UNIT 1 MARIGOLD, CHINA ASTER and Jasmine JASMINE

Marigold, China Aster and UNIT 1 MARIGOLD, CHINA ASTER AND Jasmine JASMINE

Structure 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Marigold 1.1.1 Introduction 1.1.2 Origin and History 1.1.3 Botany 1.1.4 Varieties 1.1.5 Soil and Climate 1.1.6 Propagation 1.1.7 Seed Propagation 1.1.8 Cuttings 1.1.9 Planting 1.1.10 Nutrition 1.1.11 Pinching 1.1.12 Growth Regulators 1.1.13 Irrigation 1.1.14 Weed Control 1.1.15 Harvesting and Packaging 1.1.16 Pigment Extraction 1.1.17 Extraction Procedure 1.1.18 Utility of Carotenoids 1.1.19 Disease and Insect-pests 1.1.20 Seed Production 1.2 China Aster 1.2.1 Origin 1.2.2 Classification and Cultivars C. Chinensis, Origin of China 1.2.3 Climatic Requirement 1.2.4 Raising of Seedlings 1.2.5 Transplanting 1.2.6 Nutrition 1.2.7 Disease and Insect-pests 1.3 Jasmine 1.3.1 Introduction 1.3.2 Description 1.3.3 Uses and Importance 1.3.4 Origin and Distribution 1.3.5 Species 1.3.6 Important Varieties Developed in India and their Characteristics 1.3.7 Flowering 1.3.8 Chromosomal Studies in Jasmine 1.3.9 Cultivation 5 Loose Flowers 1.3.10 Propagation 1.3.11 Aftercare 1.3.12 Harvesting 1.3.13 Post Harvest Management 1.3.14 Yield 1.3.15 Oil Extraction 1.3.16 Jasmine Concrete 1.3.17 Disease and Insect-pests 1.4 Let Us Sum Up 1.5 Key Words 1.6 Further References 1.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises 1.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be in a position to: discuss the production techniques of marigold, china aster and jasmine, explain the significance of their production for the income generation, describe the management and value addition in the flowers of marigold, china aster and jasmine, and establish small entrepreneurship for extraction of high value oil or similar production to enhance income. 1.1 MARIGOLD

1.1.1 Introduction Marigold is one of the most important flower crops grown commercially in different parts of India. It has gained popularity because of its adaptability to various soil and climatic conditions, longer blooming period and beautiful flowers which have good shelf life. Marigold flowers are grown for loose flower production. They are used extensively for making garlands, for beautification of mandaps and decoration of cars in marriages and religious offerings. Marigolds are also used for bedding and potted purposes. Some varieties of African marigold which have straight stalk and globular flowers are used as cut flower. The cultivation of marigold is quite remunerative. Recently, marigold has emerged as a source of carotenoid pigments, which are widely used as dietary supplements in poultry industry to enhance chicken skin colour and eggs yolk pigmentation. The major carotenoid in marigold is xanthophyll. This is an important factor in the commercial application of xanthophyll esters for colouring food. Marigold is used in the traditional Mexican medicines as well. Leaf paste is used as topical application for boils and carbuncles and leaf extract is good remedy for earache. Whereas flower extract is considered as blood purifier, a cure for bleeding piles and a good remedy for ulcers. The essential oil present in different species of Tagetes is used in perfume industry. The oil extracted from leaves has a pronounced odour and acts as a repellant to 6 flies. Tagetes signata has the highest oil content (4.25 % of the dry matter) of Marigold, China Aster and very good quality which can be used in the perfume industry. Tagetes minuta is Jasmine used commercially for the extraction of essential oil. France, Kenya, Australia and Brazil are the main essential oil producing countries in the world. This species is found in natural habitat in Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal and Jammu and Kashmir states of India. It has become a cash crop in the hills of Himachal Pradesh. About three tons of oil of Tagetes minuta valued at Rs. 50 lakhs is produced in Himachal Pradesh for export. On an average, 20-25 tonnes of biomass harvested per hectare yields 50-60 kg oil. The yield of oil varies from 0.20 - 0.35 %. At present one kg of oil fetches Rs. 2000.

In the recent past, Tagetes minuta oil has been identified as most valuable and precious essential oil to be used in high grade perfumes and cosmetics. The oil has broncho-dilatory, tranquilizing and anti-inflammatory properties. The oil has juvenile hormonal and insect repellant activities against flies, ants and mosquitoes.

Marigold produces aromatic sulfur containing secondary compounds mainly in roots known as thiophenes. Marigold has been found to be effective in keeping the nematode population under control. Nowadays, marigold is planted as an antagonistic crop in vegetable crops to control nematodes. 1.1.2 Origin and History Marigold is native to South and Central America, especially Mexico. From Mexico, it spread to different parts of the world in 16th Century. The generic name Tagetes was derived from ‘Tagtes’, the name of an Estrusch God. Native to American continent, marigold was discovered by the Spanish traveler Cortz who introduced it to Europe. The devotees in Spain placed this flower at the altar of Virgin Mary and from that day they came to be known as Mary’s gold or marigold.

In the language of flowers, marigold, in general means, anxiety but despair or grief in particular. African marigold represents the vulgar mind and the French marigold is a symbol of jealousy.

African marigold was first introduced into Spain early in the 16th century and became popular into Europe in 1585 under the name Flors Africonus by Emperor Charles V who launched an expedition to free Tunis from the Moors where it was naturalized on the Algerian coast. It continued to be called so until 18th Century, although it was correctly figured as Plantas Tagetes indica in Fuch‘s herbal of 1542.

Another well known type of marigold, the French marigold followed a similar route that of African marigold. Parkinson mentioned that it was called as Tanacetum peruvianum as it grew in Peru. James Justice believed that it is a Chinese plant and it was first sent to the Royal garden at Paris from where it was distributed under the name of French marigold. Baily mentioned that Tagetes erecta was put into cultivation in 1596 and Tagetes patula in 1573 in Europe. Alice Vonk developed white marigold after 56 years of research. 1.1.3 Botany Marigold belongs to the family Asteraceae (Compositae) which comprises of other cultivated flowers like ageratum, aster, chrysanthemum, cornflower, dahlia, 7 Loose Flowers daisy gaillardia and sunflower. Each flower is in fact composed of a mass of small flowers called florets. What we generally understand to be a flower is a complete inflorescence called head or capitulum. Two forms of floret exist in most of the flowers of the family Asteraceae. Those on the outside of the disc called ray florets and the other which comprise disc are called disc florets. Ray florets are female and zygomorphic. The five florets are fused to form a ligule or a flat petal. The disc florets are tubular, actinomorphic and bisexual. The double forms are generally male sterile as the disc florets are converted into showy petals. Double forms are ornamentally preferred and have good economic value. In marigold, there are two types of male sterility. Male sterility in some lines is linked to apetalous nature, therefore such male sterile lines are apetalous. In petalous male sterility, the male sterile lines will have petals. However, commercially apetalous male sterility is popular as it is stable and can be easily identified. 1.1.4 Varieties In marigold many varieties and strains are available which vary in plant height, growth habit, flower shape and size. Mostly local varieties are being cultivated by the farmers.

