w

Margot Wallström on Closeness and leadership and politics control for sale

European Parliament Foreign prostitutes changes shows little interest the focus of social measures magasin 1.2009 Nordic gender institute

Focus: Prostitution Human trafficking changes Nordic prostitution policies Focus: Leadership She still rules Berit Ås (80) on master suppression techniques bosse parbringIntro editor of NIKK magasin

Focus: Leadership and prostitution 20 Men on the top. “This reinforces the image of the EU as a male dominated project,” says Commissioner Wallström.

Already by the age of five, different affair; it is more or less entirely male- she had organised a charity dominated. Totally different sets of logic seem action. At 12, she started a to govern politics and industry. This is also the protest movement in the theme of the NIKK Gender and Power Project, schoolyard. Now she is 80 which will be completed in 2009. and can look back on a full Another project, which NIKK finished in life as a researcher, politi­ 2008, was that on prostitution. This issue of cian and activist. NIKK magasin therefore includes articles on Berit Ås from Norway is best known for her pro­stitution in the Nordic countries. Resear­ theory on the five master suppression techni­ chers from all the Nordic countries studied the ques. She developed the theory in order to extent of and legislation on prostitution, as well be able to explain to other women why they as social measures in the field, and women’s are so often rendered invisible and not taken and men’s attitudes towards prostitution. seriously by men in positions of power. Master Prostitution has, for a long time, been a suppression techniques are part of the body watershed in Nordic politics. The 10-year-old language and can only be countered by being Swedish Sex Purchase Law that prohibits the pointed out. buying of sex appeared radical when it was In management issues master suppression accep­ted. But now Norway, too, has introdu­ techniques are constantly topical – not least ced a similar law. In the other Nordic countri­ 28 Sextraders online “Us men? What we think? Is that interesting?” when it comes to women in leading positions. es there is currently debate as to whether they This issue of NIKK magasin highlights the dif­ should follow the same path, or whether there ference between the situation within politics are better ways of dealing with the politics­ of and in business. Currently, politics in the Nor­ prostitution. dic countries is reasonably well gender balan­ ced. But the world of business is a completely – Bosse Parbring

NIKK magasin 1.2009 CHIEF EDITOR PRINTING Zoom Grafisk AS ISSN 1502-1521 Solveig Bergman PRINTED IN 9.000 copies [email protected] published by TRANSLATIONS NIKK – Nordic Gender Institute EDITOR Heidi Granqvist, Sarah Bannocks PB 1156 Blindern, NO-0317, Oslo, Bosse Parbring and Staffan Martikainen Norway [email protected] Telephone +47 22 85 89 21 SUBSCRIPTION Telefaks: +47 22 85 89 50 DESIGN Aina Griffin Subscription is free. [email protected] | www.nikk.no Layout Bosse Parbring Order at www.nikk.no COVER PHOTO Bosse Parbring 42 Human trafficking Better protection is demanded for victims.

2 NIKK magasin 1.09 Intro ContentsNIKK magasin 1.09

8 Somebody is making you stupid! “Hearing that you’re not stupid has a liberating effect,” says Berit Ås, known for her theory on master suppression techniques. At 80, she continues to attract wide interest. 12 Gender equality only where visible “The lack of women leaders is not a luxury problem,” says Professor Anita Göransson. 16 The road towards 40% “I hope the quota legislation will pave the way for an alternative form of thinking 12 “The share of women within business” says former party leader Valgerd Svarstad Haugland. leaders in Denmark is 20 Margot Wallström on leadership and politics ”As long as politics is male dominated, there will be a need for female networks,” extremely low compared says Margot Wallström, Vice-President of the European Commission. to other EU member 22 European Parliament shows little interest states. Only Malta and “The Gender Equality Committee of the European Parliament runs the risk of being Cyprus do worse abolished,” says Committee Vice Chair Eva-Britt Svensson. than Denmark.” 24 Will they go the same way? In just a few years, the body of legislation on prostitution in the Nordic countries – a n e t t e b o r c h o r s t , r e s e a r c h e r has undergone an epoch-making development and become more uniform. 28 Closeness and control for sale The website sexhandel.no (sextrade) is an initiative that enables customers themselves to describe their own thoughts about buying sex. 31 Nordic countries vs. Europe The Nordic countries all want to limit prostitution, while several other European countries regard prostitution as a legitimate occupation. 40 “In the Nordic countries, 34 What do numbers tell us? prostitutes are victims. How much prostitution is there in the Nordic countries? Instead of supporting 36 Mobilising public opinion prostitutes, we have made The population in most of the Nordic countries has, during the last few years, them a problem which taken an increasingly critical attitude towards prostitution. 38 Men on the periphery undermines the order Foreign prostitutes changes the focus of social measures. of our society.” 40 Heated debate – j a a n a k a u p p i n e n , d i r e c t o r A heated debate arose at a prostitution conference arranged by NIKK. 42 Demands for better protection The fight against human trafficking is a very hot theme in the Nordic social debate. 45 Column: How politics re-invent inequality 47 Editorial: Financial crisis – does gender matter?

NIKK magasin 1.09 3 ”Gender equality in the labour market, male violence against women, and prostitution.”

– t h e s e a r e i s s u e s s w e d e n w i l l p u r s u e a s c h a i r o f t h e e u , Current a c c o r d i n g t o g e n d e r e q u a l i t y m i n i s t e r n y a m k o n a b u n i .

Sweden norway Gender-neutral marriage Three of four parties in the Swedish Government now suggest a common, “Best at fatherhood policies” gender-neutral marriage law. The issue of gender-neutral marriage legislation “The Norwegian Government is now best in the world when it comes has been the subject of debate for some time among the government parties. to fatherhood policies.” This is claimed by masculinity researcher One of the four parties, the Christian Jørgen Lorentzen after the Government presented a whole set of Democrats, has taken a stance against such legislation. Even if there will not proposals that focus on men and gender equality. be any common proposition from the government parties and the opposition, For over a year, the Norwegian Government has the importance of broad agreement in worked on a Report to the Parliament on men and the Parliament is emphasized. gender equality. A Men’s Panel was appointed and “There are six parties that basically a survey was started in order to trigger debate on agree on this issue, even if some atti- the role of men in gender equality work. tudes vary somewhat at detail level,” Jørgen Lorentzen, masculinity researcher at says Lars Lindblad from the right-wing the Centre for Gender Research in Oslo, has been party Moderaterna in the Swedish member of the Men’s Panel. He is more or less newspaper Dagens Nyheter. The intention pleased with the Government’s Report presented is that the new, gender-neutral marriage in December 2008, which contains suggested law will come into force on 1 May 2009. In Norway, a gender-neutral marriage measures within the fields of working life, family law came into force on 1 January 2009. life, school and child care, health and violence. In the rest of the Nordic countries However, Jørgen Lorentzen misses measures same-sex couples can enter into civil within the area of health. partnership, but not matrimony. “It’s a shortcoming that the Government doesn’t want a study of its own on men and health, similar to the one that has been conduc­ ted on women and health. There are acute pro­ blems within that area. Men live for a shorter time than women. Men lead a qualitatively poor life, and this has destructive consequences not only for themselves, but also for women and children. Male health has a dramatic impact on other people in their close environment. There Denmark is a big gap between­ the existing problems and Report on violence the level of know­ledge, and that is why a study each parent and one that can be shared freely. It by partner would be needed.” all, however, depends on the current Government For the first time in Denmark, the scope On the other hand, Jørgen Lorentzen is hap­ winning the next election in 2009, since the of violence in young couples has been pier with the measures suggested to strengthen extension to 14 weeks will not be introduced mapped in an extensive study. The figures men’s relationships with their children. The Gov­ before the election. show that young women more often than ernment wants to extend the current paternity “Time wise, Norway will become the best in men experience violence by their partner. leave quota from six to ten weeks in 2009. In the the world, if the paternity leave quota is increased Just under ten per cent of young women and four per cent of young men have, long run, the Government plans to lengthen the to 14 weeks,” Jørgen Lorentzen notes. This means during the last year, been subjected to quota to 14 weeks. The total parental leave is to 3.5 months reserved for the father, which is more physical or sexual violence by their current be extended to 48 weeks (at 100 per cent wage than in Iceland. Thus Norway will get the best or former partner. The report focuses on compensation). In this way Norway is now appro­ fatherhood policy internationally.” the young people’s own attitudes to aching the Icelandic model, which divides the violence and on how to avoid violence. parental leave into three equal parts – one for Bosse Parbring S tock i photos: C olourbox, I llustration

