing terrorism threat. ique Lorentz’s and David Carr-Brown’s La République atomique: France-Iran le pacte nucléaire film documentary, the authors suggest that Besse might have been killed by Iranian operatives due to his previous involvement in the nuclear-related disagreements between France and Iran. 1 According to French former counterterrorism judge 4 In this context, terrorist groups also targeted U.S. and Jean-Louis Bruguière, the current threat level is four, Jewish interests. with five the highest. See “L’ancien juge Jean-Louis Bru- 5 There were a number of motives behind Hizb Allah’s 23 This strategy seems to be based on Abu Bakr Naji, guière évalue trente ans de terrorisme,” La Voix du Nord, targeting of French interests. The group demanded the an important jihadist ideologue who wrote Idarat al- November 7, 2009. As for the claim that the greatest ter- release of Lebanese militant Georges Ibrahim Abdal- Tawahhush (Management of Savagery). In his book, Naji rorist threat to France is likely from AQIM militants, see lah, which France refused to do. Moreover, France was indicates a plan to re-establish the caliphate and, accord- personal interview, former DGSE intelligence officer, targeted due to its alleged support for the Christian Ma- ing to his program, under the “management of savagery” Paris, November 6, 2009. AQIM was formerly known ronites. Iran was also not pleased with French support to stage, the mujahidin should transform the areas under as the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (GSPC). ’s Iraq. their control into states or semi-states which they should French sources argue that the GSPC’s connection to al- 6 John Follain, Jackal: The Complete Story of the Legendary administrate according to Shari`a law. Qa`ida is nominal, not operational. Terrorist, Carlos the Jackal (New York: Arcade Publish-

22 january 2010 . Vol 3 . Issue 1 involved in supplying weapons in the during attacks against metro stations in Today, France remains a priority failed rocket attack against the French Paris.12 target for al-Qa`ida and its affiliates.16 nuclear power station Superphénix.7 In In December 2008, for example, the 1983, Carlos’ group killed four people Despite these attacks, French counterterrorist section of the French in a bombing against two TGV high- intelligence moved quickly to disrupt criminal investigation department and speed trains in France.8 Reportedly a the GIA networks, and this caused the the domestic intelligence organization, convert to Islam, Carlos once preceded terrorist group to increasingly move the Central Directorate of Interior Usama bin Ladin as the most dangerous its logistical, funding and propaganda Intelligence (DCRI), detained several global terrorist.9 In 1994, Carlos was activities to other European countries, people for questioning who had apprehended by French authorities, especially to the United Kingdom. Over suspected ties to Afghan networks.17 and is now serving a life sentence in a time, due to tensions between the GIA’s The suspects planned to attack the Paris prison for the 1975 murders of two core members on the extreme use of newly-built headquarters of the DCRI French intelligence agents and one of violence against civilians, Muslims in Levallois-Perret with a .18 their informants. included, and successful French counterterrorist efforts, the GIA’s More recently, in October 2009 Adlene Beginning in the early 1990s, Islamist operations and influence faltered. Hicheur, a 32-year-old French nuclear extremists recruited youth in the physicist of Algerian origin, discussed impoverished French suburbs and The terrorist incidents of the 1990s possible terrorist attacks targeting radicalized several of them to undertake showed France the level of sophistication terrorist operations. The Islamist that terrorist groups could achieve. “Although it was on terrorist threat grew dramatically when The GIA and other networks took the Algerian government annulled the advantage of European laws—such as a smaller scale when victory of the a lack