A) African Marigold i) Pusa Narangi Gainda : A cross of ‘Cracker Jack` and `Golden Jubilee`. It flowers in 125-136 days after sowing. Its plants are 73.30 cm tall, vigorous and uniform, foliage dark green and flowers orange coloured, carnation type, double, compact, 7.8 cm across disc florets present. It provides 25-30 t/ha of fresh flowers. It is most suitable for garland making, religious offerings and carotenoid extraction. ii) Pusa Basanti Gainda : It is a cross between ‘Golden Yellow’ and ‘Sun Giant’. It is a late maturing variety which takes 135-145 days. The flowering duration is long (40-45 days), plants 60 cm tall, vigorous and uniform, foliage dark green. Flowers sulfur yellow coloured, carnation type, double, compact, 6.9 cm across, disc florets present but invisible. The row of whorls present in the capitulum are 7-10. The number of flowers produced by a single plant are 58-60. It is ideal for loose flower production and also for growing in pots and beds in the garden. Yield : 20-25 t/ha. iii) Pusa Arpita : Produces medium sized, right orange flowers during mid December to mid February in Northern plains of India. Yield : 18-20 t/ha. B) French Marigold The other important varieties of important species are listed below : i) Tagetes erecta : Giant Double African Orange, Giant Double African Yellow, Cracker Jack. ii) Tagetes patula : Red Brocade, Rusty Red, Butter Scotch, Valencia, Sussana. iii) Tagetes tenuifolia : Golden Gem, Lulu, Pumila. 1.1.5 Soil and Climate Marigold can be cultivated in a wide variety of soils. A deep fertile, friable soil having good water holding capacity and aeration is suitable. Sandy loam soil with a pH of 7.0-7.5 having good drainage is suitable. 8 Marigold needs plenty of sunshine, so it should be grown in open sunny Marigold, China Aster and conditions. In winter, the plants and seedlings are damaged by severe frost. So Jasmine nursery should be sown under moderate conditions. The environmental conditions markedly influence the growth and flowering of marigold. Marigold is a quantitatively short day plant so flowering is accelerated by short days whereas long days may delay flowering when combined with higher temperatures. Mild temperature during growing period greatly improved flowering. 1.1.6 Propagation Marigold is generally propagated by seed. It is also propagated by cuttings by some farmers to obtain uniformity in growth and flowering. Male sterile lines are also propagated and maintained by cuttings. Plants raised from seeds are vigorous, healthy and establish well. 1.1.7 Seed Propagation Seeds of many cultivars are easily available and germinate quickly. Marigold seeds germinate well at temperatures ranging from 18-30°C. Nursery beds are prepared after thoroughly mixing well rotten farmyard manure. Raised nursery beds of convenient size are prepared. About 1 kg of seed is required for one hectare. Before sowing, the seeds are treated with Captaf or Bavistin. The nursery bed may also be drenched with 0.1 % Bavistin. Seed should be finely covered with farmyard manure or leaf mould. Watering should be given with the help of a fine rose can. Formation of hard pan should be prevented for good emergence of the seedlings. The sowing should not be too dense to prevent the damping off of the seedlings. Marigold crop can be raised three times a year. The summer crop can be sown from mid January to mid February. The winter crop can be sown from mid September to mid October. The rainy season crop can be sown from mid June to mid July. 1.1.8 Cuttings Marigold is propagated through cuttings to produce true to type plants and to maintain male sterile lines. Cuttings of 6-10 cm length can be planted in sand. The base of the cuttings may be treated with commercial formulations of Indole Butyric Acid (IBA) to promote the rooting. 1.1.9 Planting The seedlings are transplanted in the field after one month of seed sowing. A spacing of 45 x 45 cm for African marigold and 30 x 30 cm for French marigold has been found to be optimum for commercial cultivation. The seedlings at the time of transplanting should be disease free and should have 3-4 true leaves. After transplanting, a light irrigation should be given. 1.1.10 Nutrition It was observed that fresh and dry weight of plants increased for 70-75 days until flowering and need for nitrogen lasted till this stage. Potassium was required till seed formation (90-100 days). Well rotten farmyard manure @ 30 tonnes should be incorporated per hectare well in the soil at the time of soil preparation. In addition to farmyard manure, it is advisable to apply 120 kg/ha of nitrogen and 80 kg/ha each of phosphorus and potash for getting good vegetative growth and flowering. Whole quantity of phosphorus and potash should be applied at the 9 Loose Flowers time of land preparation. Nitrogen is to be applied in two split doses. The first dose should be applied 20 days after planting and the second dose 40 days after transplanting. It will be better if two foliar sprays of 0.2 % urea are done at an interval of 15 days. 1.1.11 Pinching In African marigold, because of apical dominance the plants grow tall and lanky with very few branches. Such plants are susceptible to lodging and the flower production will be less. Pinching is done to break apical dominance and to encourage axillary branching and thereby increasing flower production. French marigold does not require pinching. Pinching slightly delays flowering but improves flower production. Pinching 40 days after transplanting has been found to be optimal. 1.1.12 Growth Regulators The cultivars of African marigold usually grow taller and growth retarding chemicals have been recommended for reducing the height and improving the appearance as potted plant. SADH @ 2500 ppm reduced plant height and improved the foliage colour. The treated plants were dwarf in nature. Repeated applications of GA3 slightly improved height and flowering. 1.1.13 Irrigation For all stages of vegetative growth and flowering, sufficient amount of moisture is essential. Moisture stress at any of the vegetative and flowering stages markedly influences growth and flowering. The frequency and quantum of irrigation is dependent on species, variety, soil and season. During the summer months, the plants are liable to desiccation due to hot winds. Therefore the plants should be irrigated according to the atmospheric conditions. Winter crop requires irrigation at an interval of 8-10 days. 1.1.14 Weed Control In marigold, weed control is laborious and it involves lot of cost. If weeds are not controlled in time, growth, flowering and productivity are drastically affected. At least 5-6 manual weeding are required for the entire cropping period . 1.1.15 Harvesting and Packaging The flowers are harvested when they are fully open. After harvesting, the flowers are packed in small and big bamboo baskets. They are then transported to nearest or distant markets by buses or lorries. It is better to harvest the flowers in the morning and to store them in a cool place before packing. 1.1.16 Pigment Extraction Marigold, the most important traditional flower crop, is proving itself to be a lucrative commercial crop, with the diversity of the materials obtained and uses it can be put to, in addition to the ease in its cultivation. Extraction of pigments and essential oil from marigold started late in our country. Commercial extraction of pigments in marigold is done in Cochin and Hyderabad. There are large areas in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra where cultivation of marigold is done on a contractual basis for pigment extraction. 10 Carotenoids are the most important abundant, widely distributed and important Marigold, China Aster and Jasmine group of pigments. They are C40 terpenoid compounds and in plant kingdom, they are present both in photosynthetic and non photosynthetic tissues. In green tissues, they are present as components of chloroplast, while they are responsible for many of the yellow to orange colours of flowers and fruits. All carotenoids are derived from isoprenoid pathway.