4 NIKK magasin 1.09 current

Norway Survey of gender equality Norway and the other ”Don’t make men into countries of the Nordic region have consistently held a first position, climate scapegoats” regarding global gender equality achievements. norway Women and men are What does this equally responsible for persistent development consist creating a sustainable of? And what are the results for “Best at fatherhood policies” world, therefore the society as a whole, for example, Nordic Region is pro- in terms of quality of life, and the level of violence? moting gender equality The answers, described in this report, in the UN’s climate are relevant for anyone concerned with negotiations. achieving gender equality and ending male dominance in the world today. The Nordic Council of Ministers The report describes the most detailed hosted a seminar on gender equa­ survey of gender equality in the Nordic lity and climate change attended region so far – mapping not just atti­- by a large number of internatio­ tudes, but practices and resources also. nal delegates during the UN Com­ Issues like violence and rape, as well as mission on the Status of Women health and friendship, are included. in New York on March 5. Download the report at www.nikk.no. Gender equality is an essential part of the climate solution. If The Nordic Countries the differences between women Multidimensional and men are not taken into con­ discrimination policies sideration in climate negotiations NIKK has published a new report on it will be difficult to find solu­ multidimensional anti-discrimination tions that work for everyone. policies charting status in the Nordic One of the reasons that the countries. The report describes former climate and gender equality go and current anti-discrimination legi­- together is that women and men slation and charts current proposals affect the climate in different within legislation and administration ways. This forms part of the re­ towards a new policy in the field. port on the gender and climate Download the report at www.nikk.no change presented by Helene Hjort Oldrup at the seminar in New of Economics concludes that be involved when important­ de­ York. Amongst other things, in gender differences in mortality cisions on the climate are made. the industrialised world, men rates in the event of climate-rela­ Ulf Rikter-Svendsen from the drive more than women and in ted nat­ural disasters are directly Norwegian Reform – Resource this way emit more CO2, while linked to women’s economic and Centre for Men, was one of the women often travel by more en­ social rights. experts on the panel. He stressed iceland vironmentally-friendly means of that men must not be made scape­ New international transport. For example, it is esti­ Decision making goats in the climate debate. research centre mated that men represent 75 per A third factor is that the gender “It is important to include the A new international research centre cent of all driving in Sweden. division in the decision-making perspective of men and boys in on gender equality and diversity ope- Another reason is that climate processes for climate negotiations the climate debate. However, the ned in December 2008 at the Univer- changes affect men and women is uneven. For example, the pro­ stereotype of the man as the bad sity of Iceland. At the same time, a differently. For example, many portion­­­ of women delegation lead­ party is not very helpful. Making study programme, focusing on gender more women than men drown in ers in the UN climate negotiations men into scapegoats with regard equality in relation to peace and climate-related natural disasters is only 15–20 per cent. In order to to the climate will only put the security, and the establishment of such as flooding because they include both women’s and men’s brakes on the work.” gender equality work in former conflict are unable to swim or to climb local knowledge, and to change regions, started. The target group are trees. According to Rebecca Pearl, both women’s and men’s beha­ silje bergum kinsten/ employees within public administration a study from the London School viour patterns, both sexes must norden.org and NGOs in former conflict areas.

NIKK magasin 1.09 5 current quoted: “If there are those who fear that by this suggestion I press for more women on boards and committees, their fear is totally well-founded.”

– th e d a n i s h g e n d e r e q u a l i t y m i n i s t e r k a r e n j e s p e r s e n o n t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t p l a c e s a r e t o b e k e p t e m p t y u n l e s s t h e t e r m s o f t h e g e n d e r e q u a l i t y a c t a r e m e t .

finland UN criticizes Finland

The UN Committee on the Elimination of All male violence against women Forms of Discrimination against Women (the CEDAW Committee) has criticized Finland for the country’s lack of measures when it comes to violence against women. 20% Despite the Finnish society being very gen­ of Finnish women have experienced violence or der-equal in many areas, the CEDAW Com­ threats of violence in their couple relationship. mittee has noted that violence against women Sweden is common in the country. In order to combat Search a researcher the problem, the Committee suggested that the authorities should appoint a working group, In the new database Greda, Gender Researchers Database, you can find chaired by Prime Minister Matti Vanhanen. The CEDAW Committee also pointed to 50% Swedish gender researchers. The pur- of Finnish women have experienced violence or the fact that girls are assaulted in school and pose is to give journalists, conference threats of violence in former couple relationships. organizers, researchers, etc, a simple public places. and direct opportunity to find informa- In the new Finnish gender equality pro­ tion about and get in touch with gender gramme one of the main points is to combat in 1997 and 2005, show that little changed in researchers. Greda is developed by violence against women. Heidi Hautala, Chair the eight years between the studies. The Swedish Secretariat for Gender of the Council for Gender Equality at the Min­ Professor Niklas Bruun from the University Research and The Women’s History istry of Social Affairs and Health, has expres­ of Helsinki has been elected Nordic repre­sen­ Collections at Gothenburg University sed a wish to expedite this work, referring to tative in the CEDAW Committee from 1 Jan­ Library. Similar databases are used in good examples in other Nordic countries. uary 2009. Professor Bruun holds long exper­ other Nordic countries. Two comparable national studies of vio­ tise in discrimination legislation and a broad www.databasengreda.se lence against women in Finland, carried out Nordic perspective. sweden Programme for gender mainstreaming The Swedish Secretariat for Gender In the footsteps Resarch has received a new assign- ment from the Swedish government. The purpose is to form a support for of Norway? governmental agencies in their work When Norway followed the example of Sweden with gender mainstreaming. and criminalised the buying of sex, they also The programme contains following tasks: criminalised the buying of sexual services - develop methods for gender abroad. Now the Swedes, in turn, want to do as mainstreaming, - create a forum for the exchange of Norway has done. experiences on gender mainstreaming, “Norway has gone a step further by also cri­ ders. The suggestion has broad political support. - inform about gender mainstreaming and minalising the buying of sex abroad. I think we For example, former Minister of Justice, Social - create the conditions for a long term should absolutely follow their example,” says Democrat Thomas Bodström, regards it as a support for gender mainstreaming. Lena Olsson, legal policy spokesperson for the natural further step for Swedish legislation. The The Swedish Secretariat for Gender Left Party of Sweden, in the newspaper Svenska present Minister of Justice, Beatrice Ask from Research has received 13 million SEK Dagbladet. The party now wants a ban to be intro­ the right-wing party Moderaterna, also finds the to complete the mission. duced on buying sex outside of Sweden’s bor­ Norwegian model very interesting. llustration photos: C olourbox I llustration

6 NIKK magasin 1.09 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries

8 Somebody is making you feel stupid!

12 Gender equality only where visible

16 The road towards 40%

20 Margot Wallström on leadership and politics

22 European Parliament Focus: shows little interest leadership Different sets of logic govern politics and industry. There is still a compact male-dominance at top levels in the world of business. Within Nordic politics, however, women have managed to achieve leading positions. One of the pioneers is Berit Ås, who was the first Norwegian female party chair.

NIKK magasin 1.09 7 Focus: Leadership Somebody is making you feel stupid!

“Hearing that you’re not stupid has a liberating effect.” So says Berit Ås, known for her theory on master suppression techniques. At 80, she and her work continue to attract wide interest.

by Bosse Parbring

erit Ås lives in Asker outside of Oslo, close to the Oslo has made a portrait of her in the book Ild fra Asker (Fire from Asker). fjord, in a house built in the 1960s. When she and her In addition, Berit Ås’s Norwegian publisher will issue a revised edi­ family moved here, the house was newly built and she tion of her book Kvinner i alle land – en håndbok i frigjøring (Women in had a vision of creating an area of shared spaces and all Countries – A Handbook of Liberation). services such as childcare and cooking. Unfortunately, “In two years, three portraits have been made of me,” says Berit toB her disappointment the project fell through. But she still lives in Ås. Ebba and I have met up every two weeks. This has kept me alive. the same municipality where she started her political activities. The work has given me back my life. I’ve had to look things up in When I ring her doorbell, I see two symbols important to her on books and search for old articles in the papers.” the house. One is on a sticker with the message “No to the EU”. Berit Berit Ås is best known for her theories on the five master sup­ Ås chaired the campaign Women against the EU, which contributed pression techniques. She has written on them in various contexts, to the Norwegians voting no to membership in 1972. Next to the but, above all she has travelled and lectured about them. sticker, there is a ceramic plate with a dove and the text ”Nuclear “Everybody says I must write a little book on master suppression weapon­ free zone here”. Berit Ås has been involved in peace issues for techniques. I’m satisfied that others have written about this now.” a long time and was a founding member of Women for Peace. In 2008, Berit Ås turned 80. She opens the door, and I meet a Should be beneficial woman who is still active. Her parents were teachers. Her mother was politically active and her “I’ve just returned from ten days in Sweden, where I gave lectures father was an amateur inventor who never made any money from in various places around the country. his inventions. The heritage from both is discernible in the life of Her 80th birthday has been celebrated in many ways. In Sweden, Berit Ås. Her engagement in and her theories about master suppres­ the journalist Ami Lönnroth has published a book of interviews with sion techniques could have earned her a lot of money. But she has her called Förbannad är jag ganska ofta (I’m Quite Often Fuming). The mostly been interested in the practical advantages her ideas can give Swedish author Anette Utterbäck has, for her part, written about the people in their everyday lives. life of Berit Ås in fictional form in her novel Vikingadotter (Viking “Our family has this basic idea that what we do should be bene­ Daughter). In Norway, Ebba Haslund, author and friend of Berit Ås, ficial.”

8 NIKK magasin 1.09 Focus: Leadership Somebody is making you feel stupid! Photo: Bosse Parbring

“I started talking about master suppression techniques so that “It was in the beginning of my political career. I was at a party meeting women in the Norwegian Labour Party, Arbeiderpartiet wouldn’t where I myself and two men were to speak. The three of us sat next to each feel that they were stupid. And then the idea has spread. When so other, facing the other participants. I then realised that people were not listening many rec­og­nise themselves in the theory, it means there is some to me, and at first I did not understand what was happening. People were truth in it.” scratching their heads, whispering among themselves, turning away. Berit Ås was first active in the Labour Party at a local level. So I thought that perhaps I could use the same observation methods that Traffic safety, childcare and the situation of women were issues I had learnt as social psychologist. I had always given my students the advice that she was particularly involved in. She has also done research that one should observe all people in a room, but at this meeting I had not into child traffic safety at the University of Oslo. Later she was able seen the persons who sat next to me. to focus on research in the subject she was most interested in, So next time I made a suggestion, I pulled my chair half a metre back so namely women’s studies, and finally she became Professor in So­ that I could see what the person sitting next to me did. And it was he who cial Psychology. As local politician, she, together with a few other yawned and looked awfully tired, it was he who talked to the man next to him, women, led a “women’s coup” in 1971, which resulted in a female it was he who took out a newspaper and started reading, it was he who got majority in the municipal executive board. But she was obstructed up to get a glass of water. Very clear bodily expressions which cannot be di- by men in the party. In 1972 Berit Ås was expelled by the Labour rectly translated to meaningful words. It was obvious that it was he who made Party during the EU debate. The following year she became the me invisible and ridiculed me by his body language. I then went home and first Norwegian female party leader – of the newly established practiced his methods.” party of the Democratic Socialists (AIK). Several left-wing parties later joined forces and in 1975 established the Socialist Left Party; In her theory on the five master suppression techniques, Berit Ås’s Berit Ås became its first leader. point of departure is that women and men live in fundamentally It was, above all, her experiences of being a woman in politics different cultures. that inspired her theories on master suppression techniques. This is “It’s important to understand what I mean by culture. If two how Berit Ås herself puts it in the book by Ami Lönnroth: groups are different at five various levels, then it is a question of different cultures. They are constructed by different structures. A

