HiroshimaHiroshimaGeographicalAssociation Geographical Association
THE GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN FOOT-HILLS
AND GLACIAL LANDFORMS OF THE LESSER HIMALAYAS
IN THE PUNJAB HIMALAYAS
Masahisa HAYASHI"
ABSTRACT
The geomorphic history of the Kangra Valley area and the glacial landforms of the Dhauladhar
Range have been studied with special reference to the origin ef the huge beulders found in this area･
Six geomorphic surfaces are distinguishable in this area･ Of these, the three higher surfaces are depos-
itionaL in origin. These deposits, including huge granitoid boulders, are probably caused by mudflows
or earthflows･ A loesstc deposit covers the Palampur Surface. the secend higher surface･ In the area
of the Siwaiik ridges, an uplift of upto 80m has taken place since the Kangra Surface, the third higher surface, was formecl･ ' Two sets ef cirque fermation are recognizable in the higher portions of the Dhau]adhar;the higher
cirque floors stand about 4,200m above sea level and the lower about 3,2oom ln the seuthern face･ INTRODUCTION
Fevv geomorphological studies of the Himaiayas have been carried out due Lo t'he area's unaccessi-
bility and the laek of adequate preliminary data, although a large number of mountain expeditions have
been sent here, However, the Himalayan Range is one of the most interesttng areas for studying both
crustal movernents hnd glacial processes･
The Kangra Valley area was selected with the aim of throwing light upon the origin and the evo-
lution of these geomorphic Silrfaces which are closet}r connected with the growth of the Himalayas, In
this paper, the geomerphic history uf the Kangra Valley area is revealed･ The origin of the exten-
siyely found higher fan-shaped surfaces, eomposed of huge granitoid boulders, and the glacial land-
forms of the higher mountains of the Dhauladhar, one of the Lesser Himalayas, are noted･ The dia-
"toposheets" gTams were based mainly upon the quarter inch to a mile (1:253,440) published by the
Survey of Jndia, and a hand level was usec] for measuring the heights of terrace surfaces･ Preliminary
resu]ts have been discussed in a report already published (Hayashi, 1974)･ PREVIOUS STUDIES ' The first report of the existence of huge granitoid boulders in the Kangra Valley was made by
)"ledlicott (1864)- Later, Theobald (1874), and Coulson (1938) noted the boulders' di$tribution ancl the
fact that they were laid unconformably on the Upper Siwalik Conglomerate･ They, more or less,
postulated glacial origin for these boulder depositions･ Though nu dellnite evidence to show the age uf
cleposition of these boulders has yet been found, Pascoe (1963) included the Kangra boulders in the
Boulder Conglomerate of the Upper SiwaUks, On the other hand, Pilgrim (1944), and Sahni et at･
(1964) divided the Boulder Conglomerate into two beds ; stating the lower bed correlated with the first interglacial period and the upper with the second glacial or interg'tacial period･ Sahni et al･ Q964)
reported the eccurr'ence of the Neogal Conglotnerate in the Palam Valley foi'tned during' the first inter-
glacial period.
Regarding the g'iacial aga, Dainelli (1923) defined the sequence of four glacials and three inter- 'l"erra glacials based on his observations of glacial deposits in the North-Western Himalayas, (1939)
made an investigation of the terrace system in the Kashxnir Himalayas and concluded that there had -25-
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bf:en a four-fold glacial succession, the same as that found in the European Alps･ Recently, Porter
{I1970) criticised Terra's opinion on the basis of his detaiL observation of moraine assembleges in the Swat Kohistan, Pakistan. He insisted on a three-f6Id Pleistocene glaciation fov the North-IVestern ' Hiinalayas･
In the Kangra Valley area, Johsi (1968), judging frem the fact that huge boulders xvere seen on the
river terrace,, proposed the existence of, at least one phase of past giaciation, Mohapatra (1973).
following [[ierra's postulation,' stuclieci the Banganga river and also deduced that there had beeri four
glacial peviods, However, Nakata (1971) found evidence Ec)r three glacial periods svhen he stud[ed
terrace systems along the Beas river an.d recognized the presence of three types of accurnulation terraces･
PHYSICAL SETTINGS ' The Kangra Valley area covers a Iarge portion of the Sub-Himalayas of the Punjab Re-entrant- A
wide spread Tertiary zone extends between the I)unjab Plttins and the Main Boundary Fault. A geolo-
gical setting ef the study area is shown in Fig. 1.
N/ t/r' i1 ,..)i 7/M/t!D 1. -- --- oooo Y ------5/ I/l:1l/ll1!I 11i .1k1]1Ii/ev xr' o ix N x-r- eoo [ K- . eltltkvt C/i/cl x o L ll-[ 1i't,,P o'6 1i11･/// eo /i X:1. 1.iif.> r ･･l/xl Iklhl xL le g,[ --t I 'x t- lK" ' ･･ ]l/:tlill : g o 1r EK:-v･.-3 oo. ･ - -tt-oo -.x lt[j!l x---- . ･1]= o o g o
.. - -- K)l;/2fl..
xT. .,o.>oeeov -.x .. ... ' ･･.v-- ---o e o IY. --- .. o ---t - --- Iilt!ll1oo.Z･-/ ' 11 7C - --o -p; o oX,oe ]S.l']'.. x }Lh-'Sft' . o l txJN XQI . . 1 br/!'r'{ 'q. o'･K ------v-.-. .. "" :11' o Do "x -T x 'r .K--- ... m'i r. .x- ...- xe ,. //j,[ :'):g o.eooo ' g I / "--'' '""")'t""'ft' l l x / zl/i fvg ･1 li.-l,,Z,il/fL'tlt.. lt L' 1 N . . . ･ .