Marigold petals are the most common concentrated source of xanthophylls. They have been extracted from Tagetes erecta and Tagetes patula. Orange coloured petals are best for the extraction of carotenoids because of higher content and ease in extraction. Analysis of flower petals of Tagetes erecta for total carotenoids at the ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi revealed a variation from 1.6 to 4.5 mg/g of petals on fresh weight basis in different varieties. Dried marigold petals contain approximately 1.6 % carotenoids. The major carotenoid fraction in marigold flower petal is xanthophyll. Lutein accounts for 80-90 % of the total xanthophyll. 1.1.17 Extraction Procedure Commercial scale extraction of carotenoid pigments in flower petals is done by using organic solvents such as hexane. Flowers are heaped and covered with black polythene sheet and allowed for fermentation for 30-45 days. After fermentation, the flowers are dried, powdered and the powder is mixed with hexane. The pigment will get dissolved in hexane. Later, the volatile solvent is allowed to evaporate and the total pigment is recovered.

In laboratory, qualitative and quantitative determination of carotenoids can be done by using the standard procedure as applied to the other carotene rich crops. Estimation can be done for both fresh and dried flower petals. Weighed quantity of sample can be grounded and blended with acetone till the residue becomes colourless. The carotenoids can then be transferred to petroleum ether and can be made to a known volume. The absorbance of this sample, measured on a spectrophotometer, can be used for the calculation of the total carotenoid content. A much simpler procedure is evaporation of the petroleum ether solvent and quantification of the left out pigment by weighing. For separation of individual fractions, column chromatography, thin layer chromatography (TLC) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) can be used. Accurate estimation of the individual fractions and their esters can be done using HPLC. 1.1.18 Utility of Carotenoids Carotenoids and their derivatives are of great importance in animals as the basis visual pigments responsible for light detection and colour discrimination. They are used for prevention and correction of vitamin A deficiency. Dietary carotenoids have been studied as agents for prevention and treatment of several diseases including cancer. Purified extract of marigold petals mainly lutein dipalmitate is marketed as opthalmological agent under the name ‘Adaptinol’.

Xanthophyll are of commercial interest mainly for their avian pigmenting properties. Dihydroxy pigments such as lutein are superior to monohydroxy and polyhydroxy pigments in their pigmenting ability. In poultry feed, it is used to enhance chicken skin colour and egg yolk pigmentation. Free xanthophylls and their esters have different degrees of stability and vary widely in their ability to act as food colourants. High solubility of lutein fatty acid esters in vegetable oils 11 Loose Flowers compared to FDA approved synthetic compounds is an important factor in the commercial application of these esters for colouring foods. Because of this reason, lutein from marigold flower petal is the best carotenoid source in food colour stuffing. 1.1.19 Disease and Insect-Pests A) Diseases : i) Damping off (Pythium sp., Rhizoctonia sp.) : This disease affects the seedlings. Before emergence brown coloured spots appear on radicle and plumule causing pre-emergence death of the seedlings. After emergence, brownish necrotic spots appear on the collar portion of the seedlings. These necrotic spots in severe cases form a girdled portion leading to the collapse of seedlings. The disease can be controlled by prophylactic drenching of nursery beds with Captaf and Bavistin. Seed treatment with Captaf 0.1 % will also reduce the incidence of the disease. ii) Leaf spot and blight (Alternaria sp., Cercospora sp., Septoria sp., Colletotrichum sp.) : Various pathogens cause leaf spot and blight in marigold. The symptoms appear as small brownish spots on leaves. In case of Alternaria infection, the spots show concentric circles. In severe cases, the infection may spread to inflorescence. In case of Cercospora, the spots show bird eye appearance with dark border and light coloured centre. Septoria infection is marked by black spots. The blight of marigold is caused by Colletotrichum sp. The infected plants show burnt appearance. iii) Inflorescence blight (Alternaria zinnae) : Initially minute brown spots appear which enlarge into blotches. The spots show zonations or concentric circle (Target board) pattern. Inflorescence gives a burnt appearance in severe cases. This disease can be controlled by Dithane M-45 (0.3 %) spray. iv) Flower bud rot (Alternaria dianthi) : This disease appears on inflorescence or young buds which show discoloured appearance in initial stages. The buds show dry rotting in case of severe infection. Bud rot can be controlled by Dithane M-45 (0.3 %) spray. v) Powdery mildew (Oidium sp., Leveillula taurica) : Whitish tiny spots appear on leaves initialy. The entire plant shows powdery appearance in severe cases. The disease can be controlled by Karathane (0.1 %) sprays. vi) Viral diseases (Cucumber Mosaic Virus, Aster Yellow Virus) : Infected plants show chlorotic streaking and yellow mosaic appearance. Infected plants get dwarfed. Rouging of diseased plants and insecticidal sprays to control vector population prevent the spread of the disease. B) Insect-pests : i) Red spider mite (Tetranychus sp.) : Mites infect old plants. The diseased plants give dusty appearance. The plants show webbed appearance. ii) Hairy caterpillar (Diacrisia obliqua) : In the initial stages they eat away the foliage later stages they eat away the ray florets of the inflorescence. iii) Leaf hopper (Empoasca fabae) : The hoppers suck sap from the leaves and stem. The infected plants show cupped or rolled leaves and give wilted 12 appearance spraying of neem oil at proper concentration may controls the Marigold, China Aster and hoppers. Jasmine iv) Slugs : They feed on the leaves of marigold. They can be controlled with Metaldehyde. 1.1.20 Seed Production Seed of important varieties is produced by maintaining isolation to obtain pure seed. The seed produced should have purity, vigour and good germinability. Specific standards for marigold seed production are not there. Marigold for seed production should be grown in open sunny conditions. The soil should be fertile, well drained with a pH of 7.0-7.5. Marigold is a cross-pollinated crop and the pollination is aided by insects like honeybees. For seed production an isolation distance of 500 m is maintained between varieties. About 1000 m isolation distance is maintained for nucleus and breeder seed production. One kilogram seed is required for producing seedlings sufficient for 1 hectare.

Seeds should be sown in raised nursery beds. The beds should be above ground level to a height of 15-20 cm and the nursery beds should be 70 cm wide. The seeds should be sown in lines 5 cm apart. Watering should be done by a rose can or through the channel. The nursery beds should be covered with a straw mulch. The seeds germinate in a week. The seeds should not be sown too dense to avoid Damping off of seedlings. Weeding is to be done at correct time. The seedlings are ready for transplantation after 25-30 days of sowing. The field should be irrigated 2-3 days before planting. The planting is done at a distance of 45 x 45 cm in case of African marigold and 30 x 30 cm in case of French marigold. Nitrogen @ 120 kg/ha and phosphorus and potash @ 80 kg/ha are ideal. Nitrogen should be applied in two split doses, 20 and 40 days after planting. Pinching should be done to remove apical dominance and to encourage the production of axillary shoots. Pinching is done 40 days after transplanting. September and October are ideal for sowing and planting of varieties like Pusa Narangi Gainda. Three to four roguings are to be done during flowering to maintain purity. Irrigation is to be given at weekly intervals. Earthing up is done at full bloom stage to avoid lodging. Harvesting of fully developed dried flowers is done. At the time of picking, flowers in which seed setting has not taken place should be avoided. The dried flowers are threshed and winnowed to obtain the seed. The yield of dried flowers is about 1 ton per hectare. The yield of clean seed is about 1 quintal per hectare.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) Mention the common symptoms of viral diseases of marigold...... 13 Loose Flowers 2) Write the advantage of use of growth regulators in African marigold......