NIKK magasin 1.09 9 Focus: Leadership

“Then men take over again when things have been rebuilt. I almost hesitate to say this, because it is so vulgar. Patriarchy holds other large systems in place. One can reflect over why patriarchy pursues us all the time.” According to Berit Ås, the various cultures are kept in place, among others, by master suppression techniques. “The suppression techniques I have studied are not such that men can use against men and women against women. Men use more aggressive methods against men and women more subtle methods against women. I haven’t studied how women suppress men, but there are such methods, too. But there are instances of men suppres­ sing women everywhere. Very few have grasped this. It is often part of the body language. Women don’t understand that men communi­ cate this and men don’t understand that women don’t understand. We get different languages for communication when boys and girls are raised into a male versus a female world.” But are not most children – both girls and boys – still raised in female-dominated environments? “Although the early years are dominated by women, it is obvious from the moment children partake of the internet and other media that they live in a strongly gendered world. Previously it was important to look at the family situation, but there are also other important areas.” First female party leader. In 1972, Berit Ås was elected leader of the Democratic “In order to study this, one needs to take on the internal approach Socialists. Later, she became leader of the Socialist Left Party. of anthropologists instead of the external approach of sociologists.” Photo: Henrik Laurvik/NTB/SCANPIX Can a man be an “anthropologist” and enter a female culture? Yes, it might be possible. But it’s not all that easy for women to gain a thorough understanding of men. There have been many im­ culture has a tendency to misunderstand causes and effects about a provements for women, but some things do not change.” foreign culture.” Isn’t that view based on a black-and-white and essentialist divi- “Men say, for example, that women have intuition. This is wrong. sion of what is masculine and what is feminine? It’s a question of a fixed law within female culture. That is, things “There are many individuals who act differently, but this is at are connected in a different way than within a male culture.” system level. If many individuals act differently, a change of the Even if much has happened over the last few decades in the rela­ system might be achieved.” tions between women and men – not least in the Nordic countries “It’s very good that we now have laws that allow women to think – Berit Ås thinks that we can still talk about a female and a male and do research, but when we look at the systemic level, this hasn’t culture. changed.” “The spirit of the times changes through history. In the 20th So changes in legislation are important, but they do not change century, we moved from fascism to social democracy and further to the deeper differences between women and men? competitive capitalism. In all these systems things are organised so “Legal changes are important since with time they result in fury. that it is legal to abuse women. Women taking the position of the ‘Isn’t anything going to happen?’ one asks. When there is a big gap suppressed is a stable trait.” between objectives and reality, this leads to tensions and demands But female culture holds a constructive potential in itself, Berit for change.” Ås thinks. Berit Ås thinks it is almost impossible to get rid of master suppres­ “Large groups of women talk about our children and grandchildren. sion techniques. They are the result of a learning process matching They see that what we do here and now is important for the future.” that of Pavlov’s dogs, which leads to women being more timid of rai­ In times of crisis – such as after World War II and during the sing their voices than men. Culture is imbedded in the musculature. present financial crisis – more women are allowed to take on leading “In the deficient communication between women and men, body positions. language becomes important­ in order to maintain the power struc­

10 NIKK magasin 1.09 Focus: Leadership

ture. Gender roles are upheld The master suppression techniques through failing communication. The same pattern occurs around the world. It is an aggressive ex­ pression by those who have had the power for hundreds of years. Living in stressful times, as we do, results in a more 1. aggressive use of master suppression techniques at individual, group Making invisible and state level.” To quiet or marginalise oppositional persons by ignoring them. But what, then, can lead to change? Well, the classic feminist strategy – awareness-raising. “Hearing that you’re not stupid has a liberating effect. The idea is that there is somebody making you stu­ pid. It’s something external, called a master suppression technique.” Berit Ås mentions the suppression technique of “blaming and 2. shaming” as an example: Ridiculing “So, you want to take money from day-care and use it on care of To use manipulative ways to depict somebody’s arguments the elderly?” or personality as ridiculous and unimportant. This is done by, “Each time you intellectualise, you reduce the emotional sys­ for example using striking but irrelevant images. Another way tem. It gives you calmness. It’s difficult to decondition this, but it’s is to comment on a person’s appearance in front of a group. possible.” “I’ve been in Umeå in Sweden several times. Each time, the same lady sits in the front row. I say to her that she doesn’t need to come back, she has already heard what I’m going to say. But she says she must hear it again. All her life she has been told that it’s her fault.” 3. Many have obviously identified themselves with this, since Berit Withholding information Ås’s theory on master suppression techniques has had such an impact. To exclude somebody or marginalise her role by Recently, a group of women at Stockholm University have developed withholding essential information from her. strategies for encountering master suppression techniques. Berit Ås warmly welcomes such initiatives. But others have wanted to increase the number of suppression techniques. That, she is not so fond of. “Who are those who are often suppressed? It’s often those who have not studied that much. But they can feel things. How are you 4. to choose words that they recognise? There are those who say that Double binding there are more master suppression techniques. But if you group Putting somebody in a situation where she is belittled and them, they can be categorized within the five suppression techni­ punished regardless of which alternative she chooses. ques. Of course things overlap. When you are made invisible you experience shame.” The fact that the master suppression techniques can be counted on the fingers of one hand, makes it easy to point out that suppression techniques are being used in a room. “When you are made invisible, 5. you raise a thumb, which means master suppression technique num­ Blaming and shaming ber one. You then have your own language. You have five words that To get somebody to be ashamed of their characteristics, mean something. People can’t remember 28 words. So if it is to have or suggesting that something they have been the victim real meaning and give people something, these five are enough.” of is their own fault. “Originally, I only thought of giving this to a group of women in politics. Women become more and more quiet when they are not Source: Wikipedia taken seriously. This had an efficient therapeutic effect. The thing of making you feel stupid disappears when you intellectualise is. That is how it works.”

NIKK magasin 1.09 11 Focus: Leadership Gender equality only where visible “The lack of women leaders is not a luxury problem. It is a question of democracy and justice,” says Professor Anita Göransson from Sweden, who is engaged in research on elites in society. by Bosse Parbring illustration: trude tjensvold

nita Göransson is an economic investigation – a survey and a questionnaire At the Swedish regional and local levels, historian, Professor in Gender, inquiry – dated back to 2001. She therefore however, things look considerably less rosy. Economic Change and Organi­ returned to the subject in late 2007, which In municipal assemblies, there may be a fair sation at Linköping University resulted in an updated survey, published in balance, but top positions in the municipali­ and Professor of Gender History the form of a Swedish government report ties are usually occupied by men. Seven out Aat the University of Gothenburg. She is some­ (SOU 2007:108). In the six years between the of ten Swedish municipal commissioners, times confronted with the view that initia­ investigations, no major changes had occur­ including commissioners representing the tives in research and politics should not focus red. But the updated survey also covers lower political opposition, chairs of municipal on an already privileged group of women, levels in society, which allows Anita Görans­ assemblies and of municipal executive com­ but instead be targeted at women who have son to draw the following conclusion: mittees, are male. less power. But according to Anita Göransson, “Gender equality exists mainly at the level “Municipalities are something of a black everything is interconnected. of highly visible positions at the top, where spot when it comes to gender equality,” says “The lack of women leaders is a strong there is a public pressure for it. There is a Anita Göransson. “In general, research has indicator of the position of women in society. certain hypocrisy about the situation.” focussed on the central government level, If they, or any other group, do not have At the Swedish national level, the domain but I believe we should take a closer look at access to power on equal grounds with men, which is most gender balanced is politics, the municipalities.” it is a sure sign of shortcomings in society as where at least 40 per cent of both genders are There are also regional differences, and a whole.” represented. But there is also a fairly good major cities are more gender-equal than the In 2006, Anita Göransson and her research gender balance in other positions where the countryside. There are also differences be­ team presented a broad overview of the political logic of democracy and representa­ tween the political parties.” people holding power in all the important tion has some influence: in ministries, autho­ Research into power structures in other domains in Sweden. The material for the rities and public institutions. Nordic countries has shown that the diffe­