Fig. Geological sketch map of the Kangra Valley Area 1,' (cempiled ･after Gill (1951b), S[-Lhni et al. (1964), I an average sumrnit level of 4,500in above sea level･ This range is c['}Tnposed of granitoicl gneiss (Medricott, 1864). The southern slope of this range descends more abruptty t{) the Kangra Valley than -26- NII-Electronic Library Service HiroshimaHiroshimaGeographicalAssociation Geographical Association the northern face;avertiging 20 degrees to the south and 15 degrees to the north (Kayastha, 1964). Evlclence of previous glaciations is visible in the higher mountains, although small perpetual snow fields handful of mountain To the south. a series of ]nonoclinal ridges, have been 'found on only a peaks･ rarely rising above 1, OOOm in altitude and composed of the Siwalik group, demarcates the Kangra Val}ey area. AII riclges run in same direction as the Dhauladhar. and the arrangements aE river courses and rising yidges are quite clearly determined by the geological structure･ Numerous streams from the Dhau]adhar fiow into the Beas river, being locally called hhads. The Kangra Valley, lying between the Dhauladhar and the Siwalik ridges can be divided into two Valley parts : the Kangra VaLley proper to the west and the Palam Valley to thd east･ The Kangra is drained by the Banganga and the Gaj fehads. A chain of isolated low ridges composed of the Upper Siwaliks occur xvithin this vatiev. In the Palam Valley there are two drainage basins, the. Neogal and the Luni fehads. The Luni khad fiows through a gorge transversing a series of monoclinal.ridges･ Pest-Siwalik deposits usually cover the surface of both valleys. A tectonic depression in the Joginder- N 7beE8oe9oo o100 ooo 50040D clli.E.Vs$- N g-ShL1ik'-..,.s'rk ll oeN["li.o20.Kllls+-[L-iHIU x -gN)g3b L-xL')xw "i'K ft"vv) c= XNJr)e.rx "oo-g Y 6befo}is"si. x OLM Y Ct A L-X" n v t1 gl9S yk-" L tc x f --.ttL b ot1tiC6;Ooo .,eK)- .tZl:il'kua 1L oa IO x k 1 ttt. 'r fcrx 70oo IL",.ilgill 1trhd[}vot N}ii),g'1 (N, glj･- L r- ( rl, tL /" ..-t r'.V{yP ,l}21" o lzirlg" "i."Xi. )eS N iN Y Nx ,t tx-nx l N x '1 t1t. -. x >< 1NNxM IabxiYxx /1l os ctb s x NNLag --s K･Yx l"･,{i' 'f-1' -tt (( x- x A lx' Lp ttt et hxlYl N JNM, h sk tlt. N,tZbs.[}.g･, g'xN 1 s N E"J xL LY". ...x K L-.1 L 1kL) eas xKr i -"Li ]t o 4e 8MLIesI?km K'"'-N bGve L. ?ooo t tt ,2ooe D,DG-Dehrat-Dharmsala K-Kangra I-Indrahar Pass Gopipur M-Mandi T-TalongPass . JMHJawala Mukhi P"PaLampur JN-Jogindernagar . (Figure in feet) Fig･ 2. Summit level map'of the Kangra Valleyarea -27- NII-Electronic Library Service Hiroshima Geographical Association nagar tahsig is callecl the Jogin Valley･ This runs from the north-west to the south-east ancl is demar- cated by the Palampur Thrust to the south and by the Main Boundary Fault to the north･ While the Pr'e-Siwalik Tertiary rocks and Lhe Lower Siwa]iks are exposed under the Post-Siwa]ik deposits, neither Middle nor Upper Siwaliks can be seen･ This valLey is drained by the Rana khad, The correlation of geomorphic surfaces and the geomorphie histery of the Kangra Valle}' area, as seen throughout the above three valleys, has been the eencern et this study. An index rnap of this area is given in Fig, 2, N z ' !Z 'i . ;ZcZx.t.. ! =-- -!-=t-:='=-= ･1.7 ij// .･･Jf zl.1 f /1 zki'k 7c.siE../.,. ,. ･,k･'S 1 Zl.;,-f--i ' . -'.'E" il,ii'I'!'.'-'i-tt= 7.'f''f 'i "/･'.･..,. = =.. ,., .iiiill',ig.x･// ... ;,. :.".)tx'tH.･g'' -'t/1-- E'.Z.. e･ .. .-=-;/...2grv1 .- / !.[-;,t･:.Lti.i.t...i :illi B;.-'-l.-I-ll[L.,. -7 1l･/1.. 'x'Ei.tx'>･. ..1 ÷ti-Eii[ 're'I=--., illi'-.. 1 11'Z･1'1i'. "- --/･-/:-,,, .i'iIJ.'.' Zz x ?.y'. ･.･g･ - .Z . .'=..-.I-i･i--,!-i"ec.. .･, /x..iEi---r.I!l. ''1,.,･X.S･). - i' x' .X x =--' uO.l7f f/･･fc../,'.,t/:.2-rit,t-,ttl.:'il'li'll---:'=,,,,,:K/Ril2.i''"-"' .t '. 't'!- ,l.l.4 L/f･. ' l-z[.=,1, " f ' .d.. ', y '-- f i. .,.ll. :11!'11 ==' ! ".-i-pt=,.',--.'[[.. ･1,. ./t.-t t ' .Zt--.1 /iliEZili.X/Vi!'.iwM . IL- /i ..t- --- Lt , '"f''-'-= ･!IIiii! '=-' =' '7 /'' .ti,E fi ' 'i･,.-･----DD ･ ･..iE･ltll /[liii l.!:\,-.s--...... - i Z.,., - l if ...- ki･,111,･i.iiiY/.t'tt!tllll'il" I GOi /../.1/-L･C'･C -ttl.･1 ,i iiil-t"l･lltz-r.fii. .･ .. ilItil! - t!itt,t ., tt ttt -.ZZI--'Ill li7 tt't '. .'/f.'/f"/' /.. 7Z? l･;tli!--- ･; 'f/ =Z'-. 2-..r-'i.!-tt---'-s.E,;i--ttrfi/T5ag =. -- ,- -- .. ''-･ .>.:r -,, ' - ,.F. /k. i- tt=- Lt--:f l ･･t!-'-.--i.f･..,f}.f'.-g?//-?lll.i.Z?tlillsllZlit .tx/ ･1･7X/ !f /L.fZ.t. f. ' th272･,.-'.･ . // ! l:=-/ ' ･Eiii ./-･ .f lf Mountain fitnganE::g.. en [llllli] Dharmsa[a surface , il f t 'ii 1 iii, Kuthman SurfQce '-- - Kangra Surface Z/ / l'-.- Lewer Kangra Valiey Surtace I 1 ./?i Lewer Kangra Vailey Surfu ce ll 1 /?-Z ew 1 es Lower Kangra VaMey Surface M EI;lll] RiverBed and Fioed piajn O 2 4Mlles O 2 4 6Km D'Dharmsala G-Garoh H-Haripur K-Kangra DD-Dadh GG-Gaggar KU-Kuthman S-Sarno SB-Sidh Bari Y-YoL Fig, 3,Location of the geotnorphic surfaces in the Kangra Valley -28- NII-Electronic LibraryMbrary Service HiroshimaHiroshimaGeographicalAssociation Geographical Association THE GEOMORPHIC SURFACES OF THE KANGRA VALLEY AREA The Kangra Valley The geomorphic surfaces in the Kangra Valley and along the Banganga khad can be divided into the following six types ;the Dharmsala Surface, the Kuthman Surface, the Kangra Surface, and the Low'er Kangra Vallei. Surfaces I, II and IIL respectively, The location of these surfaces is shown in ･ Fig. 3･ The Dharmsala Surface stands about 100m above the present river bed, appearing as a flat-toppecl ridge- It is composed of a formation whicb includes huge granitoid blocks, frequently more than 5m in diameter･ These blocks, cemented in a yellowish clay, are sub-angular ancl sub-vounded and are mixecl with srnaller gravels c)f slate and schist, Neither bedding nor sorting are evident･ This formation - is more than t･]Om in thickness and most of the gravels have been decayed completely. The Kuthman Surface, a flat surface in comparison with the Dharinsala Sur.face, has an average height of 60m above the present river bed･ This surface is