of extradition agreements—to compared to today, France (FIS), the largest Algerian Islamic build extended networks. This had opposition party, in the first round of ramifications throughout North Africa nevertheless saw the ’s legislative elections in 1991. and Western Europe. Although it was on 1990s as a period that The Armed Islamic Group (GIA) opted a smaller scale when compared to today, for violent tactics in 1992 and 1993 France nevertheless saw the 1990s as a foreshadowed the current in response to the annulment, and period that foreshadowed the current fight against al-Qa`ida and it began to target those suspected of fight against al-Qa`ida and related supporting the Algerian government. groups. Today’s Islamist terrorist related groups.” It also designated foreigners in Algeria groups share a similar ideology that is and French people everywhere as hostile to democracy and that rejects priority targets.10 On the pretense social and political progress.13 Moreover, that French authorities opposed the “homegrown” converts to Islam engaged French businesses and military GIA by dismantling its logistical and in jihadist actions as early as 1996 in barracks.19 He allegedly exchanged funding networks in France, the group France, when the “gang de Roubaix”14 e-mails with members of AQIM in North decided to strike France. In addition robbed banks and attempted to blow up Africa. Although he never reached the to assassinating French people in a car with gas cylinders at a G7 meeting operational stage, Hicheur is now being Algeria, the group took an Air France in Lille, France.15 The case demonstrated held under “provisional detention” with flight hostage on December 24, 1994.11 to French intelligence the danger posed no time limit. What raised concern in the In 1995, the GIA killed eight people by a few fanatic individuals and the intelligence community is that he was interaction between violent crime and working on the Large Hadron Collider ing, 1998). terrorism. Indeed, Islamist terrorism (LHC), a unique scientific project led 7 Mycle Schneider, “The Threat of Nuclear Terrorism,” was already international, long before by the Switzerland-based European speech to the French National Assembly, December 10, 9/11. Organization for Nuclear Research 2001. (CERN) and that uses state-of-the-art 8 “Suspected Terrorist ‘Carlos the Jackal’ to Face Trial,” nuclear-related technology. NewsMax, May 4, 2007. 12 “Attentats de 1995: le procès tant attendu,” RFI, Sep- 9 David Yallop, Tracking the Jackal: The Search for Car- tember 30, 2002. In December 2005, Rachid Ramda, los, the World’s Most Wanted Man (New York: Random accused of organizing the 1995 metro bombings, was House, 1993). extradited to France from the United Kingdom. Ramda 10 Gerard Chaliand and Arnaud Blin, Histoire du terror- was convicted in 2007 for involvement in the GIA and isme, De l’Antiquité à Al Qaida (Paris: Bayard, 2006). the metro bombings. He received a life sentence. 11 The hostage-taking on Christmas Day in 1994 of Air 13 Abdelhak Layada, one of the founders of the GIA, was France flight AF8969 and the successful neutralization quoted as saying “political pluralism is equivalent to se- 16 “Al Qaeda Threatens France for Perceived Anti-Burqa of the four Algerian GIA terrorists by the National Gen- dition.” See Jeune Afrique, January 27, 1994. Stance,” CNN, June 30, 2009. darmerie Intervention Group (GIGN) task force made the 14 The Gang de Roubaix was run by two French converts 17 “Comment on traque les terroristes,” Le Point, March French people realize the seriousness of the threat. It also to Islam, Christophe Caze and Lionel Dumont. It counted 12, 2009. gave them confidence in the government’s capacity to up to six members. 18 Ibid. address it. The terrorists’ final objective was to crash the 15 Mary Dejevsky, “Islamic Terror Link to French Siege,” 19 “Suspect Physicist Discussed Attacks on French plane into the Eiffel Tower, a tactic later used on 9/11. Independent, April 2, 1996. Army,” Associated Press, November 17, 2009.