12 NIKK magasin 1.09 Focus: Leadership

NIKK magasin 1.09 13 Focus: Leadership rences at national and local level are similar. In Finland, a research programme in this field, which includes a component on gender and power, has been launched only recently, and it is still too early to draw any conclu­ sions. But in Norway and Denmark, investi­ gations into power structures, integrating a gender perspective, were completed a few years ago. Hege Skjeie is Professor of Political Science at Oslo University. In 2003, she presented her findings from the Norwegian investigation into power that she carried out together with researcher Mari Teigen. “Pressure may be stronger at a national level,” she says. “The share of women in chair positions in Norwegian municipalities is 23 per cent. Since there is only one post in each mun­ icipa­lity, the problem is all the more appa­ rent. Naturally, it cannot be solved by apply­ ing quota rules, as there is only one person involved.” Anette Borchorst, Professor in Political Photo: Jann Lipka Science at Aalborg University in Denmark, headed the research project Kønsmagt i forand- “Municipalities whereas the percentage in the public sector ring (Changes in Gendered Power), an inte­ is 49. The question is what happens when grated part of the Danish investigation into are something state-owned companies are privatised.” power which was completed in 2002. To her, But it is still the position within the com­ the picture is all too familiar. of a black spot pany that counts. In both private and state “At the local level, we have seen no change companies, we usually see men as managing since the early 1990s,” says Borchorst. when it comes to directors and board chairs. “The problem is that we Danes have this “There may be many women on the board, image of Denmark performing well on gen­ gender equality.” but it will be chaired by a man,” says Anita der equality, but when it comes to putting – a n i t a g ö r a n s s o n Göransson. “If there are several board mem­ things into practice, this is not the case. Part bers, it is easier for a woman to take a place of the problem is that there is no debate on on the board. In business, boards are some­ these matters. In Denmark, it is not an issue times enlarged in order to accommodate in the same way as it is in Sweden.” gers is a woman. Women in top positions are more women.” “The share of women leaders in Denmark few and far between. According to the Swe­ In other words, women are welcome only is extremely low compared to other EU mem­ dish business magazine Veckans Affärer, 87 if they do not threaten the positions of men. ber states. Only Malta and Cyprus do worse per cent of the top positions (chair of the “This is not difficult to understand,” says than Denmark.” board, managing director, marketing mana­ Anita Göransson. “You could call it the Huey, “Denmark is, however, one of the coun­ ger, financial manager and human resource Dewey and Louie effect. You prefer people tries performing best on women’s participa­ manager) are held by men. similar to yourself.” tion in the labour market, education for “I find it interesting that the situation is women and organised child care. It is only on so different in the business world,” says Anita Hierarchical relations important leadership that Denmark is falling behind.” Göransson. “I think there is some variation Anita Göransson distinguishes three types of between countries in this sector.” recruitment: The business world is different “In Norwegian commerce and industry, • Representational – different groups of If there are shortcomings at the less visible there is a male dominance of over 90 per cent people are represented according to the levels in politics, that is nothing compared to at the very top,” says Hege Skjeie. “There is no size of the group commerce and industry – a domain of total great difference between public and private • Meritocracy – the person who has the male dominance. According to Statistics Swe­ companies.” best merits is appointed den, 72 per cent of Swedish managerial posts In Sweden, however, there is a difference. • Co-opting – a group elects its members are held by men. Female managers are found “It is mainly public companies that have itself. mainly in the municipal administrations, welcomed women at the top,” says Anita “One example of co-opting is the Rotary where six out of ten managers are women. Göransson. “In the private sector, women Clubs, but this is also common in, for instance, In the private sector, only one in five mana­ constitute 18 per cent of board members, the world of scientific and cultural academia,

14 NIKK magasin 1.09 Focus: Leadership and there also seems to be a substantial ele­ ment of co-opting in business,” says Anita “If you can’t prove that you are Göransson. something different, what is the point?” “The stronger this element is, the more important it becomes that there is mutual – h e g e s k j e i e trust among the group members.” Therefore the study of leaders’ networks is important in order to understand the pro­ cesses of recruitment to top positions. “In a study I carried out a few years ago In Denmark, demands for quotas have not that a burden is placed on women. They will concerning women’s and men’s managerial been popularly embraced. The Social Demo­ need to show what they are worth.” careers in the business world, I found that 60 crats, however, would like to introduce legis­ “It may also lead to a boomerang effect. per cent of the managers had never left their lation similar to the Norwegian one. If you can’t prove that you are something line of business and out of these 60 per cent, “Quota legislation is very controversial in different, what is the point? According to half had never changed companies. This Denmark,” says Anette Borchorst. “But an this rhetoric, women in managerial positions shows that they are dependent on networks increasing number of people would like to have a different burden of proof than men. and hierarchical relations.” introduce it for a transition period. Not in This is degrading to women. The focus is only “It is not until you are general manager politics, though, but in working life.” on women and not on the institutions.” that you can change to another trade. By Hege Skjeie takes a sceptical view as to The question is, however, how business, then, you are a generalist.” whether company board quotas in Norway driven by profit maximisation, can find jus­ should be seen as an expression of a strong tification elsewhere than in profitability. The Quotas a curiosity political will to reduce male dominance per logic of representation is not valid to the For companies to be able to compete for the se in business life. At least when it comes to same extent in business as in politics. best people, they need to broaden their recru­ this as an isolated action. “We have a legislative framework in place itment base, according to Anita Göransson. “Gender-balanced boards are a good thing, for the organisation of working life, and we She therefore supports the introduction of but it matters less if the overall management have a duty to actively promote gender equa­ gender quotas in the business sector, along is male dominated. By this I don’t mean that lity,” says Hege Skjeie. the lines of the Norwegian legislation. In measures for achieving gender balance on “On environment, health and security, Sweden, the introduction of quotas has been company boards are unimportant as a politi­ there are many conditions imposed on com­ subject to an investigation, but so far no deci­ cal action. But it is a curiosity. It is of an ad panies. The question is how strictly we can sion has been taken. hoc nature. I don’t see it as part of the greater impose demands on companies in gender “It may be a question of terminology,” context, of how politics should relate to the equality matters.” says Anita Göransson. “When you talk about business world.” quotas, people often think it is a matter of Measures for increasing the share of 40 per cent is the limit bringing in any woman, who has no idea of women managers are often justified with the Anita Göransson differentiates between three the work of a company board. But actually, argument that diversity pays off. Hege Skjeie levels of gender balance – or imbalance. At it is all about promoting the under-represen­ finds this kind of thinking dangerous for the visible national level, where there is pub- ted gender in cases where qualifications are women. lic pressure, there is often a proportion of at equal. Recruiting women who can’t compete “It is a kind of diversity rhetoric, saying least 40 per cent women, meaning that the on competence and qualifications will only that diversity is positive for the organisation. gender balance objective is met. In contexts achieve a negative effect.” It may be true. But at the same time, it means where there is a consciousness but no pres­ sure, the share of women is usually no larger than one third. At the third level, there is no aspiration for change and no pressure. “There are those who are still banging Political representation their heads against the wall in a situation Share of women/men, in percentages with only 10 per cent women.” According to Anita Göransson, it is time to abandon the gender balance objective of a Denmark iceland finland norway Sweden minimum of 40 per cent of each gender. In practice, the result is rarely 40 per cent men Government 35/65 33/67 40/60 53/47 41/59 and 60 per cent women, but almost always Parliament 37/63 33/67 42/58 38/62 47/53 the opposite. When the goal of 40 per cent Municipalities 27/73 32/68 36/64 37/63 42/58 women has been reached, there is no going further. It all looks like a result of minimal Sources: www.government.is, www.regjeringen.no, www.regeringen.se, www.folketinget.dk, www.althingi. adaptation rather than chance. is, www.stortinget.no, www.riksdagen.se, Statistics Denmark, Statistics Finland, Statistics Iceland, Statistics “A few years ago, the goal 50/50 was set Norway and Statistics Sweden. for state authorities. This should be a reaso­ nable aspiration in all areas of society.”

NIKK magasin 1.09 15 Focus: Leadership

The gender quota law in Norway The road towards

“Ruling techniques are still commonly used in many environments, and there are many ways of squeezing women out if they are in a minority,” she points out. Finn Bergesen, Administrative Director of the Confederation of Norwegian Enter­ prise (NHO), also participated in the semi­ nar. Even though he maintains a very posi­ tive attitude to women on company boards, he is not that plea­sed with the stipulations of the legislation. 40% “There are two basic things that are wrong “I hope the quota legislation will pave the with quotas. Firstly, people will ask whether the women are there because of their gender way for an alternative form of thinking or because of their competence. Secondly, it’s not right to make decisions on behalf of the within business – including among those owners as to who they are to appoint to their companies not covered by the law,” says board,” he thinks. Svarstad Haugland does not agree. Valgerd Svarstad Haugland. Controversial law by Anne Winsnes Rødland “We, who have been the subjects of quotas, are so because we are competent women, and we provide diversity. I would never have been elected party leader unless I had also had he former leader of the Norwegian other qualities in addition to being a woman. Christian Democratic Party (Kris- Besides, such a high female representation telig Folkeparti, KrF) was one of on corporate boards would never have been the most avid advocates for intro­ achieved unless we had introduced this law. ducing the law on gender repre­ There are always competent men who get the Tsentation on the boards of public joint stock jobs because they know somebody. Women companies. In April 2008 she participated in possess a great deal of competence and edu­ a seminar on this theme at the Institute for cation, which is lost to society unless acti­vely Social Research in Oslo. taken into use. Since the business world “I am proud of having participated in the failed to increase the proportion of women creation of this law, particularly since I have on the boards sufficiently by means of their been the leader of a party that once voted own initiative, despite honeyed promises, we against the Gender Equality Act,” says Valgerd needed to employ more effective methods,” Svarstad Haugland, who is currently Church says Valgerd Svarstad Haugland. She does, Warden in Oslo. however, underline that she hopes the law The law stipulating that the boards of all will become unnecessary in the long run. public limited companies must have at least The issue of a possible quota act was first a 40 per cent representation of both sexes raised many years ago. Such a law was, for was accepted by the Norwegian Parliament, “I am proud of example, suggested in connection with a hea­ Stortinget, in 2003. In 2002, the proportion ring in 1999 on a revision of the Gender Equa­ of women on corporate boards amounted to having participated lity Act. The suggestion for the current legis­ only 6 per cent, but today all have reached lation was, however, presented by the Minister 40 per cent. in the creation of Trade and Industry, Ansgar Gabrielsen (of Valgerd Svarstad Haugland emphasizes the conservative party, Høyre), and the Minis­ that quotas are simply a means to an end, not of this law.” ter of Gender Equality, Laila Dåvøy (Christian

an end in themselves. – v a l g e r d s v a r s t a d h a u g l a n d Democrats), at a press conference in 2002. Photo: Håkon Mosvold Larsen/Scanpix

16 NIKK magasin 1.09 Focus: Leadership

“The sceptics clearly protested that this would entail extensive, negative consequences for the Oslo Stock Exchange and for the willingness of international capital to invest in Norway.”