3) Why pinching is recommended in marigold? ......

4) Write about the propagation of marigold through cutting......

1.2 CHINA ASTER

China aster (Callistephus chinensis) belongs to the family Asteraceae. It is one of the most popular of garden annuals grown throughout the world. Due to long lasting quality, cut asters are used in vases and floral decoration. As bedding plant, asters give very showy look when grown in large masses. Dwarf cultivars of China aster are very much suitable for edging and window boxes. 1.2.1 Origin The present day asters have been endued from wild species. 1.2.2 Classification and Cultivars C. Chinensis, Origin of China Various types of annual asters are available and each type have different cultivars varying in growth habit, flower shape, size and appearance of florets, colours of flowers etc. double type of asters are grouped into three groups i.e., tall, medium tall and dwarf double.

A) Tall The plant height under this group ranges between 60 to 80 cm. The types and colours in different cultivars are described below:

14 i) American branching : Flowers with long stems have wide range of Marigold, China Aster and colours i.e., dark blue, light blue, rose salmon, scarlet, violet, white Jasmine and pink. ii) Banquet powder puffs : Flowers are medium in size which are produced on rigid stems. Flowers are found in different colours are above. iii) Princess and giant princess : Extra double and large flowers are produced on long woody stems. Colour found in this type are pink deep yellow, blue, cream white, row, deepred, carmine, white, citron yellow etc. this type is suitable for cut flower purpose. iv) Peony flowered : Plant have upright growth producing chrysanthemum type flowers. Flowers are available in various colours and also good for use in vases. v) Giant of California : In this type flowers are produced late which have large size and good colour range. vi) Chikuma strain : Flowers are fully double, pompon type and ball shaped. Flower of this type also, are ideal for cut flower use. Flower are found in various shades like white, red with golden yellow centre, yellow and salmon rose, red, rose, purple and white.

B) Medium-tall

In this type, plant height ranges between 40 - 60 cm. i) Ostrich feather : Flowers are medium size having curved petals. A wide range of flower colour is available in this type. ii) Giant Comet : Plants are very much branched and hardy which produce flowers having curled petals. iii) Giant Crego : Plants in type are bushy and vigorous, flower with curled petal have various colours shades as white, deep rose, deep blue, light blue, shell pink, scarlet, salman. iv) Early Burpeeana : Early type producing mum-like flowers having semi incurred petals, flower clolours available are scarlet, blue, rose and white. v) Pompon : Plants produce globular shaped flowers having quilled petals, flowers are available in wide range of colours-scarlet, rose, light blue, dark blue, white yellow, lilac. vi) Rubens : This type also produces flowers early, pompon like Flowers are mainly used for cut flowers. vii) Liliput : Growth habit-erect, produces fully double, small flowers. viii) Unicum : This type produces large size flower having quilled petals.

C) Dwarf double This group also has several types. The plant height varies from 20 - 40 cm.

15 Loose Flowers i) Pinocchio : Flower are star shaped, more in number, dwarf and compact plants are ideal for growing in beds. ii) Colour carpet : Plants are dwarf and uniform, mum-like flowers cover whole plant. iii) Dwarf Chrysanthemum : Plants have bushy and compact growth, wide range of colour shades are available. Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore has done tremendous work in this crops and released several varieties. Main characteristics of these varieties are given hereunder. i) Kamini : Flowers deep pink, stalk length 26.8 cm, size 6.8 cm, semi double. ii) Poornima : Flowers powdery puff rype, pure white, size 6.06 cm, stalls length 24.7 cm. iii) Shashank : Flowers Powdery Puff type, creamish white, 5.8 cm in size, stalk length 25 cm. iv) Violet Cushion : flowers violet, 4.5 cm in size with a stalk length of 19 cm. The NARP research station of MPKV, Ganeshkhind, Pune also released varieties viz. Phule Ganesh White, Phule Ganesh Violet, Phule Ganesh Pink and Phule Ganesh Purple. 1.2.3 Climatic Requirement Light and temperature play major roler in growth and flowering of aster. The duration of light has considerable effect on growth and development. If aster seedlings are provided artificial light during short days, they can flower round the year. Night temperature of 10 degree centigrade is ideal for producing double flowers with strong stems whereas higher temperature results in weaker stems and lesser number of petals. The optimum temperature range day (20-30°C) and night (15-17°C). the relative humidity for optimum growth should be 50-60 %. 1.2.4 Raising of Seedlings Soil: well drained sandy loom soil with pH range of 6.8-7.0.

China aster is propagated by seeds. At optimum temperature of 21 degree centigrade, seed germinate in a weak time. Seeds have no dormancy and fresh seeds have narrower temperature requirement than older seeds for germination. Healthy seeds produce vigorous seedlings whereas seed infected with Botrytis cineraria germinate slowly and produce poor quality seedlings. The seed rate is 2.5-3.0 kg/ha. 1.2.5 Transplanting The seedlings are transplanted in the evening in well prepared beds which are sufficiently rich in organic matter. Transplanting is done in first week of October (in plains) at a spacing of 30 x 20 cm or 30 x 15 cm for maximum yield of good quality cut flowers.

Irrigation: China aster is a shallow rooted crop hence requires regular watering. In general, it is irrigated at 7-10 days interval. 16 1.2.6 Nutrition Marigold, China Aster and Jasmine Aster cultivation require proper manuring and fertilization because nutritional deficiency results in poor growth and flowering. Deficiency of nitrogen causes stunted growth and lesser flower production with dull colour. Due to deficiency of phosphorus, vegetative growth is retarded considerably and flowering is delayed. Application of 120 kg N, 80 kg P2O5 and 100 kg K2O per hectare gives best flower yield. Fertilizers are given in three equal doses i.e., one basal dose and two top dressing, one at 10 to 12 leaf stage and another just before flowering. Application of Zn, Cu, B and Mn improves the quality of flowers.

Harvesting: For loose flowers : Individual flower are harvested. For cut flowers : Flowers with long stalks are harvested. Yield : 18-20 t flowers per hectare and 400-500 big bundles of flowers containing 30 bunches/bundle in one hectare. 1.2.7 Disease and Insect-Pests A) Diseases i) Wilt : This disease is caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. callistephi. Sometimes, Verticillium Albo-atrum, together with F. oxysporum F. callistephi also causes this disease.drenching of soil with copper fungicides is effective is controlling the disease. ii) Collar or Root Rot : Symptoms of this disease are similar to those caused by wilt. It is caused by Phytophthora cryptogea. Stems and roots of infected plants appear water soaked and black. To minimize the disease infestation, drenching with metalaxyl and spraying with bavistin should be done. iii) Rust : It is caused by Coleosporium solidaginis. Major symptom of this disease is appearance of yellowish orange spots on the lower surface of leaves. This disease can be controlled by spraying of 0.1 % benlate. iv) Viral disease : This disease is caused by Chlorogenus callistephi which is transmitted by leaf hopper. The main symptoms of this disease are development of pale yellowish tinge on the leaves and large number of adventitious shoots. Dwarf plants produce off colour blooms. The disease can be minimised by controlling the vector by spraying the suitable insecticide and destruction of diseased plants immediately after appearance of symptoms. B) Insect-pests i) Leaf hopper : This insect is very serious as it feeds on aster plant as well as transmit the virus. It can be controlled by spray of rogor @ 2 ml/l or dimecron @ 1 ml/l. ii) Black blister beetle : It attacks on foliage and flowers for controlling the insect, spraying with malathion @ 2 ml/l is effective. iii) Potato Aphid : Aphid feeds on leaves, stems and flowers. Control measure applied for checking leaf hopper are also useful for controlling this insect. 17 Loose Flowers iv) Spider mite : Foliage of infested plants become discoloured and distorted. Spider mite can be controlled by spray with Kelthane @ 2 ml/l.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) Write about the propagation of China aster......

