FROM TRAGEDY TO HIERARCHY AND BACK AGAIN: WOMEN IN GREEKPOLITICAL THOUGHT ARLENE W. SAXONHOUSE Universityof Michigan

he earliestattempts at a theoreticalunderstanding of politicsoccur in thecity-states of ancient Greece. Women had no placein thepolitics of thosecities. However, the Greek tragedians and philosophers raised questions about the fundamentalassumptions underlying political life by introducingwomen into their writings.Thus, women appear in some Greek tragedies as a counterto themale sense of politicalefficacy-the sense that men can createthrough speech and ignorethe facts of physicalcreation entailed in theprocess of reproduction. A discussionof two tragedies, The SevenAgainst Thebes and theAntigone, suggests how thefailure of male political leadersto acknowledge the demands of the physical and thatwhich is differentbrings on tragedy.The Socraticresponse in theRepublic is to overcometragedy by makingthe maleand thefemale the same. Aristotle attempts to incorporatesexual difference in the theoreticalframework of hierarchy. Finally, there is a briefconsideration of the role of thepre-Socratic philosophers in settingthe agenda for the Greeks' confrontation with theproblems of incorporatingdifference into the political community.

The Greeks theones who debatedin theassemblies, introducedthe concept of politicsto the who decidedon publicpolicies, who gave Westernworld; their city-states, orpoleis, expressionto thevalues of thecity. The werethe arenas in whichcitizens might womenof Greecewere not partof that act together,sometimes seeking domina- world. tionover other cities, sometimes creating Conceptionsof politics and themodels orderlysets of rulesby whichthey might employedto analyze politicalrelations governthemselves, sometimes finding in stillreflect their origins in themasculine theircommunal actions glory as citiesor worldof thepolis, withits concernfor as individuals.The Greekphilosophers, domination,self-rule, order, and glory. reflectingon thenature of thepolis, gave While the Westernintellectual tradition to the cityits theoreticalmeaning as a may have acceptedthe practiceof the realmof potential justice as wellas ofcon- Greekpolis as revelatoryof theoriginal flict,of humannobility as well as of meaningof politics, the philosophers and fatuity.But always this was theworld of playwrightsof ancientAthens reflected men;men were the actors, the seekers of criticallyon that world. In particular, glory,the pursuers of power.They were theyquestioned for theiraudiences the

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focuson powerand its pursuit,and the poetsintroduced the female as a constant centralityof rationality and itsefficacy in reminderof the diversity out of which the orderingthe chaotic world of experience. worldwas made,and as a constantwarn- To raise questionsabout the masculine ingagainst the attempt to see theworld as world of power and reason-a world one, as uniformand thereforesubject to focusedon malepotency-they turned to simpleanswers and rationalcontrol. The thefemale, for in herdifference from the closetingof womenin thehome did not male she revealeda diversityin nature shut out theirexistence from the con- that threatenedthe physicalorder and sciousnessof the male poets or ofthe male rationalcontrol at whichthe polis aimed. citizensfor whom they wrote. The male in theGreek tragedies seeks a The aphorism"know thyself," original- simplicity,a uniformity,a world he can ly engravedon the Greek templeat comprehendthrough the intellect. When Delphi, has often been adopted by confrontedwith the female, he mustface political theoristsof the modernage. theproblem of difference and complexity, Hobbes,for example, uses it to indicate forshe introducesthe issue of reproduc- thatwe mustknow our passions,those tion,which underscores the male's depen- interiormotions that drive us intoconflict denceon whatis other.The femaleforces withothers. Rousseau recalls the motto in theGreek authors to raisequestions and orderto underscoreour needto discover reservationsabout theancient polis as a our origins,what we werebefore fateful realm of dominationand simplicity. accidentsof history took away knowledge These authorsindicate for us how the ofour true selves. Both Hobbes and Rous- femaleand thequestions she raises about seau takethe motto as an exhortationto theefficacy of reason and the centrality of discoverone's own nature. For the Greeks power and authoritymust be acknowl- it had a somewhatdifferent meaning. edgedin all understandingsof thenature "Knowthyself," gnothi seauton, meant to of thepolitical world, and in theattempt know the limitsof human activityor to incorporatethat world into theoretical- power,to recognizethat as humanone ly simplifiedstructures. was notimmortal, and more importantly, The lifeof citizenwomen in fifthcen- that one was not omnipotent-particu- turyB.C. Athenswas a shelteredone, brief larly that one could not control all andlimited primarily to theproduction of throughhuman reason. The female on the citizensfor the polis and sonsto carryon Greekstage forced men into an awareness the familyreligion. However, the por- ofthe inadequacies of the attempt to con- trayalof women in the works of the trolall, ofthe inability of human courage Athenianplaywrights and philosophers is and humanintelligence-often expressed farmore complex and sophisticatedthan throughpolitical action-to dominatethe thefacts of women's daily lives might lead natural world throughthe denial of us to believe.Though women themselves variability.He who triedto dominate probablydid not attendtheatrical per- mayhave gained stature as thehero, but formances,the city of adult males saw on he was the tragic hero, since such stage powerfulwomen-women whose attemptsat powerand at theimposition existence,as the poets reflectedon the of simplicitybrought only disaster. humancondition, could not be denied Womenbrought the hero back to what we (Gomme,1937; Just,1975; Kitto,1951, mightcall a variable,empirical reality; pp. 219-34; Lefkowitz,1981, pp. 4-11; theirpresence suggested that therewas Pomeroy,1975, pp. 58-60). Into their somethingother than the abstract city the vision of themselvesas human-some- men had created,and for which they wherebetween gods and animals-the fought.