composed of a formation .which includes huge boulders generally 1m in diameter and occasionally over ?m in diameter･ These are cemented in a yellowish-red clay in the upper portion and in a sand in the lower portion･ This bed overlies the leose conglomerate of the Upper Siwaliks. A mantle of loessic material rests on this bed, which at Kuthman has a thickness of over 10tn･ The boulder bed, whose face reflects an unsorted facies, reaches 50m in thickness at Garoh･ While, a flat surfage inclining 7 degree$ southward is found at Lower Dharmsala tbwn･ This surface rises 6Sm above the river bed and is eomposed of sub-angular and sub-rouncled fragments of sandstone and schist. The fragments do not exceed 2m in size and bedding features can be obse'rved- Though huge granitoid boulders are rarely exposed, this surface may be identified with the Kuthman Surface because oE the existence of a thicl( mantle of loessie deposit. ' overlying the surface･ The Kangra Surface which comprises vast fan-shaped landforms is the most predominant in the Kangra Valley･ It lies about 30m above the river bed and consists of a bed which includes a lot of huge granitoid boulders together wi'th fragments of smaller granitoid, ¢ hert and schist- The cemented tnaterial is sand, fine to coarse, and lenticular sand beds occur between boulders, which inclicates the effects of fiuvial pr-ocess･ The bed of this surface rest upon the Upper Siwalik CongLemerate･ Distinct boundaries clo not occur between them･ In the central portion of this vailey, the boulder becl rarely exceeds 10m in thickness･ However, neur the outlets of the main streams from the Dhauladhar, it is " a more than 30i}] in thicl the Beas. The I the accumulation ef huge boulders has resultcd in the iormation of a vast fan-shaped surface･ South of Kangva town along the Banganga kkad, this surface continues to fortn a set of well developecl bedrock terraces with an average retative height of 80m･ This indicates that there was an erosional phase when the Siwaliks were dissected to form river terraces･ A clearl]i beddecl veneer of chert, sandstone and surface, Though grenitoid cobbles and pebbles, not moire than 10m in thickness, covers the terrace granitoid boulders are present in places they are rarely more than 1 m in diameter. The Lower Surfaces are scatterecl along the present river courses forming narrow expanses･ Lower SurfaeeI is seen to the east of Kangra town･ It is 10in below the Kangra Suriace and may have been were fermed by erosion when both the bed of the Kangra. Surface and the Upper Siwaliks bgdrock dissected. Lower Surface II is a river terrace rising 2,Om above the present river bed･ It was also caused by erosive action dissecting older formations･ Lower Surface III is the latest geomorphic surface in this valley ancl is between 6 and 15m above the present river bed･ ,This is also an erosional surface･ This surfaceconsists of small and fresh gravels, $iniilar to those found in the present river , -29 -･ NII-Electronic Library Service Hiroshima GeographicalGeographioal AssooiationAssociation ． 〃 髴 K予弥 ・ ・ 鶴 ．． ／ 灸 幺 碓 ， 一． 2 ／． ／ ． 多 園 ． 漁 櫨 ” 凶 納 ‘欝 萎 灘 留 薗 黜 ／． ％ 劉． ／ ％ ／ 謂 躍 ／ …． ． Ri… B ・ d ・ ・ d FI。 。 d・ Pl・in 三 ジ／ 盤 匳 ヨ 劣 ’ 卓牧〆コ蠶 こ ／ ． ／ e ．．／广 ．壅．／ ／ ・ 易鯱ゑ ツ ＋les ・一 一 一 9 〒 ≒≒ ，： KT − KPH 牝 ≡鰭 鍬 臨 糠 器 ．− P Fig，4． Location of the geomorphic surfaces in the Palam VaUey 30 一 NII-ElectronicN 工 工 Eleotronio Library Service HiroshimaHiroshimaGeographicalAssociation Geographical Association bed, as well as some huge beulders, clerived either directly from the upstream area or more likely lrom the beds of the older surtaces･ These three sets of river terraces were apparently built by fluvial ･ processes and suggest that the area has intermittently rised- The Palaia Valley The surfaces in the Palanz VaLley and along the Neogal kltad have been divided as geo]no{phic follows:the Palampur Surface, the Baijnuth Surface ancl the Lower Palam Valley Surfaces I and II- ' The clistribution of these surfaces.ls shown ln Fig･ 4･ The Palampur Surlace is niost. characteristic and extensive of the surfaces in this valley･ It rises 60m nbove the present river bed and appears as a /fan-shaped surface spreading from two apexes, the odtiets of the Neogal and the Awa fehads- The surface is Lindulating ancl dtsFected by numerous stream- lets, occasionarl}, 30 to 40m in thickness- Tt is composed of a deposit containlng huge graniteid "often boulders, beyond 5m in di.ameter･ A thick mantle of loessic silt oveTlies the boulder bed- The thickness of this boulder bed is expected tO exceed 20m･ The Palampur Surface with decreasing thick- ･ ness extends south to Daroh･ The Baijnath Surface also occupies a consiclerable area in t.his valley･ It presents an average height of 40m above the river bed･ The surface appears quite flat and extencls downstreams froni the Neogal ancl the Luni khads･ Deposits in this surface inclucle huge granitoid boulders together with sandstone ancl schist gvavels, cemented in a sand･ It may be depositional in origin,although the thickness of this layer decreases clownstreanis; 90ni in thickness at Kandi Thara, 15m at Menjha, 20m at Thural and 2m at the confluence of the Neogal ancl the Beas- It is obvieus that this Baijnath Surface was ±ormed after the Palanipur Surface underwent strong eresion･ During this erosion peried, streams dissected the Palam- pur Surface and al$o tiie underlying beds ol the older Siwaliks. ' ･ Lewer SurfaceIand II are distigui- ! shable by their relative heights above the river becl; 20m high for the former and 10m for the ]atter･ These surfaces are located ' along the present river courses and are con- sidered to be bedrock river terraces･ They consist of beds containing welJ-bedded cob- bles oi fluvial origin. They may have emerged as a result of the uplifting of the area･ The jogin Valley . Tl]e Jogin Valley is rather small in area in comparison with the above mentioned two valleys･ The geonioyphic surfaces in this valley can be divided into five types;the Jogin Val]ey