2) Explain the significance of dwarf varieties of china aster......

3) Discuss the symptoms of root rot in China aster......

1.3 JASMINE

1.3.1 Introduction Jasmine is one of the oldest fragrant flowers cultivated by man. The flower is used for various purposes viz., making garlands, bouquet, decorating hair of women, religious offering etc. It is also used for production of Jasmine concrete which is used in cosmetic and perfumery industries. More than 80 jasmine species are found in India, of which only three species are used for commercial cultivation. They are Jasminum sambac (Gundumalli / Madurai Malli), J. auriculatum (Mullai) and J. grandiflorum (Jathimalli / Pitchi). The first two species are mainly cultivated for selling as fresh flowers whereas the last one is cultivated for concrete extraction. The main beauty and uniqueness of Jasmine is its odour, which cannot be imitated by any known synthetic aromatic chemical, still has a unique status in the perfume world. Ancient Literature of ‘Sangam’ period (500 B.C. to A.D. 200) clearly indicates that all these three species have been mentioned in those ancient literatures and therefore, South India could well have been an important center of origin for many of the Jasminium species.

18 In India, jasmines are cultivated throughout the country but the commercial Marigold, China Aster and cultivation is confined to Coimbatore, Madurai, and Dindigul (Tamil Nadu); Jasmine Bangalore, Bellary, Mysore and Kolar (Karnataka); Kannauj, Jaunpur and Gazipur (Uttar Pradesh); Udaipur, Jaipur, Ajmer and Kota (Rajasthan); Ranaghat, Kolaghat, Pancskura (West Bengal); parts of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.

Tamil Nadu is the leading producer of jasmine in the country with an annual production of 77247 t from the cultivated area of 9360 ha. The flowers produced in the state are being exported to the neighboring countries viz., Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malaysia and Middle East countries. The major jasmine producing districts of Tamil Nadu are Dindigul, Salem, Madurai, Tirunelveli, Virudhunagar, Trichy, etc. It is an ideal crop for small farmers whose land holdings are less than 1 acre. 1.3.2 Description Jasmine is an evergreen semi vining shrub. It grows to the height of 8-10 feet. It has oval green rich leaves. The leaf shape is simple, trifoliate or pinnate with up to nine leaflets. Each leaflet is 2-3 inches long. The flower is about one inch. Jasmine flowers are white in colour. But some species have yellow colour. Unlike most genera in Oleaceae which have four corollas, jasmine often have five or six lobes. Stamens two and ovary 2 locule with 1-4 erect ovule. Fruit is berry and black in colour. Flowers are often sweetly scented. Its stems are slender, trailing, green and glabrous. Mostly it flowers in spring or summer. But J. nudiflorum flowers in winter. 1.3.3 Uses and Importance i) Flower : Widely cultivated for its flowers, jasmine is enjoyed in the garden, as a house plant, and as loose flowers. The flowers are worn by women in their hair in southern and Southeast Asia. The delicate jasmine flower opens only at night and may be plucked in the morning when the tiny petals are tightly closed, then stored in a cool place until night. The petals begin to open between six and eight in the evening, as the temperature lowers. ii) Jasmine Tea : Jasmine tea is consumed in China. Jasminum sambac flowers are also used to make so-called jasmine tea, which often has a base of green tea. iii) Jasmine Essential Oil : Jasmine essential oil is in common use and oil is extracted from flowers by the labour-intensive method of enfleurage or through chemical extraction. It is expensive due to the large number of flowers needed to produce a small amount of oil. The flowers are collected in the night. The flowers are laid out on cotton cloths soaked in olive oil for several days and then extracted leaving the true jasmine essence. Some of the countries producing jasmine essential oil are India, Egypt, China and Morocco.

Its chemical constituents include methyl anthranilate, indole, benzyl alcohol, linalool, and skatole. Many species also yield an absolute, which is used in perfumes and incense.

19 Loose Flowers iv) Cultural importance Jasmine flower is called as “Chameli” in Hindi. “Mallika” in Sanskrit “Malligai” in Tamil In Tamil Nadu, Jasmine is mainly produced at Madurai District and the same is going by flight to Mumbai the use at Mumbai and further export to other countries. The Madurai city is called as “Malligai Maanagar” (City of Jasmine). Jasmine flower is mainly worn in the hair of ladies for its fragrances. Further it is used for flower decorations, in marriages and important functions. Jasmine is cultivated at Pangala, in Karnataka, India, and exported to Middle Eastern countries. 1.3.4 Origin and Distribution Jasmines are native to tropical and subtropical region and were introduced to mid sixteenth century. Jasminum sambac (Arabian Jasmine) is native of East Indies contrary to opinion originated in west India. Jasminum grandiflorum (Spanish Jasmine) is considered to be of Persian origin. Jasminum officinale var. grandiflorum is native of North West India. Jasminum auriculatum is native of south India and central province.

Jasmines are distributed all over the tropical and subtropical part of world. Among these 40 species are reported to occur in India. Most of them occurred in the wild form. 1.3.5 Species i) Important Species