“There was great resistance to such a law within the world of business, and they were strongly opposed to the threat of forced dis­ solution attached to it. Therefore one might have believed that the companies would have recruited women in time to avoid the law coming into force. Nevertheless, the an­ nual development of the companies showed that progress was very slow. When the gen­ der composition of the boards was calcu­ lated, as agreed, in the autumn 2005, the proportion of women amounted to only 17.8 per cent. Thus the matter was clear, and the Government had to put the law into force from the beginning of the following year,” Hoel recalls. “Today, many business managers say that it would have been best if the companies had been able to increase the proportion of wo­ men on a voluntary basis, without the enfor­ cement of the law. So it’s strange that the efforts weren’t greater during the years when they had the opportunity to prevent the law from coming into force,” Marit Hoel thinks.

Important measure Bjørg Ven is a private lawyer and partner in the law firm Haavind Vislie. She has exten­ sive experience of being on corporate boards, for example in Dagbladet, Norsk Vekst, Tele­ nor, Orkla and Vital. She is also member of the elective committee for Yara. “I don’t know whether there is any obvi­ ous difference between women and men on company boards, but I think having women present can contribute to a positive tone. And I don’t disagree with the idea that gender “A hundred Norwegian top managers were situation on the boards and in the manage­ might have an influence on the market in­ present at the conference, and there were ment structures of companies. From 2000 to sight in smaller consumer-oriented compa­ many strong reactions to the suggestion. The 2003 she studied the 250 largest companies, nies,” says Ven. sceptical ones – who formed a majority – but since then she has monitored all public “Regardless of this, I think the most im­ clearly protested that this would entail ex­ limited companies. portant feature of this board reform was tensive, negative consequences for the Oslo that we got greater diversity and more people Stock Exchange and for the willingness of Slow process to choose from. In addition, we now have a international capital to invest in Norway at What was special about the parliamentary public debate and greater awareness of the all,” recalls researcher Marit Hoel. She is decision in 2003 was that it passed something demands on board members and what kind Director of the Center for Corporate Div­ as unusual as a conditional law. It would of competencies we want on the boards,” ersity and has closely followed the process come into force on 1 January 2006, but only she adds. towards achieving a proportion of 40 per if the public limited companies had not man­ As a female board member she has expe­ cent of women on company boards. Each aged to achieve a 40 per cent gender repre­ rienced a great deal of international interest

Photo: Berit Roald /Scanpix Photo: Berit Roald year she has published overviews of the sentation on their own. in the Norwegian development.

NIKK magasin 1.09 17 Focus: Leadership

“A Japanese female reporter visited me, Researcher Mari Teigen from the Insti­ and she was awestruck by how far we have tute for Social Research (ISF) finds it inte­ come. The German, French and Dutch press resting how easy it was, after all, to find have also shown great interest,” she says. women for the boards. “They just had to look for them in Enough women? slightly different ways than those they were Bjørg Ven does not agree with those who used to,” she says, referring to a recently claim that it is difficult to find enough com­ finished master’s thesis by Aslak Hetland. petent women. Teigen is director for the research group “Even if there are perhaps not that many, Gender and Society at ISF, and is also enga­ there are enough. I’ve also heard it being ged in the new research project “Gender said that the new law opens the doors on the Quotas in Boards of Large Joint Stock Com­ boards for young women with less experi­ panies. Democracy vs. Inclusion?”, which ence and competence than that traditionally is a joint project with the Department of needed by men in order to become board Sociology at the University of Bergen and the members. So what? is my reaction to this. It Department of Economics at the Aarhus forces these women to prove themselves and School of Business. It is divided into four show that they can fill the role they have sub-projects. One focuses on the recruitment been offered. If they don’t manage that, they to company boards and ways into the boards. are simply replaced,” she points out. Another sub-project analyses overlapping Finn Bergesen, however, sees a risk in “The politicians directorships, and the third one looks at the the recruitment of women: have introduced effects of the gender relations in board “The Old Boys’ Network has to a certain rooms. The fourth sub-project explores the extent been replaced by the Winning legal restrictions on connection between the composition of the Women’s Club, and I think it’s impossible board and the company’s profitability. to do a good job with a seat on 10 different businesses, which boards,” he says. Unorthodox intervention “There are still many more men than they wouldn’t want “Personally, I have been quite preoccupied women who are wholesalers in the board by this issue, since I think it’s a very special business. We should concern ourselves with for themselves,” question concerning gender equality policy. that,” replies Svarstad Haugland. – m a r i t e i g e n , r e s e a r c h e r The government has introduced regulation Rødland Photo: Anne Winsnes

According to Danish gender researchers, the pursue,” she says to Dagbladet Information. Taboo proposal by the Social Democrats has bro­ Soon after the Social Democratic suggestion ken a taboo in Danish public life. on gender quotas, Karen Jespersen instead “In recent years, it’s been totally impos­ introduced a new charter to get more women sible to put forward suggestions on gender onto company boards and into management broken in quotas,” says Elisabeth Møller Jensen, Direc­ structures. It has been developed in co-oper­ tor of KVINFO, to Dagbladet Information. ation between the Gender Equality Minister, The Social Democrats suggested that five private companies and five public orga­ Denmark Danish companies listed on the stock nisations. The aim is that at least 100 com­ exchange should get four years to reach a panies will have joined by the year 2010. 40 per cent proportion of women on their “By signing the charter, they commit The Danish Social Democrats boards. If they failed to do this, the com­ themselves to working towards getting have suggested the introduction pany would face forced dissolution. more women managers at all levels. The “Gender equality develops too slowly in charter includes concrete objectives for the of gender quotas in order to get the boardrooms. We have seen that the little work, in order to achieve visible results,” more women onto company push that the legislation gave Norwegian says Jespersen. companies has had an impact. This is what Today, there are only 48 women on the boards. In Sweden, the propor­ we need in Denmark, too,” says the Social boards of Danish listed companies. The tion of women in this sector has Democrat Chair Helle Thorning-Schmidt. proportion of women thus amounts to 5.6 remained unchanged over the Even if Gender Equality Minister Karen per cent. As a comparison, the law on gen­ Jespersen (Venstre, Denmark’s Liberal Party) der balance on the boards of Norwegian last few years. understands that women are impatient, she public companies has resulted in there dismisses the suggested quota system. being 64 Danish women on the boards of by Anne Winsnes Rødland “I think there are far better methods to Norwegian listed companies.

18 NIKK magasin 1.09 Focus: Leadership into areas that earlier would have been however, think that much depends on the unthinkable. I think it’s very interesting choices the new women on the boards make gender representation that there are no legislated quotas for Nor­ and their strategies of “standing out/sticking wegian political parties, even if several of together” or “blending in”. The legal stipulation that all public them have initiated quotas themselves. joint stock companies must have a These same politicians have introduced le­ Positive side effects? representation of at least 40 per cent gal restrictions on businesses, which they “They must make some choices in respect of each gender on their boards came wouldn’t want for themselves,” Teigen of what they stand for and how clear they into force on 1 January 2006. The law points out. want to make it that they are on the board was passed by the Stortinget as a She finds it exciting that this law has because of the interest of politicians. I think conditional law in December 2003. given gender researchers an entry into stu­ they hold various views on this. Some will This meant that the law would come dying processes in business life. want to focus on issues connected to the into force in case the public joint “We now have access to an institutional company’s gender equality policies, its ac­ stock companies did not manage to culture towards which we have directed countability in the area and so on. Others reach the target of a 40 per cent very little interest in the past. It will, for will avoid this, not wanting it to seem that gender representation by themselves example, be fascinating to study mecha­ they are on the board partly because of their by the autumn of 2005. According to nisms of inclusion and exclusion. Is the fact gender,” Hoel thinks. the law, all companies established and that there are so few women in top positions Valgerd Svarstad Haugland hopes the registered before 1 January 2006 within the private sector in Norway due to law on gender representation on corporate must, within two years, have a board women choosing other routes, or are they boards will function as a lighthouse for composed corresponding to the law. excluded? Studies show that women in smaller companies, and in general make Companies established after the law leading positions in the private sector disap­ way for alternative ways of thinking, so that entered into force, must have a legally pear into the public sector when they have changes will also happen in those firms not composed board from the start. children. Why is this the case? covered by the law. 395 public companies fulfilled the Marit Hoel is working on an analysis of, “We must give women the self-confi­ requirement at the time of counting in among other things, the effects of the legal dence to dare take on both commissions of January 2008. 77 companies did not reform so far on the joint stock companies trust and top jobs. These things do not hap­ fulfil the demands, and got their first since it came into force in 2003. Before the pen overnight,” she stresses. warning for forced dissolution. In the analysis is finished, she finds it difficult to end, all adjusted to the law, and no say anything on the consequences of the law companies were forced to dissolve. for gender equality in Norway. She does,