Surfaces I, IL IIL IV and V, respectivety･ Fig- 5 shows their location･ The Jogin Valley Surface I stands 60m above the river bed and is composed of an O 1 2Miles "rt Bed and Fioed P)ain uhsorted boulder bed consisting of huge gran- NRiver oi d kin CH-Chauntra itoid and schist boulders 2m in size, JN-Jogindernagar , cemented in a silt･ ' loessic deposit is not clear- F;g･ 5. Location of the geomorphiE suvfaces in The mantle of the cemented material the Jegin Valley ly recognized, while ---- 31 NII-Electronic Library Service HiroshimaHiroshimaGeographicalAssociation Geographical Association ai)pears reddish in color･ This surface is undulating less extensively than the other surfaces and is over 10m in thickness near Jogindernagar tewn･ A veneer of this boulder bed is seen near Chauntra on some isolated hillocks composed of Pre-Siwalik Teltiary rocks･ This itnpries that Surface I had once covered this valley more extensively, before the per'iod of intensive clissection･ This surface tnay be an accumu- lation terrace. The largest boulder measures 7m in dianieter･ The Jogin Valley Surface II forms an extensive fan-shaped surface and rises about 50tn above the river becl･ It is cemposed of deposits ineluding huge granitoid boulders, 6m in tnaxiTnum diameter, interspersed with small quantity of slate ancl sandstone boulders, These boulders are sub･roundecl and rounded, and are cemented in a coarse sand･ The existence of a series of lenticutar sand beds and a sorted aspect show the effects of fiuvial prucesses･ As this bed is niore than 60in in thickness, it may be of depositional origin･ Surface III is 35m above the viver bed and consists of a huge-boutder bed simiLar to that of Surface II･ It was probably forined by dissection cutting through the older surfaces･ The face of this surface appears as a cut-in-fiII river terrace･ Both Surfaces IV and V are neither extenstve nor remark- able in this valley･ They are found 2sm and 15m above the river bed, respectlvely. They are con- siderecl to erosion river terraces caused by uplifting of the aven. .be . TABLE 1. CORRELATION OF THE GEOMORPHIC SURFACES IN THE KA'NGRA VALLEY AREA ..-7.t.L ..t...t.ttttt.ttt-..-t.. ''''"J.o..gli!]ti.-ti.e}i' j I..Kangl'.a-valJ.fi.I-- .pal?nl't[aiiexl"' .i"1I IR.eprele.f.-,-tatir.g. ' I FIood i Flood Flood lL-l1 plain I plain piain Flood plain i and river bed and river and river bed i bed i and river bed 1 1 .1'li1 Lo"I'IL-KaA'g}-a""'! Lower Palam Jogin Valley Irower Terrace i/ Valle},Syrface Valley Surface Surface V i III1ILT III I II i.-1 l/ 'i i!i Lower Palam .login Valle]r LQwer t:},i:,rl::,",g.iLa. Vallev Surface Surface IV II lIil/ 1l-- / .Terrace II 1' , t..-. i'i' i'I.. Lower Kangra i jogin Valley Lower Terrace' ' i ]!i-'-Valley Surface 1ii--lIiiSurface III I i i -.･- - -･--･/ 1 ;: Kangra Surface Jogin Valley Kangra Surface /,Baijnath l/j 1 Surface II ili1l / Surface '/ t...t. ... Erosion ErosionReddish EroSion :-i :i' ij Reddish soil Reddish soii soili' Reddish M''1' "'-l/"Loessic i-- F.91,ii- ! i Loesgic silt Loessic silt Loess{c ?･ kirt /l i I. ' ! Kuth]nan Palampur Jogin Valiey / Palami]ur i/ l･ 1･--l/ Surface Surface Surface l tt tt i Surface `? "-'"' i ?' i"' Dharmsala i - Dharinsala l 1 Surface ii!] ! Surface 1 ! .... t.--.--.-/t.-t-- L.t- Uncemformitv ' ?-l../Uncomformity uncomformitv - ' -:-- ---1･ Upper SiT:-Taliksl Uppev Siwaliksl1..-U-nE912,if-OrlliitYl Siwaliks i1 !Nahans i -32- NII-Electronic Library Service HiroshimaHiroshimaGeographical Geographical Association CORRELATION OF THE GEOMORPHIC SURFACES AND A GEOMORPHIC HISTORY OF THE KAN. ･ GRA VALLEY AREA ' . A correlation chart of the geomorphic･surfaces in three valle),s is summarized in Table 1. The exi$tence of a mantle of roessic deposit ancl reddish soil, the relative height, the continuity and general aspect of the surface, and the eharacteristic of the bed are among the criteria for the correlation- The Dharmsa]a, the Pala]npur, the Kangra Surfaces, and the Lower Terraees I, II and III have been adop.ted to show the geotnorphic history of the three valleys of the Kangra Valley ureu･ It is suggested that the outlines of these vallevs ar'e closely related te crustal movements･ At least three periods of beulder accuniulation took plftce after the Upper Siwaliks were forined･ It is eviclent that' a perLed of erosion occurred ELfter the PuLampur Surface was covered by a loessic deposit･ The formation of recldish soil can be correlated with this eresive periocl･ Regarding the age of formation of these geoniorphic surfaces, Nakata (l972) correlated his Ml Terrace (probably equivalent to the present Kangra Surface) with the last glacial period, atid his H3 Terrace (equivalent to the Palampur Surface) with the prececlLng glacial period, while Mohapatra (1973) identifled his TI Terrace (equivalent to the Kangra Surface) with the second interglacial period･ RECENT CRUSTAL MOVEMENT JUDGING FROM THE DISI)LACEMENT OF THE GEOMORPHIC SURFACES . The height of the Kangra Surface above the present river level abruptE)' lncreases south of Kangra town along the Banganga･ This implies that the Siwalik monocl[nal area has undergone un uplift since the formation of the Kangra Surface･ A sudden reduction near Haripur, where the Kangra Surface lies 80m in the monoclinal areq to 50m considered as a displacetnent caused by the Bar'sa Fault CGill, 19slb)･ Since the Kangra Surface was formecl, the tetaL amount of uplift has been SOm. The steepl>r inclining Kangra Surface, at the outlets of tihe Gaj and the Buper khads, indicates that uplift of the northern parts ef the valley has occurred in accordance with the growth of the Dhauladhar Range. A ridge of the Kuthman Surface near Garoh, decreases southward in its relatixJe height above the Kangra Surface until it meets with the Kangra Surface･ Thus, the Kuthman Surface is more steeply inclined than the Kangra Surface･ Thts also indicates an uplift of the northern parts･ On the ether hand, no definite lateral displacernents of the geomorphic surfaces have been founcE in this