Jasmine belongs to the family Oleaceae and order Oleales. The correct number of species belonging to jasmine has not been revealed. Although about more than 100 species has been reported including: a) Jasminum auriculatum b) Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst. ex DC. – Forest jasmine c) Jasminum adenophyllum Wall. – Pinwheel Jasmine, Bluegrape jasmine, Princess jasmine, Che vang, Lai la co tuye d) Jasminum dichotomum Vahl – Gold Coast Jasmine e) Jasminum grandiflorum L. – Spanish Jasmine, Royal Jasmine, Catalonian Jasmine f) Jasminum humile L. – Italian Yellow Jasmine g) Jasminum mesnyi Hance – Japanese Jasmine, Primrose Jasmine, Yellow Jasmine h) Jasminum odoratissimum L. – Yellow Jasmine i) Jasminum officinale L. – Common Jasmine, Poet’s Jasmine, j) Jasminum parkeri Dunn – Dwarf Jasmine k) Jasminum polyanthum Franch. 20 l) Jasminum sambac (L.) Aiton – Arabian Jasmine Marigold, China Aster and Jasmine m) Jasminum multiflorum L. ii) Description of commercially grown species of India a) Jasminum grandiflorum (Mysore Mallige) Popularly known as royal or spanish jasmine. Mysore Mallige is the most well-known variety, which derives its name since it is grown mostly around Mysore city in Karnataka state. Mysore Mallige, mostly grown in and around Mysore city is a viable crop for small farmers. Farmers reap two crops of this seasonal flower. Apart from the local market, the flower is in demand in parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Botanical description : The plant is a scandent, 2 - 3 m (6.6 to 9.8 ft) in height, branchless terete, or slightly compressed sometimes hollow, sparsely pubescent, leaves alternate, trifoliately compound; 1 - 2 cm (0.39 - 0.79 in) long, petiole is about 1 cm (0.39 in) long and it has small chanel running in the middle, leaf blade ovate to ellipse, 4-8 x 2-3.5 cm thick, dark green in colour and nerves slightly raised beneath. Cymes, terminal, 1 to 5 flowered bracts subulate, 4-8 mm. Flowers are very fragrant. Pedicel 0.3-2 cm (0.12- 0.79 in). Calyx glabrous or sparsely pubescent; lobes 8-9 linear, 5-7 mm. Corolla tube is slightly pinkish, 1.5 cm (0.59 in) long petals pure white, lobes oblong to sub orbicular, 5-9 mm broad. Berry is purple black, globose, about 1 cm (0.39 in) in diameter. The essential oil content in the flowers ranges from 0.24 to 0.42 per cent. Principal aromatic constituents : The principal aromtic componenets are Indol, Jasmone, Benzyl Acetate, Benzyl Benzoate, Methyl Anthranilate, Linalool & Geraniol. Its modern day applications are in perfumery, cosmetics, Incense, Aroma Therapy and Ayurveda. It is also used externally to soothe dry and sensitive skin. b) Jasminum auriculatum (Hadagali Mallige) Hadagali Mallige is known for its rich fragrance and shelf life in Bellary district of Karnataka. Botanical description : Plant is small shrub with little scandent nature. Leaves are simple, thick, margin folded upside, slightly pubescent. Flowers are borne in axillary cymes. Flower with long corolla tube around 1 cm (0.39 in) long. Petals 7, spreading, white in colour. The sandy red soil prevailing in this region is ideal for cultivation of Hadgali Mallige. The dry weather and good water supply also adds to the congenial environment for the cultivation of this crop. It is propagated mainly through cuttings. Planted directly in the months of July – August on the onset of monsoon. The flowering season spreads up to six months. Flowers are highly scented and possess good essential oil recovery (0.24 to 0.42 %). The flowers are used for extraction of essential oil. c) Jasminum sambac (Udupi Mallige) It is commonly known as Arabian jasmine, Tuscan jasmine, bela and mogra.The variety grown as Udupi Mallige.

21 Loose Flowers Botanical description: Plant is a small and bushy with leaves of light green with yellowish shade, 5-7 x 2.5-3.5 cm, nerves slightly raised beneath, acute at both ends, entire, ovate-lanceolate. Flowers in cymose inflorescence and borne in the axils and also terminal. Calyx 6, petals 6-8, bracteate. Fruits are small, 0.4-0.5 mm in diameter. The laterite soil condition of the region, high humidity and heavy rainfall (more than 2,500-3,000 mm/98-120 in per annum) makes area suitable for growing this crop. Propagation is mainly by cuttings. Planting is done in the month August-September. d) Jasminum multiflorum L. Commonly known as kunda, kundo and kakada. Botanical description: this is one of the resistant jasmine, not scented and very ornamental. Long duration flowering beginning from December to August. Other Jasmine species include J. bessianum, J. arborescens, J. calophyllum Vahl, J. flexile Vahl, J. humile L and J. pubescens Wild. 1.3.6 Important Varieties Developed in India and Their Characteristics A) J. auriculatum i) Parimullai This variety belongs to the species Jasminum auriculatum (Jui). It has a medium round bud with flowering duration of about 9 months/year. It is resistant to gall mite. The average yield is 8t/ha. ii) CO 1 This variety belongs to the species Jasminum auriculatum (Jui). Flowers of this variety have a long corolla tube and thus easy to harvest. The average yield is 8.8 t/ha. iii) CO 2 This variety belongs to the species Jasminum auriculatum (Jui). Flower buds of this variety are bold with long corolla tube. It is tolerant to phyllody disease. The average yield is 11.1 t/ha. B) J. grandiflorum i) CO 1 (Pitchi) This variety belongs to the species Jasminum grandiflorum (Chameli). It is released by T.N.A.U., Coimbatore. It is suitable for loose flower production and oil extraction. The average flower yield is about 10 t/ha/year while the estimated concrete yield is 29 kg/ha. ii) CO 2 This variety belongs to the species Jasminum grandiflorum (Chameli). The variety produces bold pink buds with long corolla tube. The average yield is 11.68t/ha. iii) Arka Surabhi (Pink pin) This variety belongs to the species Jasminum grandiflorum (Chameli). It is 22 released by IIHR, Bangalore. The average flower yield is 10 t/ha. C) J. sambac Marigold, China Aster and Jasmine i) Gundumalli This variety belongs to the species Jasminum sambac (Mogra). Flowers are round with good fragrance. The average yield of flowers is 7-8 t/ha while the estimated concrete yield is 15 kg/ha. ii) Rambanam and Madanbanam This variety belongs to the species Jasminum sambac (Mogra). This is a high yielding variety with long flower buds. iii) Double Mogra This variety belongs to the species Jasminum sambac (Mogra). The flowers have 8-10 whorls of petals with excellent fragrance resembling that of white rose. 1.3.7 Flowering Flowering in Jasmine was almost throughout the year in J. grandiflorum, J. flexile, J. pubescens, J. calophyllum and J. regidum. Other species flowered from February to October. Flower opening in Jasmine is not uniform in all the species and it varies from species to species. On the basis of flower opening time velusamy et. al. (1976) grouped the species in to early, medium and very late. 1.3.8 Chromosomal Studies in Jasmine Chromosome number has been determined in jasmine from time to time by many workers as it is very important parameter for breeding programmes. Sax and Abbe (1932) reported 2n=26 in J. fruticans L. Taylor (1945) carried out extensive chromosomal investigation in 129 species of family Oleaceae and reported n=13 as a basic number of Jasmine. Krishnaswamy and Raman (1948) carried out cytogenetical studies in Indian Jasmine and confirmed chromosome numbers of four varieties of J. sambac and other species. J. sambac cv. Gundumalli : 2n=39 J. flexile : 2n=52 J. primulinum : 2n=39 J. angustifolium : 2n=52 1.3.9 Cultivation i) Soil : Jasmine can be grown on a wide range of soils. Well-drained, rich loamy soil with a pH ranging from 6.5-7.5 is ideal for their cultivation. ii) Climate : Jasmine prefers mild and tropical climate. Jasmine is commercially grown in India under open field conditions. The ideal requirements for successful cultivation of jasmine are mild winter, warm summer, moderate rainfall and sunny days. Jasmines grow well upto 1200 m. A well-distributed annual rainfall of 800 to 1000 mm is optimum for growth and development.

The dry and warm weather with low humidity is good for the crop. Flowering starts during March - April and continues up to June - July, April - May being the peak season.