In Sweden, the proportion of women on mended that a requirement of at least a 40 much more intense and controversial gen­ the boards of listed companies is still under per cent representation of both sexes would, der equality debate than in Norway. Never­ 20 per cent. at the first stage, pertain to public joint theless, it is Norway who has introduced “It’s obvious that the businesses are not stock companies with many shareholders gender quotas, which is regarded as a radi­ managing to shed the patriarchal pattern of and to totally state-owned companies cal measure,” she points out. Teigen thinks thinking. We need political decisions in or­ The debate on a possible quota law died this can be explained by Norway having a der to achieve some change,” says Gudrun down when the right-wing and centre par­ strong tradition of government interven­ Schyman, spokesperson for Feminist Initia­ ties won the election in the following year. tion, and that the population can be said to tive, to Dagens Nyheter. She thinks Norway “The proportion of women on boards be more supportive of the state. provides a model with the law on a 40 per was increasing strongly up to 2005. In the “Those trying to create a change are cent proportion of women on the boards of last two years, however, during the term of likely to form strong alliances with the state. public companies. the centre-right majority government, the In addition, Norway has had quotas for pub­ The proportion of women on boards of increase has stagnated. It might prove dif­ lic boards and committees for several years, Swe­dish listed companies is 18.2 per cent. ficult for the present government to explain which is not the case in Sweden. I doubt Last year, it was 18.3 per cent. It seems that that the recruitment of women stopped that the Swedes would have introduced the proportion remains unchanged, even if when the debate petered out,” says resear­ quotas even if the Social Democratic govern­ statistics for this year are based on informa­ cher Marit Hoel, Director of the Center for ment had been re-elected,” says Teigen. tion from only about half of the companies. Corporate Diversity. She thinks that the As to Denmark, Marit Hoel thinks that a Although there are no propositions for a Social Democrats will put forward a propo­ possible law on quotas lies a long way ahead. law on gender quotas on Swedish corporate sition if they win the election again in 2010. She does note, however, that much depends boards, the previous – Social Democratic – Researcher Mari Teigen from the Institute on the government constellations. government prepared the ground for this for Social Research is not so convinced. just before the government change in 2006. “It’s actually very interesting to compare Anne Winsnes Rødland is a journalist and former Investigator Catarina af Sandeberg recom­ Norway and Sweden. In Sweden, there is a Information Officer at NIKK.

NIKK magasin 1.09 19 Focus: Leadership

”As long as politics is male dominated, there will be a need for female networks, for mobilising and supporting female politicians who advocate other and different solutions, based on their perspectives and experiences,” says Margot Wallström, Vice- President of the European Commission. by Bosse Parbring

The most powerful woman in the EU Margot Wallström on leadership and politics

argot Wallström has plenty leadership and strengthen global democracy he would step down after the election defeat of experience in politics. by increasing the number of women leaders in 2006, many Social Democrats would have She has been Minister for worldwide, and boosting their impact and liked to see Margot Wallström as the new Civil Service Affairs, for visibility,” says Margot Wallström. party leader. But she declined, on several oc­ Culture and for Social Af­ Ms Wallström is the chair of the Council casions, stating as her reason that she wanted Mfairs in various Swedish Social Democratic of Women World Leaders Ministerial Initia­ to fulfil her mission in Brussels. The man­ governments. In 1999, she was appointed tive. Within the framework of this initiative, date of the present European Commission Environment Commissioner and in 2004, ministers and other women leaders work will end in 2009. first Vice-President of the European Commis­ together within seven sectors: environment, sion, becoming the first woman to attain this finance, economy and development, equality, No falling for dirty tricks level in the EU hierarchy. health and culture. For each sector, a sepa­ The tense relations between Margot Wall­ As a pre-eminent female leader, Margot rate network has been created. ström and Göran Persson have been much Wallström has been awarded a place in the “A key function of the network is to pro­ publicized. Mr Persson made no secret of his Women World Leaders network, together mote skills development for young female efforts to bring back Ms Wallström from with other well-known Nordic politicians leaders,” says Margot Wallström. Cooperating Brussels. Her answer was still no. It was also such as former Norwegian Prime Minister Gro with the universities of Harvard and Colum­ Mr Persson who delayed the decision of Harlem Brundtland, former President of Ice­ bia, we have launched a trainee programme nominating her as Swedish EU Commissioner land Vigdís Finnbogadóttir and the current for promising young women, who are given the second time around. In the run-up to the President of Finland, Tarja Halonen. the opportunity to work together with net­ Swedish elections in 1998, the two of them The purpose of the 10-year-old network is work members and other female leaders. To were supposed to lead the Social Democrat to mobilise women at the highest political date, 62 young women and one man have campaign together. However, the press con­ level for common action on issues vital for participated in the programme. ferences where they were both present are women and for the promotion of equality. When former Swedish Social Democratic often used to illustrate techniques for main­ “The principal mission is to promote good Party leader Göran Persson announced that taining male dominance: when Ms Wallström

20 NIKK magasin 1.09 Focus: Leadership

was talking, Mr Persson looked away, fiddled the European Commission, President of the Techniques for maintaining male dominance. about with the microphone and seemed dis­ European Council, President of the European “After 30 years in politics, I know better than to fall for interested. Margot Wallström herself seems Parliament and High Representative for dirty tricks that are used to belittle me as a politician and weary of being reminded of this episode. Foreign Policy. None of the candidates put a human being,” says Margot Wallström on the subject of “After 30 years in politics, I know better forward for these posts is a woman. the electoral campaign she led together with prime than to fall for dirty tricks that are used “This is a great mistake, because it rein­ minister Göran Persson. Photo: Roger Turesson/Scanpix to belittle me as a politician and a human forces the image of the EU as a male domi­ being,” she says. nated project,” says Ms Wallström. has introduced legislation against the discri­ In Swedish politics, Ms Wallström has Has the equality situation been better mination of part-time workers, for example.” experienced both ups and downs. Are things or worse in the EU, compared to your time Are there areas where the EU is doing any different in the EU, then? as a minister in Sweden? better on equality than Sweden? “In Sweden, gender equality issues are “One of the strengths of the EU is that all No women in top positions more visibly included on the political agenda. 27 member states are pulling in the same “In my experience, there is a workaholic There is a greater general consciousness as direction for improved gender equality. culture in the European Commission. It is a to equality.” Little by little, this will leave its mark on the culture that does not favour women.” “The EU consists of 27 member states, formulation of EU policies, which hopefully “The opposition to women politicians at and the level of equality varies from country will favour both women and men. A single the highest level in the EU is often reflected to country. It is a well-known fact that the country like Sweden cannot influence Euro­ in what is not done. Not enough women com­ Nordic countries are more progressive in pean policies in the same way.” missioners are appointed, and the same is equality matters than most. But this gives no Do you have any tips for a young woman true for ministers, director-generals and reason for bragging or believing that this is or man who wants to be a politician? other top positions.” true in all fields relating to equality. On “Be proud of yourself and of what you In 2009, four European top positions will particular points, other countries may be are doing. Create a network you can turn to be filled, namely the posts of President of more advanced. Thanks to the EU, Sweden for support.”

NIKK magasin 1.09 21 Focus: Leadership European Parliament shows little interest

“The Gender Equality Committee of the European Parliament committees, only six are chaired by women. None of the political groups has a female chair. runs the risk of being abolished,” says Committee Vice Chair Of the employees of the Parliament, only 20 Eva-Britt Svensson. Several Nordic MEPs paint a gloomy picture per cent are women. of gender equality in the European Parliament. “It is interesting that we who have been elected haven’t achieved more on women’s issues,” says Finnish former Prime Minister by Bosse Parbring Anneli Jätteenmäki from the Finnish Centre Party. She is also a member of the Gender Equality Committee. he Committee for Women’s Rights the basis for the existence of our committee “The gender equality issue has been and Gender Equality has no leg­ is threatened.” around for 50 years, as one of the bases of islative function. The European “This will reduce our work to a bare-bones the Rome Treaty, but the objectives have still Parliament has been given a more version of what we’ve been doing so far. Much not been met. Many women in the European legislative role, and this role will of the gender equality work is about forming Parliament are happy with things and think Tbe strengthened if the Lisbon Treaty comes public opinion, of highlighting issues and there is no need for action. Many men are into force in 2009. According to Eva-Britt increasing the knowledge of other MEPs.” against gender equality, but they won’t say Svensson of the Swedish Left Party, there will According to several Nordic MEPs, gender anything. They keep quiet.” then be a risk that the Gender Equality Com­ equality issues have a low status in the Anna Hedh from the Swedish Social mittee will be abolished. European Parliament. Both men and women Demo­crats is also a member of the Gender “There are powerful forces that use the express their disinterest, or at times, direct Equality Committee. She senses a feeling of development of the EU as a pretext for devo­ opposition. hopelessness. ting less time in plenary sessions to matters “In a plenary session, a British MEP called “Whenever the Gender Equality Commit­ other than legislation. The number of own- the members of the Equality Committee ”les­ tee tables an issue, it is never taken seriously. initiative reports allowed in the legislative bian man-haters”,” says Eva-Britt Svensson. Even Swedes vote against it. They don’t think process at the same time has decreased from 30 per cent of the members of the Euro­ that such issues are a matter for the EU.” six to three. If there is a further reduction, pean Parliament are women. But out of 23 “There is a trend towards more men in European politics. For the 2009 elections, more women need to be promoted as candi­ dates.” As of last year, in each parliamentary committee, there should be a person respon­ sible for gender mainstreaming, reporting to the Gender Equality Committee. “This works only on paper,” says Anna Hedh. “In practice, it boils down to the Chair of each committee saying some nice words.” ”The question is, should we have a Gender Equality Committee? It may be better to set higher demands on the other committees. On the other hand, I think there is a need for it.”

We want a woman. Members of the European Parliament insist that at least one of four EU top positions to be filled in 2009 should be given to a woman. In picture: Diana Wallis, UK, Karin Riis- Jørgensen, Denmark and Anneli Jäätteenmäki, Finland. Photo: Bosse Parbring

22 NIKK magasin 1.09 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries

24 Will they go the same way?

28 Closeness and control for sale

31 Nordic countries vs. Europe

34 What do numbers tell us?

36 Mobilising public opinion

38 Men on the periphery

40 Heated debate Focus: 42 Demands for better protection prostitution Prostitution is a theme constantly under discussion in the Nordic countries. What do we know about its extent? What attitudes are being expressed? How does legislation handle these issues, and what social measures are taken?