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It was in thestructure of thecity that fourthcentury B.C. unsuccessfullytried to the male showed his most courageous deal withand ease thetensions explored attemptto createby givingbirth through by theplaywrights of the previouscen- institutions,thus ignoring the importance tury. I conclude by returningto the of the femalefor humanreproduction. earliestphilosophers, the so-calledpre- Many of the Greek tragedies,though, Socratics,to suggesthow theylaid the indicatethe inadequacy of such assertions foundationsfor the Greeks'intellectual of politicalpower when they are not assessmentof thecity and thefemale. moderatedby recognitionof the variabil- ityof nature-a conceptof naturebased Tragedy:The Failure on physicalrather than intellectual gener- ation, whichthus arises from diversity of Male Omnipotence ratherthan from simplicity. The maleon Aeschylus'sThe SevenAgainst Thebes theGreek stage who triesto livewithout acknowledgingthe female and thediver- Aeschylus'sThe SevenAgainst Thebes sityshe revealsencounters tragedy. The is the finalplay of his versionof the female,even in hervaried manifestations Oedipuscycle.2 Oedipus has diedcursing on stage,illustrates the dependence of the his twosons, the offspring of his incestu- humanbeing on others.She, as different ous marriage.His sons, Eteocles and fromthe male, but also needingthe male, Polyneices,agree to take turnsruling underscoresthe diversityof the world, Thebes,but Eteocles then refuses to yield and the falsityof any vision of self- his power.Polyneices, eager to claimhis satisfiedindependence, omnipotence, or turn,returns to Thebes with an army simplicity.This is not to suggestthat all fromthe neighboring city of Argos.The womenin theGreek plays are thesame; structureof the play is simple:the hostile certainlythere are many differences army with Polyneicesat its head has amongthe female characters themselves. attacked;Eteocles presents himself as the Rather,in whateverrole they appear, calmleader of a besiegedcity; a chorusof womenraise for men the problem of dif- terrifiedtownswomen sing of theirfears. ference.Tragedy, as the Greek play- Eteoclesworries that they will instill fear wrightsportray it, is not caused by and disorderamong his soldiers.During women,but ratherby thefailure of the the middlepart of the play a Theban heroto recognizeman's relationship to a messengerdescribes the Argive warriors diversenatural world and the need to who wait for battle at Thebes' seven adapt to thatdiversity. The male,in the gates. At the seventhgate standsPoly- rationalconstruction of politicalorder, neices,and it is at thatgate that Eteocles thinkshe can accomplishtoo much. and Polyneicesmeet and killone another Greektragedies reveal the limits of human in the subsequentbattle. At the end, rationalityand human art. For the Antigoneand her sisterIsmene mourn Greeks,it is women,absent themselves theirbrothers, and a decreeenacted by fromthe audience of citizens watching the thecity council is announced,proclaim- plays, who cause men to know them- ingthat Eteocles is to be givenfull burial selves. rites,while Polyneices' body is to be cast In thisessay I will considertwo very unburiedoutside the city. differentGreek tragedies, Aeschylus's The As withall Greektragedies, the story of Seven Against Thebes and Sophocles' TheSeven Against Thebes is embeddedin Antigone,to illustratesome of the themes a seriesof myths that lie behind the action suggestedabove.' I will thenoffer some and are subtlyreferred to throughoutthe commentson howthe philosophers of the play, therebyunderscoring its central

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themes.For our purposes,the mythof terror,as are theones before him, cause autochthony,or birthfrom the earth, evilto thehousehold and to thecity (191). givesmeaning to theaction of theplay. Eteoclesrefuses to acknowledge that with- Thebeswas firstfounded by menborn of out this "evil" therewould be neither dragonteeth planted in theearth-that is, householdnor city. The age ofearthborn the earthwas mother,not the human menis past,despite his invocationsand female.The play beginswith Eteocles' hisdreams. If the city is to survive,if the appealto hisearthborn ancestor, Cadmus householdis to survive,then he mustlive (1; cf.9).3 He lookstowards origins that withthe race of women. But Eteocles sees excludethe female,and therebydenies thefemale only as a danger,because she humanmotherhood (Caldwell, 1973). In alertsmen to whatis otherthan the city so denyinghis own origins,he envisions and the earth out of which it grows. theperfection of a citywithout women. Eteocles'reaction to thewomen is to deny However,it is a perfectionboth nature thema placein thecity, and to denythat and theplaywright deny him. thereis anythingother than the city. The Afterreminding us ofhis autochthonos cityis thewhole of Eteocles' existence. He ancestry,Eteocles portrays himself as a believesit would be betterif the city could captainof a ship "withhand upon the do withoutwomen, and creativitycould tiller"(3). As suchhe urgesthe defense of againcome from the earth to whichhe is the city,equating it withthe earth, the willingto devotehimself. Eteocles' vision belovedmother who nourishesher off- is ofa citythat is one,rather than divided spring(15-20; cf. 69). The women,who betweenmale and female. will make up the chorus,are not per- Muchof thefirst third of theplay is a ceivedas mothers;defending the cityis confrontationbetween the fearful females not forthe sake of thewomen within its and Eteocles'masculine rejection of their walls,as it was forthe Trojan heroes of fear. Oftenthis conflictis couchedin Homer'sIliad (bk. 6), but forthe earth termsof speech and silence. Eteocles, thathas replacedthe human female. wishingto live withoutwomen, states Into thisvision of male exclusiveness theymust not partakein thecounsel of intrudethe Theban women. They are in a thecity; that is, he callsfor the women to panic,beseeching the gods to save them be silent.They respond by askinghim to fromthe violence raging outside the city's speak (200-201, 230-32, 261-63). walls.Their screams and theirdisorderly Eteocles,the man with his hand upon the movementcall forthfrom Eteocles, who tiller,has and uses logos, while the has justpresented himself as thecaptain female,whose shrill wailings spread fear witha firmhand on thetiller, one of the throughoutthe city,must learn silence. most famousmisogynist speeches from Eteocles,as leader,uses speechto create ancienttragedy. Thremmata, he calls orderby dismissing the feminine passions. them,vile things(181). Can't you keep The firstthird of theplay concludes with still?You endangerthe city with your dis- themale controlling both the city and the orderedscreams. Like the womenwho chorusof women. complainedabout the sounds of the Duringthe central part of thisplay a approachingarmy, Eteoclesnow uses herald describeseach Argive warrior vividverbs to describethe wailings of the waitingat thegates. Eteocles then sends femalechorus, howling like dogs, hateful Thebanheroes to meeteach one,exhort- to thosewho practicemoderation (186). ing themon occasionto fightfor their Then he implores,"Whether in good or mother-meaningthe earth-or recalling evil times,may I neverlive with the race theirearthborn origins (416, 474). Mean- of women"(188-89). Women filled with while,he ignoresthe women who livein