23 Loose Flowers iii) Season of planting : The ideal time for planting in North India is during July - August and from the end of January - February, while in South India planting is done any time between July - December.

iv) Spacing : TNAU, Coimbatore has recommended a planting distance of 1.5 x 1.5 m for J. auriculatum and J. sambac and a spacing of 2.0 x 1.5 m for J. grandiflorum.

v) Pit digging : The soil should be well pulverized and weeds are removed before planting. One or two initial ploughings are required to remove the weeds present in the land, which is followed by digging of pits. Pits of 45 cm3 are prepared one month before planting and are exposed to sunlight. A few days before planting each pit should be applied 10 kg of Farm Yard Manure (FYM) before filling the pits; pits are filled with FYM, fresh soil and coarse sand in the ratio of 2:1:1. Pits are watered to settle the soil compost mixture.

vi) Method of planting : Well-rooted, healthy and strong seedlings obtained from cutting/layering are planted in each pit. A hole is dug in the centre of the pit sufficient enough to accommodate the soil ball of the seedling. The soil ball is placed in the centre of the pit and the soil is firmly pressed around the seedlings. The plants are then immediately watered. 1.3.10 Propagation i) Seed : Seed setting and its germination is a rare phenomenon, however it depends on genotype and surrounding environment. Extensive studies on seed set and germination has been carried out at IIHR, Bangalore. Under natural pollination seed setting was almost negligible in J. grandiflorum Linn. strain ‘Pink Pin’ and ‘Pink Thrum’ and J. sambac Ait var ‘Gundumalli’ 30 % in J. calophyllum Wall and 50 % in case of J. auriculatum Vahl var. Parimullai. J. grandiflorum is sterile in nature. Pollen sterility and non viability may be reason of sterility. The diploid species Jasminum auriculatum and Jasminum grandiflorum can arise plant from seed and having 75-84 % germination ability. Higher temperature and humidity hasten the germination. Maximum germination occur in saw dust and sphagnum moss.

ii) Layering : Layering is done during June - July in North India and from June - December in South India. For preparation of layers, well matured, one year old shoots are selected and are buried in the soil 10-15 cm deep after making a shallow, slanting cut in the portion that is to be buried. The root formation occurs in 90-120 days.

iii) Cutting : It is the easiest method of propagation of jasmine J. grandiflorum and J. sambac are best propagated by apical cuttings while J. auriculatum is propagated by semi hardwood cuttings. Normally 22-25 cm long cuttings with 3-4 nodes are planted in rooting media.

Cuttings taken during April - September has highest percentage of rooting with maximum rooting in June planted cuttings. The basal portion of softwood cuttings is treated with growth regulating substances (IBA 400 ppm and IAA @ 1000 ppm) before planting. The cuttings are buried more than 5 cm deep in the rooting medium and are spaced 7 cm apart. The cuttings 24 are ready for transplanting into the main field after 4 to 5 months of planting Marigold, China Aster and in the rooting media. Jasmine iv) Grafting and Budding : Approach grafting in Gundumalli (Jasminum auriculatum) on Mullai (Jasminum sambac) was successful. Besides patch budding and side grafting practices proved that Jasminum grandiflorum is compatible with Jasminum sambac cv. Madhaban. v) Micropropagation : For large scale multiplication of uniform and disease free plant can be obtained by tissue culture method. Successful callus proliferation from the culture of buds, petals, anthers, internode and peduncle are regenerated of plants from stem apices in J. officinale cultured on Miller media has been done so far. Besides a modified half strength MS medium

containing 1 mg/l GA3 and .1 mg/l NAA found best for leaf formation. 1.3.11 Aftercare i) Manuring & fertilization : Many commercial growers use organic manure

@ 10 kg/plant/year. A fertilizer dose of 100 g N, 150 g P2O5 and 100 g of

K2O per plant over a basal dose of 100 kg FYM /plant/year is ideal for J. grandiflorum at Bangalore. Further Mg (40 kg/h), Zn (10 kg/h) and B (5 kg/ h) along with N, P & K may get good result for yield. The N dose can be reduced to half (50 kg/h) for foliar spray beginning from first week of

February at fortnight interval. In J. auriculatum 120 g N, 240 g P2O5 and

240 g of K2O per plant is required. While for J. sambac 90 g N, 120 g P2O5

and 240 g of K2O per plant is beneficial. For J. multoiflorum 120 g N per plant is recommended in Bangalore. ii) Weeding : Weed growth within the jasmine crop competes with the main crop for nutrients. Therefore it is essential to remove the weeds at the appropriate time. After pruning, the soil 15-30 cm from the main stem around the bushes is stirred to a depth of 15 cm. This should be repeated every two to three months. Though manual weed control is effective, but it is very expensive. Mulching also reduces the weed population considerably. Chemical weed control is comparatively economical, convenient and efficient in eradicating weeds with one or two applications. iii) Intercropping : In the initial years when there is sufficient space between the plants, vegetable crops and ornamental plants can be grown as intercrop. iv) Pruning : Pruning is an important activity as it influences growth, flower- bud initiation, differentiation and, ultimately, the flower production in Jasmine. Usually, irrigation is stopped before pruning and plants are pruned to half their original length. All the leaves are stripped off after pruning. All the cut ends are smeared with Bordeaux paste to prevent entry of pathogens. Pruning is done at 45 cm from the ground level. Pruning done during mid of December to mid January results in maximum number of branches and higher yield of flowers v) Irrigation : Adequate moisture in the soil is necessary for proper growth and flowering in jasmines. Plants are irrigated by flooding once a week in the summer months. After flowering, no irrigation is normally required till after the next pruning and manuring.

25 Loose Flowers 1.3.12 Harvesting The plants start flowering six months after planting. However the commercial yields are taken from the third year onwards. For fresh flowers, fully developed, unopened flower buds are hand-picked early in the morning. The flowers should be handled carefully during harvest and transport. 1.3.13 Post Harvest Management Flower should be graded according to their shape, size and freshness. Corrugated fibre boxes are the best for packing before sending them distance market. Bamboo basket can also be used for local market. Stage of harvest and pre and post harvest handling influence the flower shelflife. Application of boric acid, aluminum sulphate keep the flower fresh for longer duration compared to soaking the flower in normal distilled water. 1.3.14 Yield The flower yield in jasmines varies considerably according to the species and cultivars and management practices. The flower-yield of various cultivars in kg/ ha are given below: J. auriculatum : 4733 - 9152 (kg/ha) J. sambac : 739 - 8129 (kg/ha) J. grandiflorum : 4329 - 10144 (kg/ha) The life of a jasmine plantation is between 10-15 years. It is advisable to replant the whole plantation after every 15 years. 1.3.15 Oil Extraction Essential oils are concentrated volatile aromatic compounds produced by plants; easily evaporated essence that give plants their wonderful scents and Jasmine is no exception. Out of the J. sambac, J. auriculatum, J. odorotissium of this, J. grandiflorum yields the world famous jasmine oil used in soap, cosmetics, mouth washes, denitrifies, bath salt and tobacco. Fresh jasmine flower are extracted with hexane, benzole or benzole with Ethyl acetate (5 to 10 %) and the concrete obtained were stored under refrigeration until required. The absolute is extracted from the concrete using 95 % ethanol. Flower concrete recovery from different species : J. auriculatum : 0.28 – 0.36 % J. sambac ` : 0.14 - 0.19 % J. grandiflorum : 0.25 - 0.30 % 1.3.16 Jasmine Concrete India is the second largest producer and exporter of Jasmine concrete to world market. The Netherlands, Italy, Algeria, Turkey, Moracco and Tunisia are the important jasmine concrete producing countries of the world.

