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ABSTRACT 1980: Reagan, Carter, and the Politics of Religion in America Andrew P. Hogue, Ph.D. Mentor: Martin J. Medhurst, Ph.D

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ABSTRACT 1980: Reagan, Carter, and the Politics of Religion in America Andrew P. Hogue, Ph.D. Mentor: Martin J. Medhurst, Ph.D ABSTRACT 1980: Reagan, Carter, and the Politics of Religion in America Andrew P. Hogue, Ph.D. Mentor: Martin J. Medhurst, Ph.D. This dissertation examines the political uses of religion in the 1980 presidential election, doing so within the broader context of how and why those uses emerged, as well as how they functioned to usher in a new era, setting the parameters for future presidential candidates’ uses of religion in presidential elections. I go about this by first examining several streams that converged in 1980, among them: the expansion of the American conservative movement upon its inclusion of religious conservatism as a major concern; the various historical factors that led to the engagement of religious conservatives in American politics; the surfacing of religious rhetoric in presidential politics during the 1976 election; and the disappointment experienced by religious conservatives during the Carter presidency. I then closely examine of the candidacies of Ronald Reagan, Jimmy Carter, and John B. Anderson in1980, showing the ways in which these candidates constructed lasting discourses of political religion and signaled the emergence of a new religious era in presidential politics. Finally, I observe the legacy of the 1980 presidential election, offering lessons from it to inform what appears to be the present dawn of a new religious era in American politics. 1980: Reagan, Carter, and the Politics of Religion in America by Andrew P. Hogue, B.A., M.A. A Dissertation Approved by the Department Political Science ___________________________________ Mary P. Nichols, Ph.D., Chairperson Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Baylor University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Approved by the Dissertation Committee ___________________________________ Martin J. Medhurst, Ph.D., Chairperson ___________________________________ David K. Nichols, Ph.D. ___________________________________ Jerold L. Waltman, Ph.D. ___________________________________ Barry G. Hankins, Ph.D. ___________________________________ Christopher Marsh, Ph.D. Accepted by the Graduate School December 2009 ___________________________________ J. Larry Lyon, Ph.D., Dean Page bearing signatures is kept on file in the Graduate School. Copyright © 2009 by Andrew P. Hogue All rights reserved TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS v DEDICATION viii Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION 1 2. RELIGION AND THE CONSERVATIVE MOVEMENT: A RHETORICAL HISTORY, 1944-1979 10 Freedom or The Road to Serfdom? Friedrich A. Hayek’s Conservative Critique Traditionalism and the Consequences of Ideas God and Man at Yale: William F. Buckley and the Critique of the Liberal Establishment Whitaker Chambers and Anti-Communism Barry Goldwater and the Move to the Mainstream Carrying the Conservative Torch: Ronald Reagan, 1961- 1979 3. AMERICAN CHANGE AND RELIGIOUS ENGAGEMENT, 1942-1976 87 The Newfound Prominence of Evangelicals Interest Group Politics of the 1970s Watergate Changes in Church-State Relations The Permissive Culture 4. RAISING THE RHETORIC OF RIGHTEOUSNESS: THE PIVOTAL 1976 ELECTION 133 iii How Ford versus Carter Came to Be Ford versus Carter: A Brief Campaign Overview Religious Rhetoric in 1976: A Major Development Religious Rhetoric: Did it Matter? 5. TWO ROADS DIVERGED: RELIGIOUS CONSERVATIVES AND THE CARTER DISAPPOINTMENT 187 The Carter Disappointment Part I: The Broader Political Context The Carter Disappointment Part II: The Rise of the Religious Right 6. THE BIRTH OF A NEW RELIGIOUS POLITICS IN 1980 232 Forging the Political Religion of the Right: Ronald Reagan’s Religious Politics Forging the Political Religion of the Center-Left: Jimmy Carter’s Religious Politics in 1980 Bidding Farewell to a Bygone Era: The Curious Case of John B. Anderson A Look at the Big Picture: What 1980 Meant for Religion in Presidential Politics 7. THE LEGACY OF 1980 AT THE BRINK OF A NEW ERA 342 The Legacy of 1980 . At the Brink of a New Era A Concluding Meditation on Religion in Presidential Politics SOURCES CONSULTED 374 iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS While convention would dictate that professional acknowledgments come first, I cannot in good faith recognize the sacrifices and contributions of anyone before those of the two people to whom this work is dedicated. My wife, Tiffany, has joyfully sacrificed more for this project—and no less for this dream—than any spouse should. Having a spouse who is interested in the specifics of your life’s work is a great gift. Having one who is willing to sacrifice much for what that work requires is an humbling gift. But having a spouse who is also a best friend is a gift beyond description. My daughter, Anna, couldn’t care less about this work, and I love her