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thecity and comprisethe chorus. When grave.At thispoint Antigone and Ismene Eteocleslearns that Polyneices stands at enter to mourn the deaths of their theseventh gate, Eteocles resolves to meet brothers;they describe the common suf- him, settingthe stage for theirmutual feringsof the familyof Oedipus, this death.The chorusreacts strongly to this closestof all families,which Eteocles and killingof brother by brother.There is no Polyneicesboth wishedto ignore.The geras,"no old age" forsuch a pollution unitywhich Antigone and Ismenein their (683).The language is suggestive:"No old mournfulsong affirm,however, is torn age" meansthe pollution is alwayspres- asunderat the finalappearance of the ent;there is no growth,no generation,for messenger,who now reportsthe decree thispollution is thedenial of generation. thatwill impose distinctions between the The chorusreaffirms the focus on kinship brothers.He says,"It is necessaryfor me ties,ties which may be in oppositionto to proceedto announcewhat has seemed those createdby the city. By denying bestand was approvedby thecouncil of women earlier in the play, Eteocles thiscity of Cadmus"(1005-1006). This is acknowledgedonly the bonds of the city, the formallanguage of the assembly. whereall come fromthe earthand are Theyhave met and theyhave spoken. "It governedby his reason.By claimingthe was decreed,"the messenger reports, "to earthas motherhe avoidsthe complexity buryEteocles for his loyaltyto theland of multipleties of relationship.Because (chthonos)with the beloved tomb of the Polyneicesis attackingthe land, the city, earth(ge)" (1008).The cityalso passeda nurturein a commonwomb is ignored. decree'concerning the corpse of Poly- Meanwhile,the chorus describes Eteocles neices:it is to be thrownoutside the city's as a maneager for a killing"not allowed" walls,where, unburied, it willbe fodder (694). forthe birds and dogs.This is thepunish- The womenplead that he be persuaded mentfor he whowarred against the Cad- by them,though he may loathe them mean land (chthonos).Through their (712). Eteocles allows the women to speech(1020, 1025), the men of theCad- speak,"but briefly," he admonishes (713). meancity have separatedthe brothers. They enjoin him, "Do not go to the Antigonerejects this artificial distinc- SeventhGate" (714), but thoughthey tionand announcesthat if no one else is repeatthe warningabout the stain of willingto bury Polyneices, she herself will sheddinghis brother's blood, the words of buryhim, accepting whatever risk may womenhave no powerover him. "You come from buryingher own brother withspeech (logoi) do notblunt the edge (1026-29). She is not ashamedto dis- of thesharpened spear," he rebukesthem regardthe speechof thecity, for she is (715). The chorusnow singsof theself- concernedwith the community (koinon), killing (autoktonos)which will occur the wondrous community(deinon to whenthe brothers meet (734). The chorus koinon)that exists between herself and sees the bond betweenthe two, but her brother,who had grown(pephuka- Eteocles,as leaderof his city,will not men)in theself-same womb, child of the allowsuch ties to muddy the clear distinc- same sufferingmother and ill-starred tionsbetween friend and foe. The sim- father.She is eagerto share(koinonei) his plicityof the definitionsof the city miseries(1033). In defianceof thecity's cannot,for him, be underminedby the senseof its own potency, she says, "Let it diversityof naturalties. be decreedby no one (me dokesatotini) A messengerenters to reportthat the that hollowbelliedwolves will eat his cityfares well, but the brothers have been corpse" (1035-36). Againstthose man- joined in the earth,in theircommon madedecrees she standsas a woman:"I,

407 AmericanPolitical Science Review Vol. 80 althoughI am a woman,shall devise this" who decreesthat the body of Polyneices (1038). Whenthe messengerwarns that shall not be honoredwith the ritesof the citywill be forcedin thesethings, burial. Sophocles' play begins as Antigone ignores, even mocks, his Antigoneannounces her plan to defy threats,and in her turnorders that he Creon'sorders: She willbury the body of limithis speech (me makragorei) (1053). It her brotherand asks for Ismene'said. is speechon whichthe city is based. She Ismeneresists, pleading with Antigone acts on the basis of bonds of kinship, notto attemptthe burial, for women are not the bonds createdby the wordsof weak and have not thestrength to fight assemblies. againstthe decrees of the male in thecity. Thechorus of Theban women watching Ismene equates speech and power. theinterchange between Antigone and the Antigone scorns such an equation. messengeris tornin two directions,cap- NeitherCreon's speech nor his physical turingthe tension of the preceding action. resourcesthreaten her. She envisions Half of thechorus denies the decree and forceswhich transcend the speech of the sides withAntigone. They acknowledge city.These are thegods of the dead, who the problemin the justice of human stand as an affirmationof the limited decrees:it has no consistencyover time, strengthof the political world that whereasthe ties of the familyappear Ismene,with her focuson the present, natural and eternal, always to be fears. respected.The otherhalf of the chorus The tragedymoves on inexorablyas bendsto thecity's decree, accepting the Antigoneperforms the burial rites,is unitybetween justice and the speechof caught,confronts Creon, and is sentto thecity, and thusthe distinction between certainstarvation in a cave outsidethe brothersthat the citycan impose.The city. Choosing immediatedeath and playleaves us withno happyconclusion. unionwith those who are belovedto her ThoughThebes still stands, the brothers -i.e., thosewho have died-she hangs are dead and the women are divided. herself.Creon's son Haemon,Antigone's Eteocles,fulfilling the curse of Oedipus, betrothed,follows Antigone to herdeath, pollutesthe city by sheddinghis brother's whereuponCreon's wife also commits blood. Eteocles'misogyny, based on his suicideand Creon,who at thebeginning rejectionof what is otherand his desire to of theday was thefirm and certainruler see theworld as simpleand orderly,had in a cityjust recovering from a traumatic beennecessary for him to facehis brother war, is shattered;he has learnedthe in battle.After his deaththe city,now importanceof customand respectfor the dependenton itsown reason, continues to godsthat in his arrogance he had original- deny the diversityof ties offeredby lyignored by passing a decreedenying the women. Aeschylus'splay ends unre- importanceof kinship. solved, and we learn fromSophocles' Near the beginningof the Antigone Antigonethat the tragedy continues. thereis a powerfuland justlyfamous choral in of Sophocles' Antigone ode whichthe chorus Theban elderssings about the "wonders" of man. Sophocleswrote the Antigone partially The translation"wonders" does not, how- in homageto thework of his predecessor, ever, capturethe tensionof the term Aeschylus,for the play begins where The deinos,a wordthat entails terror as well Seven Against Thebes leaves off.4 In as wonder.It is preciselythis ambiguity Sophocles'version, though, it is not the whichembodies the tragedy of theplay, counselof elders,but Creon,brother to for the wondersof man includeall the Jocastaand uncleto Oedipus'schildren, actionsof man's intellect, whereby he has