area, The characteristics of the recent crustal movements in this ar'eu, as r'evealecl above. show that an 'the 'Eormation upheaval has occurred in the Dhauladhar as well as ip Siwalik hills since the of the Ku- thman Surface･ A sketch projecting the general trend of the crustal niovements is illustrated in Fig. 6, As this area is subject tu eurthquakes such 4 as Kangru Earthquake of 1905 (]VIiddlemissJ 1910), it may be censidered that this upllft- 5ftI ing trend continues to the present time･ LANDFORMS OF THE HIGHER I)ORTIONS ' OF THE DHAULADHAR RANGE Traverse investigations between Dhartn- sula and the Indrahar l'ass, il,608ni (15, 124 ft,) in altitude, and between Dadh and D -Dauladhur Gr u'Granitoidrocks the Talong Pass, 4,667m (15, 312 ft.), were DS -Dharmsala MBF-Main Boundarv Fault -Kangra -Sandstone K SS carried out tu exaniine the glacial and Deri- --Upper MG-Mcleodgangi US Siwalilts glaeial !andforms evident in this range･ Fig･ S, A schematic proflle of the Kangra Valley bet- A large number of huge granitoid boul- ween Kangra and the Dhauladhar･ clers are seen in a vatley te the porth of EL sancl. They Dharmsala where rather rounded boulders, larger than ]n in dlameter, ave cemented in -33-1 NII-Electronic Library Service HiroshimaHiroshimaGeographicalAssociation Geographical Association tnay haVe been derivecl directly from the hind mountain slope･ Similar deposits are located in the moun- tain sloDes to the north of Dadh and to the north of Gureh. The.qe boulders have been considered to be evidence of past mudfiows, and their ]ocation is clo.qe to the Main Boundary Fault. Above 2,400m･ in altitucle, only granitoid bedrocks were observed. A nuniber of bleckstreams occur being composed of ' sub-angular gvanitoid blocks, undoubtfully derived from the hind slo[jes･ ' At apDroximately 3,OOOm in altitude, a ]noramal deposit is found at the headwaters oi the Gaj lehad･ Because snow-fields in this area ave seasonal, this may be a result of a previotts glaciation or '['he 'tabove nivati{)n- surface {}f this nioraine stands aboui/ 20n? t,he present valley [>ed unfl )'nciines S '.t'hi.e t/legree$ downstreain･ cleposi[/ consis[s of huge granitoid blocks with smal[ fragnients ceineiited in a fine muteriat･ As tlie base rock was not evident in this bed nor in the bottom of the valley, the full ' thickness is pvobably more than 20m- A sniall forest of broad-leaved trees is locatecl on the slope of un altitude of 3,200m･ Beyond th]s, slopes of naked rocks continue to the lofty peaks with high angle･ A series ef dry waterfalls appearing on the steep slopes, interrupt the tra}r-shaped valleys･ Though the geological structure, that is the joint system of granitoid rocks, controls the arrangement of these falls, the hivation process may have been itnportant in the for"mation of the above sinall valleys･ These va]leys were probably either caused by or succeeded by the nivation process, such as avalanche,that Dolished and moclifiecl the steep walls. Even during the writer's investigation, a huge avalanche occurred and carried a Iarge quantity of snow together with huge bloclcs･ The occurrence of abundant rock-wastes and the steepness of the rock-walis are among the mo.st surprising ohenotnena seeii in the higher parts of the Dhauladhar･ The large ctuantities ef rock-wastes are considered to have beeii produced b.y- a neriglacial sar)ping (freeze-thaw process)･ Although this process may be active at the present tiine'(Bose, 1961), n]ost of the rock-wastes was probably formed during a previous period, judging frotn the fact that lichens cover the surfaces of those blocks･ It is prot)osed that t.he freeze-thaw process was more effective during the previous glacial period than during the present･ Around the Indrahar Pa$s･ glacial cirqves oi) the southern face of the Dhaulacihar are not a-peared. This the range niay have bee!} toc T)art ,of steeD to bear extensive gtaciers such as were have been pro[tuced b}r periglacial sapping falL avalanche or niudfiow･ Probably, the action of me]t-water as mentioned bs' Davies C1970), has helpecl these pvocesses･ Fig･ 7. Schematic t)rofiles projecting the laudforms A similar survey was carried eut around in the higher portions of the Dhaulaclhat' the headwaters of the Buner khad･ Below a) between Dadh and the Talong Pass the Talong Pass, two different tyDes of gla- b) between Dharmsala and the Indrahar Pass ' cial cirques are seen･ The higher cirque floor, 4,200m above sea leveL is characterized b}r a glacial tarn and a teyn'LinaL Lnoraine, whi]e the lewev margin of the lower cirque at an altitude of 3,200m has no notable terininal moraine･ On the other hand, seyeral glacial valleys terminate at about 3,800m above sea ]evel. and unother moraine deT]osit ' -34- NII-Electronic Library Service HiroshimaHiroshimaGeographicalAssociation Geographical Association ' was found on the steep slope 2,800tn above sea level･ This latter dieoosit is also a remnant of a pre. vious valley glacier in spite of the fact that there is no morainic topography･ The landforms'of the abo,ve two areas aye deptcted ln Fig･ 7. However, definite relationshiD be- tween these landfornis and the g'eomorphic surfaces of the Kangra Valley has been observed. The present perennial snow-fields in this area of the Dhauladhar were located only on the northern slopes higher than rl,300tn in altitude, and it is said that the present snow-line on the southern slopes ot the Himalayas vEuies from 4,3oom in the eastern Himalayas to 5,800m in the western (Wadia, 1968). r)ISCIJSSION Location of the Huge Boulders The origins of the huge boulders, the so-called erratics of North-Western India, are among the Jnost unresolvec[ probtems oE the Himalayan foot-hiils. Huge boulders ure located extenslvely througheut the Kangru Valley areu; from the piedniont of the'Dhauladhar to the canfluences of the Beas river･ An occurrence of these huge granttoicl boulders was also reported near Dalhousie, 60km north-wesL' of Kangra town (McMahon, 1882)･ It can be said that these huge