for that. But she did sacrifice, knowingly or not, when Daddy “needed to write” and gave up two afternoons a week of fun bus rides, museum trips, and zoo adventures. Thank you, Anna, for liberating me the other three afternoons each week, and thank you for times I’ll never forget, even when this work sits dusty on a shelf. I have incurred a great many intellectual debts in the course of writing this work, but none holds a candle to those owed to Martin J. Medhurst. Many know Marty as a world-class scholar and a first-rate gentlemen. Few, however, have had the privilege to know Marty as I have come to know him—as the finest mentor a scholar could ask for. In addition to training me in this craft—something he has done selflessly, often prioritizing review of my work when demands on his time are many—Marty has magnanimously rewarded me with opportunities to grow. I have been honored to be his collaborator, grateful to be his mentee and friend. v The dissertation committee likewise deserves much credit. David Nichols, Jerold Waltman, Barry Hankins, and Chris Marsh have pored over this work, offering constructive criticism and helpful instruction. More broadly, each has influenced my trajectory as a teacher and a scholar, and a student could ask for no finer an assembly than this to entrust with his graduate training—of this I am convinced. While space no doubt precludes the mention of every person who has contributed to this process, several additional persons cannot go unmentioned. First is Dr. Kurt Ritter, Professor Emeritus of Speech Communication at Texas A&M University, who, on the eve of his retirement and having never met me, devoted the better part of a day—in his office, over lunch, and in his home—to providing me with resources on the religious life of Ronald Reagan, a subject on which his academic expertise is perhaps unmatched. His wisdom and resources both were indispensible. A work such as this is also enhanced exponentially by firsthand accounts, and some thirty-plus years removed from the key events detailed in this work, there are few who are still able to provide these. For this reason, I am deeply indebted to several important individuals who generously gave of their time by answering my questions, many of them offering to connect me with others they knew who might possess better knowledge. Among these were former Reagan Attorney General Edwin Meese, former Reagan campaign director Stu Spencer, former Carter aides Patrick Anderson, Greg Schneiders, Phil Wise, Jr., and the late Jody Powell, evangelist James Robison, and last but certainly not least, former presidential candidate Rep. John B. Anderson. I am also grateful to the able staff at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library for their assistance in tracking down the many documents and speeches upon which this work relies. vi Dr. Mary Nichols has earned my deepest respect as a gifted administrator and a visionary, but more personally, I thank her for the opportunity to do Ph.D. work at Baylor and for her discernment in sending me across campus to meet Marty Medhurst during my first semester in the program. Also, Dr. Chris Marsh, beyond his service on the dissertation committee, saw fit to provide unconventional funding for my Ph.D. endeavor, and I have been forever changed by the opportunity to work so closely with him, and hence to call him a friend. Likewise, Dr. Larry Lyon, dean of the Baylor University Graduate School, is to be thanked for his official and his personal investments in this undertaking. Finally, I am grateful to my parents, who instilled in me the value of hard work and who never gave up when so many times I resisted anything that resembled it. These and many others have made this work better; surely, with so much good help, any errors of logic, fact, or judgment that remain are mine alone. vii To Tiffany and Anna, with all the love a husband and daddy can give Also to the memory of Dr. Donald L. Crolley, who understood more than any other that indeed, “The true meaning of life is to plant trees under whose shade you do not expect to sit” viii CHAPTER ONE Introduction On July 17, 1980, the audience inside Detroit’s Joe Louis Arena, along with much of the rest of the country watching on television, saw Ronald Reagan, as though moved by the Holy Spirit, invoke an “unscripted” moment of silent prayer to end his party nomination acceptance speech. An unprecedented move, what followed was even more so—a twenty-minute-long standing ovation for a man who, unbeknownst at the time, was helping to usher in a new era of religious politics in America. Reagan was not alone in this effort. His main competitor—the country’s best- known Sunday school teacher and incumbent president, Jimmy Carter—explained to a group of ministers in October that “I think the United States of America was created by God with a purpose—on a purpose. We’re on the road to the promised land,” and “I believe I was put here on a purpose.”1 Appealing for votes by using religion so explicitly was new for presidential elections—and jarring to much of the country.
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