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been able to conquerthe naturalworld creativity.Her name itselfcaptures her around him, but which in turn may stand: anti-gone, against birth. As destroyhim. Antigonebecomes devoted to theworld Many the wondrous things,and none is more of thedead, unmoving and unvaried,she wondrous than the human herselfis transformedinto a malein both who walks upon the earth ... thelanguage she uses to describeherself And she, the greatestof gods, the earth- and thatused by Creonto referto her ageless she is, and unwearied-he wears heraway (Pomeroy,1975, p. 100). In herfocus on as theplows go up and down fromyear to year... He controlswith craftthe beasts of the open air, what has always existed-i.e., on what walkers on hills ... cannotbe createdthrough human efforts Speech and windlikethought and humanspeech-she fails to under- and the feelingswhich are part of rulein thetown standher own dependenceon thatwhich he has taughtto himself.5 (332-56) is other:the city and the male. She focuses on a naturethat always is, thatnever The portraitis ofman the creator against comes into beingor grows.She herself nature.Only death has he beenunable to deniesthe prospect of marriage, unmoved conquer. by Ismene'spleas thatshe thinkof her The choralode's optimism about man's forthcomingmarriage to Haemon.Mar- capacityto rulematches precisely Creon's riageentails creation; the piety Antigone visionof himselfas theleader of Thebes. espousesis an anti-lifepiety, and likethe He viewslaw as a humancreation that male Homericheroes, she becomesthe springs forth from human speech. warriorwhose glory can be achievedonly Throughoutthe play thereare references at themoment of death,in thedenial of to Creon's"orders." Antigone begins the lifeand of change. tragedyby askingher sister whether she Creon, in turn,thinks too much of has heardthe "announcement" (kerugma) creativityand power.Furthermore, his is (8; cf.32, 192,446). Ismenehad accepted a creativityof speech against nature Creon'sspeech as law, and thereforeas ratherthan within nature, as abstracted equivalentto power. Creon's son Haemon fromthe creative powers of thefamily as viewsthe political as speechas well,ask- Antigone'spiety. Creon's assertionof inghis father to listento whatthe people malepotency is setoff by hispride in his are sayingas theywhisper in thecorners masculinity,a masculinityhe constantly of the city. Only Antigonedenies the feelsis threatenedby Antigone'sresis- efficacyof humanspeech, scornfully dis- tance. She has denied his capacityto missingthe spokendecrees of the city's makeand enforcedecrees, to createand leader.The laws she followsare worthy orderthe city. "I am not a male (aner), of respectprecisely because they are butshe the male if she rules in thisthing," unwrittenand unspokenby men. As such he says (484-85);and laterin his discus- theyhave alwaysbeen, and werenever sionwith Haemon he asserts,"While I am thecreation of the human intellect. Thus, aliveno woman(gune) shall rule over me" theyare similarto nature,which always (525;cf. 670). Throughout the play Creon exists,but whichCreon in his sense of and Antigonestand in oppositionto one potencyfeels he can dismiss,and which another.Their opposition brings on the the choruspraises man forconquering. tragedy,which would not occur were Theuncreated, unwritten laws of the gods Antigoneto yieldto thepleas of her sister standas a counterto thespoken decrees to allow male potencyfull expression of of thecity that Creon rules. itself(in termsof both Creon's decree and Antigone,though, in denyingthe theprospective marriage with Haemon), efficacyof speech,denies any formof or wereCreon's attempts at self-assertion

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to yield to Antigone'sdenial of the mediarybetween the male and the female, capacityfor human creativity. Antigone, forupon killingthe female of a pair of rejectingcreativity, relies only on whatis, couplingsnakes he was himselftrans- and thusmust turn to deathitself, while formedinto a womanfor part of his life. Creon,looking only at whatcomes into Teiresiasthus understands the perspective being,ignores-according to Antigone- of boththe male and thefemale, and his thedemands of what is. roleas an intermediarybetween gods and WhileAntigone may alert the audience humans is in part dependenton this to unchanginglaws which exist above the doublevision. city, and to the paltryrole of human Unlike Antigone,Teiresias does not speech, her presencemust be supple- deny the value of the city. Rather,he mentedby Ismene, who, while submitting assistsin its guidance.When Teiresias herselfto thepower of the city, continues firstappears, Creon comments that pre- tryingto remindboth Antigoneand viously he has never deviated from Creonof theprocesses of birth-thatis, Teiresias'sadvice. Teiresias responds that ofthe dependence of both on thediversity thereforeCreon has keptthe ship of state of nature,which each wishesto deny. upright(993-94). But unlike Creon, Duringthe confrontations between herself Teiresiasis unwillingto dependentirely and Antigoneand betweenAntigone and on human reason for such guidance. Creon,Ismene asks Creon, "Will you kill Humanintelligence must accept diversity the bride of your own son?" (568). in theworld-the gods of the dead as well Creon'svulgar response, "There are the as thegods of the living, the male as well arablefields of others," reveals his refusal as' thefemale-and not attempt to trans- to acknowledgethe particularityof form that diversityinto simplicity. Antigone(Benardete, 1975, p. 23). For Teiresiasoffers Creon the means of escape Creon, Antigonediffers no more from fromthe tragedy about to befallhim, but other women than money-grubbing Creonis arrogantin thepower of his own prophetsdiffer from one another(1055). intellectand capacity to understand Creon'smind perceives uniformity and humanmotivations: "The race of seers all simplicity,while Ismene tries to remind love silver"(1055). Refusing to acceptthe him of the unique harmonybetween adviceand visionof theprophet, a male Haemon and Antigone(570). The two turnedfemale and back again, Creon protagonistsof theplay, each defending mustendure the tragic destruction of his opposingvisions of certainty,destroy world,a destructionreason is unableto each other.Ismene preserves her own prevent. status as a female,standing between The Antigoneand The SevenAgainst Antigoneand Creonreminding them of Thebessuggest, in verydifferent ways, marriageand family,yet unable to move how womenstood as threatsto themas- the adamantinewill of eitheras each culineimage of potency in ancient Greece, focuseson her or his own visionof the remindingmen of whatthey must escape simpleand uniform. in orderto foundand preservethe city: Into this world of conflictbetween the fundamentaldiversity of nature, Antigone and Creon, which neither whichdid notyield easily to theimposi- Haemon nor Ismeneis able to resolve, tion of rationalsimplicity. For Eteocles comesthe seer Teiresias, one who knows therewas thechorus of Thebanwomen. the ways of the gods and interprets For Creonthere is Antigone,though she auguriesand sacrificesfor the leaders of herselfmay wantthe same simplicityas Thebes. He is an intermediarybetween he, and thusstands as a worthyoppo- the gods and men. He also is an inter- nent.Nevertheless, she threatensCreon