boulders are a common feature of the t)iedmont areas of the Dhau]adhar･ Graniteid rocks are mest Drevailed oi the'huge boulders in the study area. Judging from geolog{cat ubservations,granitoid base rocks are exposecl only on the higher i]arts of the Dhauladhar･ Accordingly, it is considered that these granitoid boulders were derived ft'om the higher portions of the streum courses whose headwaters reach the higher tuountain areas, rising be},oncl the ridges comt)o$ed of PreSiwalik Sandstones･ The largest boulder that the writer found has a size of 11x 7 x 6in. I/Iowever, in some localities these granitoid boulders are comDletely absent from the deposits of Dharmsala and the geomerphic surfaces and the I?resent river bed･ Along a streaLnlet fiowing between Garoh, huge sandstone boulders are found on the Kangra Surface as well as on the present river bed without. any granitoid boulders being present･ Sandstone bouLders inust have been clerived from the hind ridges which do not exceecl 1,800m above sea level and are comDosed of Dharmsala Sandstones CPre- Siwalik Tertiary)･ This implies that the huge boulders have been formed not only on the higher parts of the Dhauladhar, but alse on the Iower parts. The Characteristics of the Beds of Three Higher Surfaces. The Dharmsala Surface is composed of sub-anguTar and sub-rounded blocks cemented in a fine vellbwish material. Neither sorting nor bedding are evident･ It is rather diMcult to explain the locatien from the viewpoint of the present clrainage system･ The effect of the ordinary fluvial lprocesses ha$ net been recognized. The Palatnpur Surface consists ef an unsorted bed which inctudes rounded boulders. Close to the surface, the inatrix is replaeed by a fine material, so that it is hard to distinguish it frotn that of the loessic mantle･ On the other hand, the bo'ulder bed of the Kangra Surface is quite different from the above two. The boulders of this bed are a little smaller anci fresher than the above･ The origin of attributable to fluvial It ma}. be Ienticular sand beds, and the sorting 'of the deposit ma}, be process. proposed that the Kangra Surface is an accumulation terrace fortnecl by aggraclation causecl by the change of regirnen of rivers during the glacial period･ Fig. 8 shows columnar sections of boulder beds, in the Dhauladhar Range, fi11ed Some authors have believed that the greatgr glaciers which ocurred a fluvio-glacial origin for the tl}e Kangra Valley area with huge boulders･ Mehdiratta (1967) supposed boulders･ However, the boulder beds can be classified into three, as mentionecl previously and it is clifucult to agree with their opinions that glaciers reached the foot-hills oi the Dhauladhar, as glacia! landforms do not occur in the pieclrnont area･ Nes'ertheless, it is an undeniable faet that the higher the The part.s of the Dhauladhar underwent at Ieast two different glaciations during glacial 1]er,iods･ present writer proposes that huge quantities oi boulders have been producecl b}' periglacial and glacial ' -35- NII-Electronic Library Service HiroshimaHiroshimaGeographicalAssociation Geographical Association processes during glacial periocls and that boulders glacial period･ have been carried down by other I)rocesses sueh as Loc.I Loc.2 ･. LOc.3 avalanche, ]andslip and mudfiow. Kalvoda (1972) o ot234 o found that landslides and alliecl phenoniena wet'e D L L J ctuite usual in the Himalayas, occurring eften during Ilnrrv the rainy season and during the ablation of snow, o'fi.'Os50X` -LAxsu He concluded that these phenomena were closely re- 30 BS 3 BP fiected in the $teep slopes of the mountain area- The BKu m uges of formation of the three accumulation sur[aces ggo'oE･O'' 40m ,o 5m Loc.6 uf the Kangra Valley area ma}, be identified with S4intisi;. .l.T.x,ee.gytt,//･us three different glacial periods･ Loc,5 Analysis of the Loessic Deposit BB o ig' T.he mantle of loesFic material is exposed rnost Loc.4 s //ee o peculiarly in the Palampur Surface- In general, it is )2 BK ee.':･..i.,'･,'IMs 2ni thick, but 10m in places･ The face ol this BP 5 Iayer appears qutte hon]ogenious, very porous and 5m g#･trao Loc.8 e voee without any stratification･ A reddish soil develops in MS ea Oeeas lo o the upper portion of this loessic deposit･ Theobalcl s 9t\L'.' (1874) suggestec] that a post-glacial Ial(e forination had contributed to the depesition of this red clay. Loc,7 o1 i5m BK ge･Oea BK no evidence of However, lacustrinedeposits has been Zo･ s a' recognized. 4 ･ The writer an analysis of Sll pursued the ioessic 23 s pt･, .,e. deposit sanipled in various places of the Pa]ampur BK m 'and Surface, An anal},sis tab]e is shown in Table 2 mLTLoessic accumulation cllrves of the distribution are particie deposit S-Silt to sand drawn in Fig, The fraction 9, O.05-O,Olmm con- D-Debri T-Terrace cobble stitutes about 50% or more af the entire materlals･ US-Upper Siwaliks MS･-Mlddle Siwaliks Theugh the of loess has not been well- presence BB-Boutciers of tlze Baijnath Surface known in the Indo-Ganga Plain (Berg, 1964), locally BK-Boulders of the Kangra Surface developecl leessic materials were reperted by some BKu-Beulders of the Kuthman Suvace scholars; loess in Kashmir tnentioned Terra(1939), by BP--Boulders of the Palatnpur Surface loessic silt in the Potwar Basin by Gill (1951a)and BS-Boulders of sandstone loess in Swat Kohistan by I'orter (1970). As the leessic deposit$ occupy seme restricted areas of the Fig'. 8 Colutnnar sections of the boulder North-IVestern }Iimalayas, it is concluded that the formations loess deposit was transported fvotn nearby source re- -near gions in a dry climate of the past. Probabl),,, the Loc･Loc.Loc･Loc･Loc･Loc･Loc.Loc･1 Kuthman Loc･ loessic cleposit of the present arda was clerived from 2"pear Dharmsala the bed of boulders･ The existence of loess indicates 3-at Palampur -near that a dry climate was predominant after the fer- tt･ Menjha mation o ± the Palampur Surface- Then, the climate 5-at Yol was characterized b}, wet and warm conditions ef- 6-near Menjha fectivel}, developing the formation of the reddish soil, 7-at Sarno - The formation of loes,s may be cc}rrelated with the 8-Lower Surface III, at Garoh - 36 NII-Electronic Library Service HiroshimaHiroshimaGeographicalAssociation Geographical Association ' AREA TABLE 2, AN ANALYSIS TABLE OF THE LOESSIC DEPOSIT OFTHE KANGRA VALLEY I[1,1t! / 1 t/'':/t/ /I/stl.