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The French Government’s View on the French.23 Algeria eventually gained minimal and remote, in connection with Counterterrorism independence. a terrorist plot, or “enterprise.”25 This Led by judges from the counterterrorism law can be somewhat compared to the section of the public prosecutor’s office, French Counterterrorism Tactics U.S. Federal Racketeer Influenced and counterterrorism investigations— France pursues a number of Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) that whether domestic or foreign—are strategies to counter terrorist groups. stipulates conducted in the same manner as a France’s intelligence agencies criminal investigation. Terrorists emphasize international cooperation, it shall be unlawful for any person are treated as any other dangerous human sources and the training of employed by or associated with criminal to delegitimize their “cause.” counterterrorist operatives. It addresses any enterprise engaged in, or From the French viewpoint, the special the psychological dimension of the the activities of which affect, jurisdiction for enemy combatants at mission by following a strict three-tier interstate or foreign commerce, to Guantanamo Bay is counterproductive approach that combines compliance, conduct or participate, directly or because it elevates terrorists to a coherence and convergence.24 This indirectly, in the conduct of such higher level of importance, bolstering means that to reach optimal efficiency, enterprise’s affairs through a their narrative. Moreover, the French counterterrorism must be inventive pattern of racketeering activity or government views the threat of terrorism collection of unlawful debt.26 differently from the United States. Although France considers Islamist “In basic terms, French Another tactic used by French law terrorism a major threat, it does not law authorizes the arrest enforcement to prevent terrorist attacks view terrorist actions as an “act of war” is to “incite” one or several suspects against France or against the West as a and prosecution of any to break the law, often through the whole.20 France defines terrorism as the individual who played a use of undercover agents. This is violent expression of extremism, which permissible in the French legal system is sometimes motivated by religion role, however minimal if the objective is to prevent a more and other times motivated by different and remote, in connection dangerous or impending offense. The factors. intelligence services employ the same with a terrorist plot, or tactics to trace a network. Such special This definition was borne out of ‘enterprise.’” clauses only apply to cases related to France’s extensive history of dealing procurement, narcotics and threats to with guerrilla and terrorist tactics. the security of the state, which includes In the Algerian War,21 for example, terrorism. Only a few magistrates France learned that military victory and flexible while remaining within control the legality of these actions, and on the ground did not guarantee an the confines of the law. Renouncing their activities are highly classified. The end to terrorist attacks. Moreover, it democratic principles to further a French penal code that was modified realized that the “hearts and minds” of counterterrorism mission will only help in 2006 allows counterterrorism a population could not be won through terrorists spread their ideology and agents to investigate cases and testify military action alone. Indeed, as it bolster their “martyr” narrative. anonymously by providing the judiciary faced growing resilience from National with their administrative registration Liberation Front (FLN)22 networks, The main tool in the French number.27 An agent’s real identity can the French military increasingly used counterterrorist arsenal is a unique only be unveiled upon the decision of harsher measures to the detriment and far-reaching law that makes “an the attorney general at the Court of of conventional military procedures. intention to commit a crime a crime Appeal in Paris. Consequently, the Although these harsher tactics itself.” By accusing an individual of law authorizes the agents to “enter,” were more successful in gathering “association with wrong-doers involved or infiltrate, networks under their intelligence, it turned a large part of the in a terrorist enterprise,” the French agency’s supervision. These agents are local Arab population in Algeria against judiciary can arrest and detain any compartmentalized from conventional suspect for any crime that could have units of their own service and their ultimately assisted terrorist activity. operations are carried out in complete 20 This is a marked difference to the former U.S. admin- In basic terms, French law authorizes secrecy. France has a long history istration of George W. Bush, which declared a “global the arrest and prosecution of any of infiltrating terrorist and criminal war on terrorism.” individual who played a role, however networks, and its intelligence and 21 The Algerian War began on November 1, 1954 and law enforcement agencies have been ended on March 19, 1962. Although the French led a suc- 23 For details on the war, see: Lt.-Col. James D. Camp- successful at this tactic for decades. cessful counterinsurgency strategy and achieved mili- bell, “French Algeria and British Northern Ireland: Le- tary victory, Algeria gained independence. The memory gitimacy and the Rule of Law in Low-Intensity Conflict,” of this conflict still hampers good relations between the Military Review, March-April 2005; David Galula, Coun- two countries. terinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice (Santa Barba- 25 French Penal Code, Article 421-2-2. 22 The National Liberation Front is a socialist political ra, CA: Praeger, 2006); Alistair Horne, A Savage War of 26 Chapter 96 of Title 18 of the United States Code, 18 party in Algeria. It was established on November 1, 1954 Peace: Algeria 1954-1962 (New York: NYRB, 2006). U.S.C. § 1961-1968, enacted in 1970, Section 1962, para- from a merger of smaller groups, with the objective of ob- 24 Personal interview, André Tarrat, former DST senior graph c. taining Algerian independence from France. intelligence officer, Paris, November 7, 2009. 27 French Code of Criminal Procedure, Article 706-24.