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withher status as different,as set apart forminto many shapes" (380d).6They fromthe city which should be, as Creon both conclude,"The god would leastof seesit, seamless. For Creon and Eteocles, all have manyshapes" (381b). Similarly, thesimplicity each desires depends on the therecitation of poetry must be excluded, denialof the female. Tragedy reveals that for in the processof recitingpoems or such denial is destructiveof the polis, actingon stage, men may "undertake whichcould not survivewithout repro- seriouslyto imitatein the presenceof duction-the process of birth that many . . . thunder,the noises of winds, dependson thecommingling ofopposites. hailstorms,axles and pulleys,the voices Let me now turnto thenext century. of trumpets. .. even the sound of dogs, The problemof womenfor the polity is sheep,and birds"(397a). Even laughter always present,raising questions about disappears,since it is a mode of chang- malerationality and theattempt to create ing fromone formto another-i.e., an a citythat does not dependon what is acknowledgmentof diversitywithin the other.Both Plato and Aristotletry to worldand, worstof all, withina man respondto thethreat of womenand the himself(380c). tragedythat results from ignoring them. Artand thehuman expression of art is variable and diverse. In Socrates' Callipolis,as he callsthis most perfect of The Philosophers'Response all cities,there is to be no changing,no Callipolis: variability.No tragedies,no epics, no Socrates'Escape from Tragedy comedieswill disturbthe beautiful unity ofthe city. However, to achievethis con- The Socrates of Plato's Republicis ditionof perfection-ofcompletion and famous-perhapsinfamous-for his con- wholeness-of which his treatmentof demnationof poetry. In themetaphysical poetryis but one manifestation,it is critiqueof poetryin Book X, Socrates necessarythat Socrates conflate the situa- describesthe poet or artistas beingthree tionsof themale and femalemembers of removesfrom what is real. In themoral his perfectcity. The differencesbetween critiqueof poetry in BooksII and III, the themmust be ignored.Any differences gods are shownto be less thandivine in thathave definedmale and femalein the theirimmoral lives. Behind both critiques past are to be attributedto convention is a rejectionof poetry because it encour- ratherthan nature. The naturalworld, in ages men to see the multiplicityof the Socrates' understandingof it in this worldof menand gods (Nichols,1983a). dialogue,pursues the uniform,not the In Book X Socratesthe artistportrays diverse.It is the conventionsof society specific-i.e., diverse-objects, rather whichhave accentuateddifferences. thanuniform or simpleideas-e.g., the This portraitof a naturalworld of idea (or form)of a chair.Artistic repre- uniformityrather than diversity is what sentationsdistract us fromsimplicity and Socratestries to enforcewhen in Book V makeus focuson theparticular. The cri- he suggests,"We'll suppose that our tiquein Book II is thatthe epic poets make guardiansand theirwomen must practice thegods appeardiverse rather than uni- thesame things" (454d-e). The lifeof the formand simple.For example,Socrates femalein theguardian class in Socrates' asks Adeimantuswhether he supposes cityis to be as littledifferent from that of that"the god is a wizardable treacher- the male as possible.The activitiessur- ouslyto revealhimself at differenttimes roundingthe distinctive characteristics of in differentideas, at one timeactually the femalebody-namely, the processes changinghimself and passinghis own of givingbirth-are to be eliminatedas

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much as possible. Making this point, When Socratestries to deal withthe Socratesasks Glaucon,"Do we believe questionof the regeneration ofhis city, all the femalesof the guardiandogs must sortsof problemsand internalcontradic- guardthe thingsthe males guardalong tionsarise. He triesto makeprohibitions withthem and hunt with them, and do the againstincest, but as Aristotlewould rest in common; or must they stay pointout later,the prohibitionsdo not indoorsas ifthey were incapacitated as a work.As Socratesgoes on and on with resultof bearing and rearingthe puppies, his proposalsfor the propermodes of whilethe males work and have all thecare reproduction,Glaucon notes that the of theflock?" (451d). The stateof preg- city'srulers must rely on a certainresidual nancyis ignoredand once the childis eroticismto makethe plans work (458d). bornto a woman,that child is placedin a This is because they have previously pen alongwith other babies. The mother eliminatedany focus on thebody, which laden with milk will nursea child, at couldturn a guardianfrom the whole of intervalsdetermined by herother activi- whichhe is a partto an individualbody ties,but she will not know her own child, withpassions capable of eroticarousal. nor will the care of the child be hers Furthermore,Socrates' claims concerning (460c-d).It is, as Glauconremarks, "an theequality of the male and the female are easy-goingkind of child-bearingfor underminedwhen women are handed womenguardians, as you tellit" (460d). overas prizesfor the men who are most The processesof birthappear as briefas valorousin battle. themoment of conception-hardlyto be In Book VIII Socratestraces the down- noticedat all. fallof the monistic ideal he has envisioned The consequencesof thisconflation of throughspeech, in the prayersof men themale and thefemale in theguardian whoare bound to thecave andto thefun- classare many (Elshtain, 1981, pp. 29-35; damentalvariety of thenatural world of Okin,1979, ch. 1-3),but for my purposes physicalbeings (592a-b). The city'sfail- herewe mustsee how it overcomesthe urecomes precisely from the incapacity to ideasof thetragedies of thefifth century. understandfully the process of regenera- The oppositions between male and tion-an incapacityto control,through female,physical and intellectual,nature mathematicalknowledge, the seasons and and art,and themany and theone, are theways of sex. Because of their failure to denied precisely by eliminatingthe combineadequately their mathematical family,the female, and thephysical from knowledgewith the exact movements of thecity. The tensionsthus disappear. But theseasons, the guardian rulers arrange bydoing this Socrates creates a citywhich forbirths not propitious for the preserva- is a staticmoment in time.Like the gods tion of the city; decay thus sets in he seeksto createin Book II, it has no (546a-d). motion,no capacityfor change, and no As the citydeclines from the aristoc- capacityfor self-regeneration.Callipolis racyof Callipolisto thereign of a tyrant, is the creationof human speech, the womenbecome distinctfrom men and speech of the dialogue engagedin by theirpeculiar characteristics become more Socrates and his friendsas they talk and more important.In the timocratic throughthe nightin Cephalus'shouse. regime,the wife, having values different This speech has no relationto human fromthose of herhusband, complains to bodies,which grow, change, give birth, herson thatshe is notmarried to one of and die-or even eat. The dinnerprom- therulers, and thatbecause of herhus- ised (328a) is neverserved to thesemen, band's lack of ambitionshe is at a dis- who devouronly words (354a). advantage.Her son, she hopes,will do