NIKK magasin 1.09 23 Photo: Plainpicture/Parlow, K. Photo: Plainpicture/Parlow, Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries

In just a few years, the body of legislation on prostitution in the Nordic countries has undergone an epoch-making development and become more uniform. The reason for this is the increase in trafficking in humans in the region. Nevertheless, there is not total agreement on the best way to go forward. by ULRikke Moustgaard

Prostitution legislation at a turning point Will they go the same way?

n Halmtorvet in Copenhagen, The development has been both rapid – as a social problem. Iceland followed the the Danish capital, a continuous and surprising. Danish view. Norway and Finland tottered stream of cars passes each night. “The Nordic prostitution laws have become in between. Particularly during the week­ more uniform, despite the fact that only ten Attitudes moved even further apart when ends, they crawl past the area years ago, when the Swedes criminalised the Sweden criminalised prostitution customers Owhere young East-European women stand buying of sex, it was, for example, totally in 1999, while Denmark the very same year about selling sexual services. Neither the unthinkable that a similar discussion would chose to decriminalize prostitution. In con­ clients nor the women do anything illegal – start in Denmark,” says May-Len Skilbrei, nection with the 2003 Olympic Games in as long as the women have a residence permit Doctor of Political Science working at the Athens, the then Swedish Minister for Gen­ in the country and pay their taxes. But the research foundation Fafo in Oslo, and co- der Equality, Margareta Winberg urged her situation might change. Denmark is currently leader of NIKK’s research project Prostitution Nordic and Baltic colleagues to sign a com­ in the middle of a heated public debate on in the Nordic Countries. mon letter of protest against the city’s deci­ trafficking and prostitution, and one sugges­ sion to issue licenses for 30 extra brothels tion is that the country should follow its neigh­ Conflicting views to serve the Olympic masses. Her Danish bours and criminalise the buying of sex. Prostitution has, for a long time, been a contro­ colleague, Henriette Kjær, responded to the In Sweden, Norway and Finland, the legi­ versial theme in the Nordic countries, since initiative by publicly calling it ‘nanny-like’ slation on prostitution has undergone signifi­ the countries have held very different views and ‘a joke’. cant changes over the last decade. Sweden of the phenomenon. But since then, the tune has changed. This was first in banning the buying of sex in Sweden and Denmark have represented is due not least to a new tendency in the 1999. In Finland, a prohibition against buy­ an extreme standpoint each. While Sweden prostitution market: human trafficking. ing sex from victims of human trafficking regarded prostitution as a gender equality If the Nordic countries earlier found it was introduced in 2007. And this year, Nor­ issue associated with the so-called theory of difficult to agree on how prostitution should way, too, has decided to outlaw the purchase gendered power, Denmark had a more libe­ be understood, the increasing trafficking in of sexual services. ral attitude towards prostitution and saw it humans to the region during the last few

24 NIKK magasin 1.09 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries

years has now provided a new and shared the Baltic states, the Nordic Council of Minis­ Change is possible. Right now, there is a heated point of reference. ters launched a campaign against trafficking debate in Denmark on trafficking and prostitution. The media in all the Nordic countries have, in 2002. Photo: Fredrik Naumann/Samfoto from the turn of the millennium onwards, “Both the Nordic Council of Ministers been filled with stories on human traffick­ and the Nordic Council wanted to make a a committee in 2006 that was to present ing. The focus has been on women being joint effort to counteract trafficking. The recommendations on which way to choose seriously abused or even forced or kidnapped aim was to trigger a large public debate,” says in Iceland. Here, the Swedish approach was into the sex business. Carita Peltonen, Senior Adviser for Gender discussed, but a majority of the committee “The theme of human trafficking is some­ Equality in the Nordic Council of Ministers. did not support a suggestion for prohibiting thing that all can agree on, which has made the buying of sex. cooperation easier – and thereby the coun­ From radical to normal Instead, the following year Iceland chose tries have influenced each other. This is Since then, things have moved very quickly. the Danish line and decriminalized prosti­ proved by the changes in the Nordic legis­ Finland was the first country, after Sweden, tutes. And now there is a lively debate also lation; for example, the development of to revise its legislation. in Denmark on a possible banning of the decriminalisation of living on an income “The original proposition was actually purchase of sexual services. from prostitution. Approaches have moved modelled on the Swedish law, but the ensu­ “Everybody thought that the Swedish from considering the problem with prosti­ ing public debate in Finland on the issue law was radical when it was passed in 1999, tution as being that somebody lives off the was so strong, that it resulted in the com­ but this has gradually changed,” Carita earnings, to an increased focus on the abuse promise of only criminalising the buying Peltonen concludes. of people within prostitution,” says May-Len of sex from victims of human trafficking,” Although the Nordic countries have Skilbrei. Carita Peltonen explains. develo­ped more or less along the same lines There has also been agreement as to the Norway will introduce a ban on buying when it comes to their prostitution legisla­ need to stir up the general attitudes towards sexual services from the beginning of 2009. tion, there are still big differences between prostitution and trafficking. Together with In Iceland, the Minister of Justice appointed the countries.

NIKK magasin 1.09 25 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries

The sex-purchase laws of Norway and ried out extensive changes, so it was natural to the strict Danish immigration laws. These Sweden differ from each other, for example, to change also the wording of the law. But are women who have come to Denmark on in that Norwegians are forbidden to buy sex the Danish prostitution debate has not resul­ grounds of marriage or reuniting families, not only in their own country; in future, ted in similar concrete changes in the law, explains Marlene Spanger, doctoral student Norwegian citizens can also be sentenced for so the wording of the law does not any longer at the Roskilde University Department of buying sex abroad. totally correspond to how we think of pro­ Society and Globalisation in Denmark. As has been said above, in Finland only stitution,” says May-Len Skilbrei. “The immigration law requires seven the purchase of sex from victims of human On the other hand, the regulations on years of marriage before a foreign citizen trafficking is punishable, and not one sen­ human trafficking are very uniform in all the can get a residence permit in Denmark. This tence has so far been given. Nordic countries. This is primarily explained rule and the family supporting duty make The definitions of prostitution in the va­ by the United Nations Palermo Protocol these women very vulnerable to abuse and rious Nordic legislations still also display big against human trafficking, which the Nordic very dependent on their husbands. In case differences. In this respect, the Nordic region countries signed in 2000, and today all of they would need help, they are left in a no- is divided into two camps: the practical and them have introduced legislation forbidding man’s-land. They are not interested in getting descriptive, and the moral and normative. trafficking in humans. help through the authorities’ programme The first camp consists of Norway, Finland The Danish legislation remains more or for human trafficking victims, since that and Sweden, who give prostitution a concrete less unchanged, except for a new paragraph entails 100 days of residence in Denmark definition. The wording in the new Nor­ on human trafficking in the criminal code. and help in being sent back home. On the wegian law is: “sexual intercourse or action But although the paragraph was introdu­ contrary, these women want to create a life through giving or agreeing on a payment”. ced together with two action plans on traffic­ in Denmark. In addition, this social group Denmark and Iceland form the other king in women, it does not, to date, cover all also falls outside of the category covered by camp. Here prostitution is still officially de­ areas of Danish prostitution. This is the case the criminal code,” she says. fined as “sexual indecency”. because there is a large group of women in Even if the Nordic countries have overcome “This is partly explained by the legisla­ Denmark who support themselves from pro­ their fear of dealing with prostitution, it does tion process. Norway and Sweden have car­ stitution, but who cannot receive help due not mean that prostitution has become a less 1999 2003 Sweden bans the buying of sex. Norway’s first action plan against human trafficking. Denmark decriminalizes prostitutes. Norway criminalizes human trafficking. Iceland criminalizes human trafficking. 2002 Denmark’s first action plan against 2004 trafficking in women. Finland criminalizes human trafficking. Denmark criminalizes human trafficking. Sweden revises its law against human trafficking. Sweden criminalizes human trafficking.

26 NIKK magasin 1.09 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries

controversial issue. Today, a variety of dis­ “The theory on gendered power and radi­ “First, people imagined the worst forms courses fight for a place on the public stage. cal feminism, which are the ideas behind the of human trafficking: violent organisations, The Swedish focus, now joined by the Nor­ Swedish sex-purchase law, are increasingly kidnapping, etc. It was thought that the vic­ wegian one, on the customers has gained a being questioned in Sweden,” she says. tims must be isolated and protected. Today hearing in the Nordic Council of Ministers. She thinks this is due to international we know that abuse within prostitution can “A big shift has taken place from the early influences, such as queer theory – also called happen in many ways, and that women who approach, when the main attention was on the third wave of feminism – that were im­ have been abused in the migration and pro­ the women, their social situation and reasons ported from the US at the end of the 1990s. stitution process have other needs, such as why they had ended up in prostitution. Today “This leads to criticism of a sex-purchase residence permits,” she explains. the focus has turned onto the customers and law trying to set the norms for sexuality On Halmtorvet in Copenhagen the stream the fact that men must also carry their re­ between adult, consenting people.” of cars continues to pass by, indifferent to sponsibility in the fight against human traf­ Regardless of how the debate will develop, the debate. Perhaps the traffic will even in­ ficking,” says Carita Peltonen. the reforms of the Nordic legislation are not crease, when the new Norwegian law comes On the other hand, new voices opposing yet completed, May-Len Skilbrei thinks. into force in the beginning of 2009. At least bans within prostitution have appeared. Sex The prostitution market is changing, and there were several worried headlines in the workers, sexual-political associations and new elements are being introduced, such as Danish newspapers, when the news of the others increasingly engage in the legislation prostitution on the internet. Norwegian ban on purchasing sexual ser­ debate with warnings of a society where people “I think we’re going to see big adjustments vices was published: “Denmark to be the lose their right to decide over their own body. in the next few years. The situation will change, Nordic brothel.” Susanne Dodillet, doctoral student in the and the legislation must follow. It must be­ History of Science and Ideas at the University come even more concrete, when it comes to Ulrikke Moustgaard is freelance journalist specialising of Gothenburg, thinks that the prostitution identifying what forms of involvement in the in gender research. discourse is about to change in Sweden – the prostitution of others is to be illegal.” same place where the changes started ten The view of help offered to victims of years ago. human trafficking is already changing. 2005 2008 Norway’s second action plan against human trafficking. The Swedish Government presents the country’s Sweden tightens its legislation on procuring. first action plan against prostitution and human Finland’s first action plan against human trafficking. trafficking to the Parliament. Norway accepts a new law on the banning of buying sex. Iceland prepares its first action plan against human trafficking. 2007 Finland’s second action plan against human trafficking. Finland bans the buying of sex from trafficking victims. Iceland decriminalizes prostitutes and criminalizes profiting on the prostitution of others. Denmark’s second action plan against trafficking in women – now trafficking in humans.