26 1.3.17 Disease and Insect-Pests Marigold, China Aster and Jasmine A) Diseases : i) Leaf-blight (Cercospora jasminicola and Alternaria jasmini)

Symptoms: This disease occurs in a severe form on J. grandiflorum. Reddish-brown, circular spots are produced on the upper surface of the leaves, spreading rapidly in the rainy season. The infected leaves curl and start drying from the margins. Even the young shoots dry up. In severe cases of infection, vegetative buds and young branches dry up. The flower production is very much reduced in infected plants.

Control: Spraying of 0.4 % Benlate solution, 0.2 % Dithane M-45 or 0.1% Bordeaux mixture has been found effective in control of the disease. ii. Rust (Urornyces hobsoni)

Symptoms : Rust occurs on all the aerial parts of the plants including flowers. Yellowish orange coloured pustules appear on the lower side of the leaves and also on young twigs and flowers buds. The infected parts become distorted.

Control : The disease can be controlled by pruning the branches or spraying Copper Oxychloride (0.3 %) or Mancozeb (0.2 %). Sulphur at the rate of 20-25 kg/ha is also useful. iii) Wilt (Fusarium solani)

Symptoms : The disease occurs in patches and the roots turn black. In the case of sclerotial wilt, in addition to the above symptoms, white mycelia are found generally girdling the roots and the sclerotia are found adhering to the roots of the wilted plants.

Control : Drenching the soil around the plant with 1 % Bordeaux mixture controls this disease.

B) Insect-pests : i) Bud Worm (Hendecasis duplifacialis) Symptoms: It is a greenish larva with a black head, which bores into immature jasmine buds and feeds on floral structures and, in severe cases, webbing of buds. Control: Spray Spinosad @ 0.5 ml/lt. ii) The Gallery Worm (Elasmopolpus jasrninoghagus) Symptoms: It is a serious pest, which causes webbing of terminal leaves, shoots and towers. Control: The plants should be sprayed with Malathion (0.2 %) to control these insects. iii) Mites Symptoms : The mites attack the undersurface of leaves, which become yellow and drop off. Severe puckering and discoloration of leaves are caused 27 Loose Flowers by the gall mite in J. auriculatum. The variety Parimullai released by the TNAU, Coimbatore, is resistant to gall mite.

Control: Wettable Sulphur (0.3 %) can be sprayed on the infested plants to control this pest.

iv) Root-Knot Nematode (Meloidogyne incognita)

Symptoms: It causes severe stunting of plants, branches become dry with yellow leaves which drop prematurely.

Control: Application of Neem cake at 1 t/ha effectively suppresses the nematode population.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) Write about the significance of intercropping in jasmine plantation...... 2) How wilt is managed in the jasmine? ...... 3) Discuss the oil extraction and uses of jasmine...... 1.4 LET US SUM UP Marigold, China Aster and Jasmine are important flower crops grown since ages. Their utility for decoration and extraction of high value oil has also been practiced since many years. The growing environment of all these flowering plants is distinct. Several insect pests and disease affect these plants. Their timely management is essential for successful production of quality flower. 1.5 KEY WORDS Nematodes : These are tiny animals infecting the roots of the plants. They are found in the soil. They are thread like creature with pointed mouth. 28 Propagation : It’s a technique of plant multiplication. A number Marigold, China Aster and processes are adopted under the propagation. Jasmine

Mites : These are also tiny insects affecting a number of plants in different ways.

1. 6 FURTHER REFERENCES

1) Bose, T.K. and Yadav, L.P. (ad.) (1989). Commercial Floriculture, Naya Prokash, Calcutta.

2) Larson, R.A. (1980). Introduction to Floriculture, Academic Press, New York.

3) Chadha, K.L. and Choudhury, B. (1986). Ornamental Horticulture in India, ICAR, New Delhi.

4) Swarup, Vishnu (1997). Ornamental Horticulture, Macmillan, New Delhi.

5) Sindhu, S.S. and Choudhary, M.L. (2001). Commercial Flower Production, Division of Floriculture & Landscaping, IARI, New Delhi-12.

1.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Mention the common symptoms of viral diseases of marigold.

Infected plants show chlorotic streaking and yellow mosaic appearance. Infected plants get dwarfed.

2) Write the advantage of use of growth regulators in African marigold.

The cultivars of African marigold usually grow taller and growth retarding chemicals have been recommended for reducing the height and improving the appearance as potted plant. SADH @ 2500 ppm reduced plant height and improved the foliage colour. The treated plants were dwarf in nature.

3) Why pinching is recommended in Marigold?

Just to reduce the height and promote side barching to get more number of flowers from each of the plants.

4) Write about the propagation of marigold through cutting.

Marigold is propagated through cuttings to produce true to type plants and to maintain male sterile lines. Cuttings of 6-10 cm length can be planted in sand. The base of the cuttings may be treated with commercial formulations of Indole butyric acid (IBA) to promote the rooting.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Write about the propagation of China aster. 29 Loose Flowers China aster is propagated by seeds. At optimum temperature of 21 degree centigrade, seed germinate in a weak time. Seeds have no dormancy and fresh seeds have narrower temperature requirement than older seeds for germination

2) Explain the significance of dwarf varieties of china aster.

The dwarf varieties are easy for management. Do not require staking or support. So additional expenditure is curtailed.

3) Discuss the symptoms of root rot in China aster.

Symptoms of this disease are similar to those caused by wilt. It is caused by Phytophthora cryptogea. Stems and roots of infected plants appear water soaked and black. To minimize the disease infestation, drenching with metalaxyl and spraying with bavistin should be done.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) Write about the significance of intercropping in jasmine plantation.

At the initial stage of plantation of jasmine, sufficient space is available. It can be utilized for the planting of other crop plats. It increases the income from unit area of land.

2) How wilt is managed in the jasmine?

The disease occurs in patches and the roots turn black. In the case of sclerotial wilt, in addition to the above symptoms, white mycelia are found generally girdling the roots and the sclerotia are found adhering to the roots of the wilted plants. Drenching the soil around the plant with 1 % Bordeaux mixture controls this disease.

3) Discuss the oil extraction and uses of jasmine.

Essential oils are concentrated volatile aromatic compounds produced by plants; easily evaporated essence that give plants their wonderful scents and Jasmine is no exception. Out of the J. sambac, J. auriculatum, J. odorotissium of this, J. grandiflorum yields the world famous jasmine oil used in soap, cosmetics, mouth washes, denitrifies, bath salt and tobacco. Fresh jasmine flower are extracted with hexane, benzole or benzole with Ethyl acetate (5 to 10 %) and the concrete obtained were stored under refrigeration until required. The absolute is extracted from the concrete using 95 % ethanol.