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better(549c-d). The point of complete Callipolisbecomes a wasteland-abeauti- deteriorationis when the male has fulcity which survives only in thespeech becomethe female in the descriptionof of itscreator. thetyrant. He is oneconfined for the most partto his house,where "he liveslike a Aristotle: woman,envying any of the other citizens The Failureof Hierarchy whotravel abroad" (597b-c). The circle is completedand we are back againat the In thefirst six chapters of Book II ofthe conflationof maleand female,only here Politics, Aristotle explicitly rejects it is the male rulerwho becomesthe Socrates'conflation of male and female, female,not the female ruler who becomes accusinghim of turninghis cityinto an themale. In thisrespect the similarity in individualand ignoringthe impious con- Plato'swork between the best, Callipolis, sequencesof hisproposals (Dobbs, 1985; and theworst, tyranny, is striking,and Saxonhouse,1982). In contrast,Aristotle perhapssuggests the inadequacies of both triesto dealwith observed diversity in the the attemptto imposethe male view as world,not throughdenial, but through thetotality of existence and the attempt to separationand hierarchy. Aristotle recog- makethe female dominant. Both lack the nizes the relationbetween logos, mind, capacityfor regeneration, and thusboth and the world of the senses,and thus die ignoble deaths. Tyranny is for acknowledgesvariety. He triesvaliantly Socrates the end of the descending to resolvethe problemof diversityby regimes.We mustwait severalcenturies imposinghierarchy, rather than by ignor- for Polybiusto turnthe declineinto a ingor conflatingdifferences. Yet because cyclewhere degeneration can also lead to he is committedto a hierarchythat rebirth. ensuresthe rule of thebest, he leavesus Socrates'city fails because men do not dissatisfiedwith what hierarchycan havethe capacity to abstractfrom nature achieve, for while it orders relations and makeall simple.His desireto create amonghumans, it is notalways possible in speechwhat is abstractedfrom the forhumans to ensurethat its orderingis physicalis evidentin his attemptto just.Tragedy thus reappears, as Aristotle destroythe boundaries between male and recognizesthe limits of human reason and female. Socrates tries to escape the revealsthe inadequaciesof the political tragedydepicted by the playwrightsby world.Tragedy on stagearose from men's obliteratingthat which brings on tragedy, discoverythat they could not achieve the but he errsas the tragicheroes did by perfectionof the gods. In Aristotle's overemphasizingthe efficacyof logos. politicsthe tragicsurfaces not withthe The humanbody calls him back intothe violencethat we seeon stage,but with the cave,to thetragic fall of his beautiful city acknowledgmentthat the best is beyond to thepetty issues of reproduction.The humanendeavors. Aristotle attempts to heroiccity Socrateshas createdhas a deal withthis human failure to achieve deathlikequality. There is no creativity, divinestatus not withmournful laments no art,no birth;it is a worldin which or resignation,but through accepting the neithermale nor femaleexists, in which secondbest and acknowledging its limited themasculine model of rationalomnipo- satisfactions(Zuckert, 1983). tencehas reignedto createa visionof BehindAristotle's political philosophy monistsimplicity from which variable lie the twinprinciples of hierarchyand poetry,among other things,must be teleology.According to Aristotleboth excluded.In a sense,such a citycalls forth giveorder to thenatural world. Teleology itsown tragedy, for it is a denialof itself. assures that, undisturbed,the natural

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growthof animalsand plantsis in the odes wished to deny and Socratesto directionof what is best-thatis, toward minimize.However, though she may be themost complete expression of its par- necessary,she is neverthelessdefective, ticularform. This is thehighest form a and consequently,in a hierarchicalworld livingcreature can attain,in which,as mustbe underthe authority of themale, Aristotlewould say, it fulfillsits nature who is not defective.The principlesof and reachesits end: e.g., thecolt becomes teleologyand hierarchyare forAristotle a horseand theacorn an oak. Motionis clear. It is theapplication of theseprin- purposive.Related to thisis hierarchy, ciples to the world around us which whichfor Aristotleensures the priority ensures, according to Aristotle, an (the authority)of the betterover the orderlysociety in which the inferior inferior.On themost basic level, Aristotle acceptsthe authorityof the better,and claims,this means the authorityof the each individualmoves towards that end soul overthe body (1.5.1254a31).7If the prescribedby his,her, or itsnature. soul does not rule,the individual lives a However,Aristotle was an observer, disorderedlife, in oppositionto nature,a one who did notwish to denythe power condition harmfulto the individual of sight."We see," beginsthe discussion (1.5.1254b5-8). Simplyput, the mind of the Politics.To writethe Politicshe mustrule over the body or thebody will studied150 constitutionsand theirhis- notbe fed.Hierarchy gives both meaning tories.They revealed a worldthat is not and a meansof survivalto the natural orderly,a world often convulsedby world,for it establisheswhat is bestand revolutionsand political conflicts,as allowswhat has comeinto being to con- Book V of thePolitics so vividlyrecords. tinueto exist.This model is transferredin These conflictsarise because the criteria Aristotle'spolitical work to the social for determiningthe hierarchyof better relationswithin the community,where and worse have never been carefully thebetter must rule over the inferior, and, articulated,and men disagree. The accordingto his firstassessment, the criteria,as Aristotleunderstands them, mastershould rule over the slave and the mustrefer to whatis unseen,what is in maleover the female. thesoul. To placethose who arebetter in Aristotle'sclaim concerningthe in- positionsof authority over those who are feriorityof the femaleis based on a worse,we mustknow who is betterand varietyof assumptions,and is derived who is worse. How are we to do this? fromhis discussionof the femalein his Politicalsystems establish such criteria biological works. The female of any through speech-wealth, birth from speciescomes into beingas a defectof citizen parents, education at certain nature,the result of theabsence of ade- universitiesor colleges,membership in a quateheat at themoment of conception. certainreligious group. But thesecriteria Thus, those eager for sons are well are externaland not based on Aristotle's advisedto conceivewhen the wind is not conceptof a naturalhierarchy. While blowingfrom the north,or when the hierarchyis Aristotle'sattempt to deal coupleis at theheight of passion (Genera- with diversity,he sees a fundamental tion of Animals, 2.1.732a6-7; problem with the concept, precisely 3.1.765blOff.,766a30ff.; 3.2.767b8ff.). becauseour sightdoes notalways reveal Yet whilethe female may be a defectof who is betterand who is worse. nature,she is necessaryto keep the species Aristotlereveals the problems with this in existence,and Aristotleacknowledges principleof hierarchyas appliedto the themutuality of thesexes in theprocess politicalcommunity in Book I of the of production,an acknowledgmentEte- Politics,almost immediately after he has