//f/ i 1l1ii1,i 1 / "s,ss.o･ 1 Locality surface Ds.pty o･ obgg6-,o･oLo.slMzfa)'1sRr.iing"'1 Ca2' PHI Color l 1/ t-t; 1 gp6r,g?61, 'll1LlF i i l 1 1･ GarohKuthman O.4i 5.4 6.5 55,2 68.1 20,O15.8981 1.434 R. /Kuthman is.o17.syRs/6I 13.8 S4,8 66.2 17.215.823I 1.30S R, [4.751 5YR516, 2. "Recorcling Sedimetey RS-50, Shimadzu" was used for 1]article analysis･ 'L' after McCoTnmop (1962) ･･･Mz( ip )=(g55+ di 15+ c6 25+-･････+ ip 75+ di 85+ e95)/10 '"''L' aEter FQIk and Ward (1957) ･--(diStE- di 16)!4+(e95- di5)/16.6 ""'" --Rich(O.15% -Ordinary R, ± )O. (O.10%± ) *""-'aiter Standard Soil Color Charts -- "1/ 1' - ,･! -i'-1'' 1--[1 .t, 1 . tt ttt /.-1... 1 ..;...Lt t, 'l f･' l -.--ttt.t!1.,･v/.11i. ' +...... 1,I,dlii,, ･･1/'1i'll t i,l,l-4･itZiiYiu 6789 IO -- T Mrr ' i eo '" i i - - 6 v' - - ' I i a -I i , ,F ili-TIe ,,el E i,.ilX - Eli- Grain size distributions oi the loessic deposit Fig･ 9 (Sample nLunbers are same in Table2) SUMMARY with special lnterestin the Drigin The writer studied the geoniDrphology of the Kangra Valley area were into The three higher surfaces of the huge boulders･ The gebtnorphic surfaces ciassified six･ and are re]evant the study of which were each built in a different age, are accumulation surfaces to observed, only within the the beds of huge boulclers. The highest Dharmsala Surface has been but these two Kangra Valle}': The Palainpur Surface is locatecl usually in three valleys. The iormation oi have mfiuencecl mudflows and landslips. surfaces is neither glacial nor fluvial in origln, but may been uilder rather dry The loessic deposit covering the Palampur Surface implies that its formation occurred area ancl may be conditions in the glacial period, The Kangra Surfaee is extensivel)' prevalent in this -37- NII-Electronic LibraryMbrary Service HiroshimaHiroshimaGeographicalAssociation Geographical Association an accumulation fan formed by aggradation process in the glaclal period. The con'elation of the geomor- phic history of the Kangra Valley area with those of the other areas in the North-IVestern Himalayasc is given in Table 3. TABLE 3. CORRELATION OF THE GEOMORPHIC HISTORY OF' THE KANGRA VALLEY AREA WITB THOSE IN THE NORTH-WESTERN HIMALAYAS - .!..ttL. -..--..--. -...... -.....t -'-"'"'Kangra ･swat Kohistan Bangang5--' Beas i IKashmir IKashmir //･ ', PhaSe Terra)i (Wadia) . (Porter) (Mohapatra)l (Nakata)/ (auther) lM' l(De '-ReceA'1""'"'- -' ''ii- -' -"'"'-' M'-'ii J'J 'r7"' Ts I/ , i i / i i1 J l/ llLl 1 1 lo'am I' l i'/ Tv{2 i i 1 t 'ciL i' :･{ fiJ ,rvLJI gili T6 Mi' Giaciai l i i itiaal:ll,ii ' i 'ISurfacejKangra ' / Ka]am GL 1 i , 'IE･ ! !10eSS XXXXXXXiXXXXXXXX i i l i IInter. / 'i C lrll: ' e !ZIi H3 imGi･ :kiga,B;g"tG.:l :;:i.,:t,.,l:ll,11li I ixxxxxx! IT3 jl/Inter- i ' i ' ]jGi' ' i 2 C i /LaikotGi･ glrkvea?ia･,3 / ... ,/11/ ig,, x. liil,//l:llll lg,,x lil ,,l g,.," l,linerate ,i l g/ l' / 11 1 K 1 I GL !Pinjor Hl iGlacial iI'injor 7I l ' ' : t' ' i . ,l i'ratrot 1･(iTGait'rot)ii'i'egiaciai/ , i- ../. .. . i. .""-." ,--. .-.".....-. ...-"..-"----.""...... - J Crustal movement still occurrs since this area stands in an unstable zone of the Htmalayan orogen- 'is esis･ Evidence of uplifting recognizable in the Dhauladhar Range as well as in the Siwalik Hills. In the area.ef the Siwalik monocfinal ridges, an uplift o'E up to 80m has taken place since the Kangra Surface was formed･ Seme glacial landforms were observed in the Dhauladhar, despite the fact that glaciers have nevet' adsraneecl te the piedmont area･ Two sets of glacial cirques are seen .in the southern face of the DhaLt- ladhar;the Iower cirque fioors stancls about 3,200m in altitude and the higher one about 4,200m- These were formed in two different glacial periods, Production ol the huge boulders are mainly cencerned with periglaeial processes which were more active during glac{al periods- . ACKNOWI.EDGEMENTS 'Ilthe writer feels honoured to be able to contribute this paper to the conimemorative volume iii honour of Pvof. J･ Yonekura, who has been concerned with the geegraphy of India since 1960. He is deeply g'rEtteful to Professors R, L･ Singh an'd S･ L Kayastha, Banaras Hindu University, and Drs, A. B. MukerjL G. Krishan and G･ C, Mohapatra, Panjab Universtty, under whose generous assistarice and encouragement this werk was cartied out･ Thanks are also due to Professet's H. Ishida. K, Fujiwara -38- NII-Electronic LibraryMbrary Service HiroshimaHiroshimaGeographicalAssociation Geographical Association ancl Y. Yoshida a'nd to Mr. T. Naruse of the Universlty of Hivoshima, whe gave the writer invaluable advlces and many suggestions･ Group of the UnL- IE'he writer takes this opportunity to thank [['he Overseas Geographieal Research of Education, versity of Hiroshima, lead by Prof. H, Ishida, which was financed by the Ministry Japan. The zssistance of Mr. K･ Tilly for checking the Eng]ish is deeply appreciated. REFERENCES BergL L. S.,1964, Loess as a Product Of tveatltering a"d soil ferination, Israe! Prog]'am,'for Scienti-fic ']]ranstations, Jerusalem, 207pp･. Bose, S･ C.,1961, "Ecesis to landforms ln the upper Beas Valley", Geogr. Rev. fndia, VoL XXIII, No, 2, pp･ 22la29･ . ' Cou]son, AL L., 1938, "Pleistocene glaciation in North Western India, with special refeuence to the erratics of the Punjab",Rec. Geol. Sptrv･ 1'ndia, Vol･ 72, I'art 4. pp. 422e439･ Davies, J. L.,1970, Landforms of cold climate, The MIT Press, 200pp. Dainelli, G.,1923, SPedizione ftaliana De FiliPPi nell' Hi}nalaia, Caracorame Tt{rchestan Cinese (1919 '--14), Bologna, S51 pp, Reviewed by Gar-roocL E, J,, 192tl, Geogr. fov･rn.,Vol. 63, pp- 243- 246. "The Pakistan", Gill, W･ D,,1951a, stratigraphy of the Siwalik Series of the Northern Potwar, Punjab, Ouart. Journ. Geol, Soc.,l'Lendon, Vol･ 107, pp･ 373-394･ Idem, 1951b, `[The tectonic of the Sub-Hima]ayan Fault Zone in the Northern Pot.war Region and in t}]e Kangra District ,of punjab,"ibid. pp- 395-421･ HayashL M,, 1974, "A geoinorpholog'y of the Himalayan Piechnont", GeograPhical Field Research in iVorthtvestern India, Special Publication No,5, Deptt. Geogr,, University of Hireshima. pp･ 116-- 121, "Nature Imanishi, IC.; 1953, of the Nepal.Hima]aya, Continued." Kagaku, VoL 23, pp. 464L-468. "Siwa!ik TAe Johnson, G･ D･ & Vondra, C. F., 1972, sediments in a portion of the I'unjab Re-eptrant: sequence at Haritalyangar, Dist. Bilaspur, H.