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French authorities have also understanding of the threat. Specific the army controller general from the progressively built a robust surveillance studies programs exist, such as the Ministry of Defense. network that privileges the use of Paris-based Research Department human sources. It identifies people who on Contemporary Criminal Threats Conclusion spend time with individuals known (DRMCC), which develops relevant France has faced terrorist threats for having extremist views. Foreign theories on “early detection”31 and for decades. As a result, it has a intelligence identifies and monitors trains people from various backgrounds well-established counterterrorism specific locations where jihadists pass on the concept.32 apparatus that benefits from a number through (such as in ’s tribal of laws that do not have real parallels areas). Allied intelligence agencies The population is the last line of defense. in the United States, from being able often inform their French counterparts Since the events of the 1990s, the to detain any individual who is even of the presence of people of interest. French people have become accustomed remotely connected to a “wrong- Occasionally such individuals are to living under the terrorism threat, and doer,” to operating in a more secretive recruited for intelligence purposes. there are a number of public vigilance political environment. Moreover, the Moreover, French intelligence services programs. For two decades, the French role of counterterrorism judges greatly have identified and extracted relevant public has been encouraged to report assists the centralization of the French data from the mass of information any suspicious package or activity to security apparatus, as these judges available on the internet. the authorities. are in constant interaction with the judiciary, law enforcement and the Similar to the constantly changing Finally, the French would argue that intelligence agencies. The purpose of tactics of terrorist groups, French counterterrorism and intelligence the counterterrorism judges—such as counterterrorism authorities are agencies in the country benefit the well-known former judge Jean- constantly adapting to recent from a higher level of secrecy and Louis Bruguière—is to “connect the developments. At the end of 2009, for centralization. Contrary to the United dots.” Many of these benefits are unique example, French Interior Minister Brice States, there is no independent authority to France, as the population supports Hortefeux announced that France would in charge of controlling France’s practices that in the United States be grouping its elite police intervention intelligence agencies. Following the would be viewed as a violation of civil units into a single force to better fight reshaping of the counterterrorism law liberties. Nevertheless, it is useful for potential terrorist attacks.28 The move in 2006, however, an eight-member Western governments to study French will combine three existing units— parliamentary delegation in charge of counterterrorism practices due to their comprising a total of 500 people— intelligence affairs was established success in countering multiple terrorist under a single command, known as to monitor the general activities of plots after the violence of the 1990s. the Intervention Force of the National the country’s intelligence services. Police (FIPN).29 Nevertheless, the body has never Charles Rault is an analyst specialized in delivered a report to the public, except non-conventional threats. He is the director On a larger scale, considering that the names of the delegation’s members. of the International Security Research and counterterrorism cannot rely solely Moreover, no public testimony has Intelligence Agency (ISRIA), an information on specialized agents, the search for been given by any high-ranking French analysis and global intelligence company, operational intelligence is one of the intelligence official; in the United and a Senior Adviser with the Athens- primary missions of non-specialized States, on the other hand, this happens based Research Institute for European internal security forces. This results several times a year. Foreign intelligence and American Studies (RIEAS). He has in all agencies’ and units’ contribution conducted by the General Directorate advised various state institutions and large in the detection and upward flow of for External Security (DGSE) is placed companies in the assessment of current and intelligence for use in counterterrorism. under the direct authority of France’s future threats. For a good understanding of what is at president and prime minister. Domestic stake, the government renewed law intelligence conducted by the DCRI enforcement training programs and is monitored by the criminal justice developed continuing education models system, although disagreements are so that all units know about the social and rare. Military intelligence under the religious environment in French society Directorate of Military Intelligence so that they can better recognize and (DRM) and the Security and Protection identify indications of possible terrorist Department (DPSD) is controlled by activity.30 Moreover, information- sharing between government officials 31 “Early detection” consists of making an early diagno- and academics has fostered a better sis of a potential security threat to act precisely and de- cisively. 28 “France to Form Special Force to Fight Terrorists,” 32 Including a master-level degree in the analysis of con- Associated Press, December 1, 2009. temporary criminal threats which the author of this arti- 29 Ibid. cle attended. In French, the theory is named le décèlement 30 La France face au terrorisme, Livre blanc du Gouverne- précoce. For details on the theory, see Xavier Raufer, Les ment sur la sécurité intérieure face au terrorisme (Paris: La Nouveaux Dangers Planétaires - Chaos Mondial, Décèlement documentation Française, 2006). Précoce (Paris: CNRS-Arès, 2009).

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