414 1986 Women in Greek Political Thought presentedit. He turnsfrom generaliza- The classicexample of thisis thestory of tionsabout the growth of a polisto a dis- Tecmessa,the wife of Ajax. In Sophocles' cussionof the parts of the household, and play the Ajax, when Tecmessatries to particularlythe master/slaverelation- calmAjax down,urging him not to put on ship.There are twokinds of slavery:one hisarmor in hispresent state of rage, she is conventional,the otheraccording to is told by her husbandthat silenceis nature (1.3-5). Conventionalslavery, beautifulin women.Ajax in hismadness havingno basisin nature, is foundedonly proceeds to kill all the cattle of the on the principleof conquest,which for Greeks,thinking that he is killingthe Aristotlehas nothingto do withbetter Greekheroes themselves. The attemptto and worse (1.6.1155a25-32).Only cor- silenceTecmessa was a sign of Ajax's ruptsocieties-those not based on nature failureto see the wisdomin her soul, -use conquestas groundsfor enslaving whichoutshone his own, thoughclearly people and keepingtheir childrenas hisbody-that of thegreat warrior-was slaves.Though most slaves are theresult morebeautiful than Tecmessa's defective of such conquests, this is not, in (becausefemale) body (Nichols,1983b, Aristotle'sunderstanding, sufficient justi- pp. 181-82). ficationfor slavery. In a corruptsociety Theproblem for Aristotle, the scientific suchas Athenswe findslaves according observerof animalsand constitutions, to convention,but not accordingto knownfor his empiricism, is precisely the nature-thatis, menwho are not slaves limitsof observation;namely, that we by nature,but who becauseof particular cannotsee thesoul, thoughthis is where circumstancesare kept as slaves. The we mustlook if we are to understand problemis thatwe cannotsee or know the goodness. Observablecriteria such as soul, thatwhich, more than the body, wealth,birth, or sex are usedby polities definesthe natural slave. "It is notentirely to establishworth and hierarchicalorder. easy,"Aristotle remarks with due reserve, But hierarchyin thecity is accordingto "to see thebeauty of thesoul as of the convention,not nature, and thus,while it body"(1.5.1255al). maybe convenientfor ordering the social Thoughthe rule of theworse over the world,is notbest. betteris notlikely to occurin the relations Plato'sSocrates, along with Creon and betweenthe male and thefemale, where Eteocles,assumed the capacityof the thedifferences between bodies are more logosto overcomethe problems presented apparentthan between the bodies of the to themby thesexual dimorphism of the naturalruler and the naturalslave, on humanspecies. The male heroesof the occasiona superiorfemale is subjectto tragediestried to deal withwomen by an inferiormale. Thoughaccording to denyingthem, ignoring their demands Aristotlethis is againstnature, it can hap- and assumingthe priority of thecreative pen. Aristotledoes notstate that all men logos. Socrates tried to eliminatethe arebetter than all women,only that this is femaleby fusing the male and thefemale. natural;yet, he argues,we cannotbe Aristotleaccepted the existenceof the assuredthat nature is in controlat all female,and offered a theoretical construc- times.Nature does not always arrange tion,hierarchy, that could incorporate in thatthe child of a slaveis slavish,nor that the social structurethe diversityof thesoul of the female is alwaysinferior to naturaland humanforms. However, in thatof themale. To treatall thosewho hisinvestigation of theproblem he found live in conqueredcities as slaves or all thatthe theory, the logos, resisted appli- thoseborn female as lackingin senseis to cation because of the limitsof human fail to recognizethe diversity of nature. observation. Sight, which had told

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Aristotleso muchabout the workings of thesenses, as in thefamous paradoxes of the naturalworld, was of no use in Zeno: An arrow, for example,could elaboratingaccurate criteria of virtue, neverreach a target.In orderto do so it whichcould not be seen. wouldhave to travelhalf the distance to In Book III of the PoliticsAristotle thetarget, but sincethere are an infinite leads us away fromproblems of sexual numberof halves, which the arrow could differentiation,which had been critical nevercross, it neverreaches the target. throughoutthe first two books, and into And yet,the eyes see thearrow hit the theworld of citizens,in whichthe polity target,a factwhich the mindknows is makesmen equal. He eschewsthe perma- impossible,because it knowsthe arrow nenthierarchies he had triedto findand cannever reach the end of infinity. There- justifyin nature. Yet always behind fore,according to thelogic of thetime, Aristotle'stheories of democracyand thesenses are unreliableand fallible.The oligarchy,stability and revolution,are eyessee motionand change,whereas in thequestions he has raisedabout slaves, factthere is none. the subordinationof women,and what In the conflictbetween the mindand we can reallyknow about the better, the thesenses, the mind was declaredthe win- worse,and the foundations of justice. The ner. The males of fifth-centurytragedy artificialequality of citizens in a polityis a also declaredthe mind the winner. They practicalsolution, but one whichmeans soughtsimplicity and unityas theyruled thefailure of Aristotle'stheory, for such overthe city. They hoped not to needto equalitydenies what he would understand deal witha worldwhich might turn them as therule of thebest. away fromthe priority and unityof the city,but in so doingthey had to deny Conclusion women,difference, and humanreproduc- tion,and thusact muchas thephiloso- EarlyGreek philosophy of the sixth and pherswho said thatthe arrow could not earlyfifth centuries confronted the ques- hitthe target. Socrates, in TheRepublic, tionof unityand diversity.The philoso- also triedto denythe senses in his abstrac- pherssaw a worldof variety-a world of tionfrom body and consequentwilling- animals, humans, plants, stones- ness to equate themale and thefemale. beneathwhich they searched for a source OnlyAristotle tried to retaina visionof thatcould unify it all. Someof theearly theworld as multiple,and to be valued philosophersturned to an underlying preciselyfor its variability.His vision substancesuch as fire,water, or air, leads,however, to a hierarchicalstructure explainingthat the diversitywe see thatmust fail whenapplied to political aroundus derivesfrom the varied forms life,since for him, as forthe other Greek of thatone fundamentalelement. philosophers,the unseenbecomes more Thisunderstanding ofthe world forced importantthan the seen. Again, the these so-called naturephilosophers in tragedycomes from the inadequacy of the many cases to deny theirsenses. The humanintellect, which cannot transform sensesdid not offerus knowledgeof the what is variableand multipleinto sim- fundamentalelements at thebase of the plicity,and can neitherdemand complete worldwe observed.The sensesperceived silenceof womenwho fearan invading a worldthat was constantlychanging. In armynor transformthe female into the contrast,the mind was able to look male, as Socratestries to do. In their behindthe diversityand findunity and diverseroles throughoutthe corpusof order (Snell, 1960, ch. 7). The mind, Greekliterature, women give the lie to the indeed,was able to showthe fallibility of male's dangerousand tragiclove of his