･ l)"., Hiniagayan Geology, voL 2, pp･ 118-144. R･ V., 1967, "Early stone age dis'ceveries in the Bang,anga-Beas Region", Cuttural For-uon. Vo[, Jeshi, ' IX, pp. 96-99- "Geomorpholegical Himalaya, with special reference to the ]anclstides Kalvoda, J,,. 1972, studies in the qnd aUied phenomena", Hifnalayan GeoJogy, Vol. 2, pp･ 301"316･ . Kayastha, S･ L., 1964. The Uintalayan Beas Basin-A study in habitat, econom)i and society, B. H. U. Press, Varanasi, 346pp･ "Oil " "'lathur, L･ P. & Evans, I'.,1964, in IndLa lnternational Geoto.aical Congress･ 22ncl Session, India, ･ pp･ 1-84･ 'g'eology McMahon, C･ A., IS8Z "The of Dalhousie, North-West Himala)ra,"Rec･ Geot. Surv･ Jndia. Vol･ 15, pp- 34-51･ . Medlicott, H･ B., 1864, "On the geologieal structure ancl relations of the southern porti(]n of tlte Hima- Ganges and Ravee". Mem Geot･ Sterv- India. Vol. 3. i)art IV, layan Ranges between the rivers ' 1]p･ 1-.212. Mehcliratta, R, C,, 196Z Geelogy of fndia, Pakfstan and Bptrnta. Attna Ratn & Sops, Delhi･ "The Geol･ Surv. Jndia, Vel. rVIiddlemiss, C, S,, 1910, Kapgra earthquake Df 4th ADril l905", Mem. - 38, ' pp. 1-409. Mohapatra, G･ C.,1973, "Quaternary sedimentary cycle and lithic' industries in North-western lnclia"1 (unpublished.) -39- NII-Electronic Library Service HiroshimaHiroshimaGeographicalAssociation Geographical Association "Geotnorphic Nakata, T., 1972, history ancl crustat ]no,venients of the foot-hills of the Hi]nalayas". Sci. ReP, Tohoku Univ. (GeograPhy), Vol･-22, No･ 1, pp･ 39-177 Pascoe, E･ H., 1963, A mannuat of geelog", of lndia and Burma, Govt. India Press, Calcutta, 3rd Edit "The PiLgrim, G. E., 1944, lower 1[niit of the 1'leistocene in Europe and Asla". Geol. Mag., Vol･ 81, Dp･ 28-38- Porter, S. C.,1970,"Quaternary glacial record in Swat Kohistan', West Pakistan", Geql. Soc. Atnerica, BuU., Vo]. 81, pp･ 1421"1446 "Clay Raiverman, V., 1964, sedimentation in Subathu Dharpisala Group of rocks in the foot-hills of north-western Himalayas", Bull. Oil & IVat･ Gas Commission, l, pp, 29-35, '`On Raiverman. V., & Seshavataram, B. T. V., 1965, mode o[ deoesition of Subathu Dharmsala sedi- ments in the Himalayan foot-hills in Punjab and Himachal PraOesh,'' D, IV. Wadia Commemo- ration Volttfne, pp. 456-471･ "Time Raiverman, V,, 1972, series and stratigraDhic correlat'ion of Ceiiozoic sediments in foot-hillB of Himacbal Pradesh'1 Himagayan Geology, Vol･ 2, pp. S2-101, "Upner Raju, A･ T･ R., & Dehaclrai, P, V., 1962. Siwaiik sedLmentatation in I)arts o[ i'unjab",Quart. fourn. Geot. Min.. & MetaXl. Soc. Jndia, Vol. XXXIV, No. [, pp. 1-8. i`Stratigraphy SahnL M. R, & Mathur, L. P., 1964, or the Siwalik Group". tnternationat Geotogical Con.ffress 2L)nd Session, Jndia, pp. 1-24. Srikantia,S. V. P., "The PrecambrifLn & Sharma, R. 1972, salt deposits of the Himachal .Pradesh Hlmalaya-its occurrence, tectonics and correLatien", Himalayan Geoto.oy, Vol･ 2, i)p･ 222-238. 'lrerra, "The H･ de, 1939, Quaternar.v terraee system of souLhern Asia and the age of man", Geogr, Rev,, Vol. 29, pp･ 101-11S･ "On Theobald, W,, 1874, the former extension o[ gtaciers within the Kangva dis'trict", Rec, Geel, Sttrv. Jndia, Vol. 7, 1]p･ 81N89･ "The Wadia, D- N., 1968, Himalayan mountains: its origin and geographlca[ relatlons", Mountaing and rivers of India, National Comtnittee for Geography, Calcutta, pp･ 35-40･ i -40- NII-Electronic Library Service HiroshimaHiroshimaGeographical Geographical Association t.t .tt tt ttttt).t t .t - .t.ttttp.t ..tt ltt .. tt ,nv tg"t ee $i\l "v di!l i.as , t. tt/ .vtt/t, ttt t;.tt ,-z..LJ. .t tt t , t. . t t. ts . '-'/'"' tt.tt tt. 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Glacial circtue below the Talong I'ass 6 Morainae deposits beiow the Indrahar Pass -41- NII-Electronic Library Service Hiroshima GeographicalGeographioal AssooiationAssociation ヒ ラ ヤ マ 山麓の 地 形 と 中 ヒ マ ラ ヤ の 氷河 地 形 林 正 久 ・ ： マ ン つ の と え 摘要 筆者 は 北 西 ヒ ラ ヤ の カ グ ラ 盆 地 の 地 形 発 達 っ た が ，見 の 巨蝶層 は ．そ れ ぞ れ 氷期 堆積 面 考 一一 ヒ マ ヤ つ ウ れ る 」 ン ラ こ れ の 地 形 は 基 面 史 ，お よ び 盆 地 北 部 に 位 置 す る 中 ラ の ，ダ ら 。？ グ 面形成以来 1 ら 面 準 ー ． ラ ダ ル 山脈 の 氷河地形 に つ い て 調 査 し ，特 に 山麓 に 広 の 変 化 に よ って 開 訴 を う け ，さ ら に 低 位段 丘 1 、II， τll く分布す る 巨礫層 の 成 閃 に つ い て 考察 を 加 え た tt が 形 成 さ れ た 。カ ン グ ラ 面 形 成 以 後 の シ ワ リ ク 丘 陵 の 隆 本 地 域 の 地 形 面 は 六 つ に 分 類 さ れ 、高位 の 三 つ の 地 形 起 は 801n に も達 す る 。 ー 面 は ，巨礫層 か らな る 堆積面 で あ る こ と が 明 ら か に な っ ダ ウ ラ ダ ル 山脈 に は ，二 群 の 氷食圏谷 が み ら 1し、そ た 。最高位 の ダ ラ ム サ ラ 面 は 最も古 く，二 番 1菊 ）パ ラ ン の 圏 谷 底 の 高 さ は ，高位 の も の で tl ，2001n，低 1、1二の も の プ ール 面 と 同様，無層 理 の 巨礫 層 か ら な り ，一ヒ石 流 ，泥 は 3 ，200m で あ り ，そ れ ぞ れ 二 回 の 氷 食 期 の 存 在 を 示 ー ー て ウ ラ ダ ル た さ れ た の と す o さ ら に 3 8UUm の に の モ レ ン が み ら 流の 営 力 に よ っ ダ か ら も ら も ， ， 高度 谷氷 韓1 考 え ら れ る 。三 番 目 の カ ン グ ラ 面 は ，本 地 域 に 最も 良 く れ ，ま た Lt ．800m の 所 に も断片 的 な モ レ r ン 」隹積物 が み 発達 し 、巨礫層 に は 層 理 が み ら れ ，流 水 の 営 力 と 考 え ら ら れ ，や は り二 回 の 氷期 を 示 す， ー れ，氷期 の accumulation terrace に 対 比 し た 。バ ラ ダ ウ ラ ダ ル の 氷 河 が 山麗 の カ ン グ ラ 盆 地 に ま で 拡大 ン プ ー一ル 面 の 上 部 に は 、 レ ス 状堆 殯物 が み ら れ 、氷 期 に し た 事 実 は な い が ，氷 」り1に は 巨 礫 の 生 産 が 多 く，巨 礫層 こ パ ソ ール ， の 形 成 さ れ た と 考 え る と が で き る ，． ラ プ 而 と カ の 形 成 に 大 き な 影響 を与 え た ）本 地 域 地 形 発 達 史 ，お ン ク ラ 面 の 形 成 期 の 問 に は ，明 ら か な 侵食 期 が 認 め ら よ び 」匕西 ヒ マ ラ ヤ の イ也亅也域 の 発 達 史 と の 対 七ヒを 第 3 表 に ー れ ，パ ラ ン プ ’レ 面 の レ ス ーヒ部 に ，赤色 土 壌 が 形 成 さ れ 示 す ， つ た 。 こ れ ら の 地 形 形 成 の 年 代 を 示 す 証 拠 は 見 か ら な か uム島 大学 丿 一 42 一 一 NII-ElectronicN 工 工 Eleotronio Library Service