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own imaginedpotency, creativity, and Benardete, Seth. 1975. A Reading of Sophocles' intellect,and revealthe potential limits of Antigone. Interpretation,4:148-96, 5:1-55, the masculinepolitical perspectives that 148-84. Caldwell, Richard.1973. The Misogynyof Eteocles. we have inheritedfrom the Greeks. Arethusa,6:197-231. Dietz, Mary. 1985. Citizenshipwith a FeministFace: Notes The Problem with Maternal Thinking.Political Theory,13:19-37. An earlierversion of thispaper was presentedat Dobbs, Darrell. 1985. Aristotle's Anticom- the1985 annualmeeting of theWestern Political munism.American Journal of Political Science, ScienceAssociation, as well as at Carleton,Reed, 29:26-46. Rutgers,the University of Californiaat San Diego, Elshtain,Jean. 1981. Public Man, Private Woman: and theUniversity of Washington. Women in Social and Political Thought.Prince- 1. The selectionof plays has beendetermined in ton: PrincetonUniversity Press. partby the desire to study carefully plays I havenot Elshtain,Jean. 1982. Antigone'sDaughters. democ- discussedbefore (cf. Saxonhouse, 1980, 1984). The racy,2:46-59. SevenAgainst Thebes will receivemore extensive Euben, J. Peter. 1982. Justiceand the Oresteia. treatment,since political scientists are likelyto be AmericanPolitical Science Review, 76:22-33. less familiarwith it thanwith the Antigone. For Foley,Helene P. 1981. The Conceptionof Womenin othertreatments ofthe Greek plays also focusingon AthenianDrama. In Helene P. Foley,ed., Reflec- thesignificance of thefemale, though not always tions of Women in Antiquity. New York: fromthe same perspective as mine,see Euben (1982), Gordon and Breach. Foley (1981), Pomeroy(1975, pp. 97-119), and Gomme, Arnold W. 1937. The Position of Women Zeitlin(1978). in the Fifthand FourthCentury B.C. In Arnold 2. The ideasin thissection owe muchto Benar- W. Gomme, Essays in GreekHistory and Litera- dete(1967), and Orwin(1980). ture.Oxford: Basil Blackwell. 3. The numbersin the parentheseshere and Grene, David, and RichmondLattimore, eds. 1960. throughoutthe discussion of theplays refer to the Greek Tragedies. Chicago: University of linesof the Greek texts. The OxfordClassical Texts Chicago Press. are used forall Greekauthors, unless otherwise Just,Roger. 1975. The Conception of Women in indicated.Unless otherwise noted, all translations Classical Athens.Journal of theAnthropological aremy own. Society of Oxford,6:153-70. 4. Particularlyhelpful in this section were the dis- Kitto, HumphreyDavey Finley.1951. The Greeks. cussionsof the Antigone in Knox (1964), and Benar- Baltimore:Penguin Books. dete(1975). Other readings of this tragedy that focus Knox, Bernard.1964. The Heroic Temper: Studies on itssignificance for those concerned with women in Sophoclean Tragedy.Berkeley: University of in politicaltheory include Elshtain (1982) and the CaliforniaPress. critiqueof Elshtain by Deitz(1985, pp. 26-30). Lefkowitz,Mary. 1981. Heroines and Hysterics. 5. Apartfrom the firstand last sentences,the New York: St. Martin'sPress. translationis that of Elizabeth Wychoff inGrene and Nichols, Mary. 1983a. Poetry in the Republic. Lattimore(1960). See also Segal (1964) fora full Paper presentedat the annual meetingof the discussionof thispassage. American Political Science Association, 6. I citePlato accordingto standardStephanus Chicago, IL. pagination.I have used Bloom's translation. Nichols,Mary. 1983b. The Good Life,Slavery, and 7. I citeAristotle according to thestandard refer- Acquisition:Aristotle's Introduction to Politics. ence form,including book and chapter.Unless Interpretation,11:171-83. otherwisenoted, all referencesare to the Politics and Okin, Susan M. 1979. Women in WesternPolitical all translationsare myown. Thought.Princeton: Princeton University Press. Orwin, Clifford.1980. FeminineJustice: The End of the Seven Against Thebes. Classical Philology, References 75:187-96. Plato. 1968. The Republic. Allan Bloom, trans. Aeschyles. 1972. The Seven Against Thebes (in New York: Basic Books. Latin). In Tragedies.Oxford Classical Text. Pomeroy,Sarah. 1975. Goddesses, Whores, Wives Aristotle.1957. Politics (in Latin). OxfordClassical and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity.New Text. York: Schocken Books. Aristotle.1965. Generationof Animals (in Latin). Saxonhouse, Arlene W. 1980. Men, Women, War Oxford Classical Text. and Politics: Family and Polis in Aristophanes Benardete, Seth. 1967. Two Notes on Aeschylus' and Euripides.Political Theory,8:65-81. Septem. WeinerStudien, 80:22-30. Saxonhouse, Arlene W. 1982. Family, Polity and

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Unity: Aristotle on Socrates' Community of Rosenmeyer,trans. New York: Harper Torch- Wives. Polity, 15:202-19. books. Saxonhouse, Arlene W. 1984. Aeschylus' Oresteia: Sophocles. 1928. Antigone (in Latin). In Fabulae. Misogyny,Philogyny and Justice.Women and Oxford Classical Text. Politics,4:11-32. Zeitlin,Froma I. 1978. The Dynamics of Misogyny: Segal, Charles P. 1964. Sophocles' Praise of Man Mythmaking in the Oresteia. Arethusa, 11: and the Conflicts of the Antigone. Arion, 3: 149-84. 46-66. Zuckert, Catherine. 1983. Aristotleon the Limits Snell, Bruno. 1960. The Discovery of the Mind: and Satisfactionsof PoliticalLife. Interpretation, The Greek Originsof European Thought,R. G. 11:185-206.

ArleneW. Saxonhouse is Professorof PoliticalScience, University of Michigan,Ann Arbor, MI 48109.

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