NIKK magasin 1.09 27 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries

The man who buys sex could be described as a wanted character in prostitution debates, he belongs to a group that is talked about but seldom talked to. The website sexhandel.no (sextrade) is an initiative that enables customers themselves to describe their own thoughts about buying sex. by synnøve jahnsen Closeness and control for sale hy do some men buy sex? This is a question posed In the quote above, buying sex appears as a rational solution, as in research reports and public debates, and also on something that is time and cost efficient. Here, it seems as if the the website. One person answered the question shame associated with frequenting prostitutes is subordinated to, or somewhat laconically: “because it’s allowed”, but neutralized, in the encounter with other masculine ideals. was soon corrected by somebody else who pointed The need for security and control, as also the need for closeness Wout that men buy sex even if it is forbidden, as for example in Sweden. and intimacy, are not only described as a necessity, but also as a Another answered: “It’s actually cheaper than ordering a bunch of bene­fit that one can buy access to. This is expressed by “good prosti­ porn films from abroad. And it’s cheaper than buying drinks in tutes” being described as intelligent, kind, warm, caring and cheerful, town”. While yet another answered: “I did it because I missed sex and while “bad” or “unprofessional” prostitutes are described using physical closeness with a woman. I was so starved of sex at home”. concepts such as “business oriented”. The same phenomenon is also A younger man describes his buying of sex as follows: illustrated by the use of the concept “GFE”, an international abbrevi­ ation among sex clients for “Girl Friend Experience” reflecting to Buying sex for me becomes a way of avoiding the what extent the selling party in the commercial sex relation succeeds bother that chasing women actually means. Besides, in creating a “near-girl-friend-like” experience or illusion. I do actually save money on this: I don’t need to In the market-terms characteristic of the discussions on sexhandel. maintain the social codes when it comes to alcohol no, where men write about their relation to prostitution, the sex trade any more. Because of this I’ve completely stopped is understood to be something mutual, justified and equal, where drinking, and I’ve simply become healthier. Besides, various needs are satisfied. One party gets sex, while the other party I’m not so sexually frustrated when I get to “ease the gets money. Here, prostitution is described as a pure commercial pressure” a couple of times a month. transaction, where gender, ethnicity, sexuality, body and money (Anonymous 17.09.06) are various forms of capital that can be exchanged in a commercial

28 NIKK magasin 1.09 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries Us men? What we think? Is that interesting? Around lunch tables at work and in groups of friends, men who buy sex are characterised as “repellent”, “immoral” and “cynical”. We have all heard these discussions. However, if you knew who any of the clients were (…), you would find out that it’s your neighbour, your colleague, perhaps your brother, or others that you know well. What they have in common is probably that all of them once in a while need some- thing that they can’t get “for free”. ”Hektor” 18.05.06

NIKK magasin 1.09 29 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries market. The market here not only appears as a free zone for men, but Obviously, what we see here are also rhetorical stances typical of also as a sexually free zone, offering other and more sexual roles, the discussion forum; the buyers of sex defend their personal views, which are not similarly available in non-commercial relationships. as something of their own and special, and as separate from the uni­ Descriptions of controlled and organised brothels, where the prosti­ versal, principal and general discussion level. Thus, they can position tutes demand sincerity, cleanliness and intelligence are used to sup­ themselves as liberal on one level, and as conservative on another. port the notion of equality and power balance between seller and They therefore make a distinction between the moral codes for women buyer, as between the genders. As in other market discourses, there who are close to them and the codes valid for prostitutes. is a dominant view of “the market’s autonomous justness” or “natu­ ral state”. Asymmetrical intimacy The paradoxes emerging in the discussions are particularly interesting A paradox seen in the light of some men describing the buying of sex as a wish Although many of the men express liberal views of sexual relation­ships for nearness and intimacy. Such descriptions are expressed despite the in some contexts, the moral status of women is measured in relation fact that estrangement and social distance are the actual basic prin­ to honesty, sexuality and money in other contexts – regardless of ciples of the commercial market, including the purchasing of sex. whether they are situated in or outside of the prostitution markets. While some write that they seek intimacy and emotional nearness This is illustrated in the quote below, where we find an underlying through prostitution, others say that they pay in order to avoid the story of women, money and sex being a problematic combination. “bother” and “stress” with “ordinary” women. Both types of state­ ment are expressions of a wish for “asymmetrical intimacy”, where Most the men who have sex can probably be said to the men are caring objects and/or sexual objects, and where the ser­ have “bought” it in one way or another, too. Some vice they pay for also includes a contract on avoiding the kind of pay cash, others pay in the form of status, expensive emotional mutuality expected in corresponding non-commercial car, marriage, safety, good looks etc. Buying prosti­ relationships. tutes is a poor man’s way of getting laid. Kjell Inge Røkke can just wave his credit card, and so persons Synnøve Jahnsen is cand.polit. at the University of Bergen in Norway and one of the like Celina Middlefart come running and tell what a researchers in NIKK’s prostitution project. soft spot she’s got for authoritarian and powerful men… ordinary men have to use other means. (Nilsen 16.01.06)

This type of problematisation can be interpreted as an attempt at reaching a kind of moral equality, where people in general are not better or worse than men who buy sex, since we are all governed by the same urges. However, the moral criticism is consistently aimed at the women’s partner preferences, and not at the men’s preferences. Thus, a moral paradox emerges, where some rules that pertain to women are not correspondingly valid for men. Such standpoints are challenged by other members of the forum who oppose prosti­ tution and ask whether the buyers of sex would have such a liberal view if, for example, their daughter, girlfriend or wife sold sex. One man answers:

I don’t, for example, want any of my nearest and dear­est to work in coal mines, as deep sea divers, do base jumping, or work as a trapeze artist, but I don’t demand that others not choose these jobs because of that. (Mannsyd 05.02.06 ) sexhandel.no Another says: “If it were my girlfriend: the relationship would end there and then”. The website sexhandel.no (sextrade) contains information and various Even if the buyers of sex on sexhandel.no explain their own buying forms of texts on prostitution and human trafficking, and an interactive with the notion that the person they buy the service from, is a ratio­ forum where the various aspects of buying sex can be discussed. The nal and active market actor, similar to themselves, they also maintain site sexhandel.no has been created by the Reform Resource Centre for the view that they would not accept the selling of sex as a rational Men in Oslo, with its own administration and infrastructure. The choice for women close to themselves. This can be interpreted in the initiative comprises an expert reference group/expert board and is run light of what Nils Christie discusses in Hvor tett et samfunn? (How by the Norwegian Ministry of Children and Equality as part of the close­ly knit a society?, 1982): that social nearness in interpersonal prevention of human trafficking. A general aim is that the site should relationships, in contrast to distance, creates barriers for exploiting contribute to reducing the demand for sexual services. or harming other people. Photo: I stockphoto

30 NIKK magasin 1.09 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries

 “Unfortunately the work we have done has not come as far in Germany. Therefore we find reasons to try to push the debate in Germany forward in this area”, said Bosse Ringholm, then Sports Minister in Sweden. Photo: Bertil Ericson/Scanpix EuropeNordic countries vs. The Nordic countries all want hen Susanne Dodillet came to Sweden from Ger­ many ten years ago, she was shocked. Among left- to limit prostitution, while wing German feminists, she had heard that the occupational choice of prostitutes was to be accep­ several other European ted and that one should campaign for their rights. WIn Germany, prostitution has had the status of an occupation since countries regard prostitution 2001. This gives the prostitutes the right to be included in the system for unemployment benefits, health care and pensions. In Sweden, as a legitimate occupation. the sex-purchase law that prohibits the buying of sexual services was introduced in 1999. by bosse parbring “I found the debate in Sweden one-sided. When I talked about this with my Swedish friends, they thought I was totally crazy.”

NIKK magasin 1.09 31 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries

Why was their view of prostitution so dif­ ferent, when they shared the same values on so many other issues? The cultural differen­ ces were obviously greater than she thought at first. Susanne Dodillet decided to study the differences between the Swedish and German views on prostitution. At the beginning of 2009 – ten years after the introduction of the Swedish sex-purchase law – she defended her doctoral thesis on the history of ideas at the University of Gothenburg. There are three aspects that explain the differences between Sweden and Germany, according to Susanne Dodillet: • Attitudes to the welfare state. • Feminist orientations. • The influence of religion Let us begin with the welfare state: “In Germany, people are more critical of state interference in people’s private lives. In Sweden, many believe in a strong state con­ tributing to our norms and values”, explains Susanne Dodillet. On feminism she says: “In Sweden, radical feminism has had a strong impact on feminist ideology. This means that power structures are perceived There is a degrading view of women in of in terms of male superiority and female early Swedish research. inferiority. In Germany, feminism is more like queer feminism. This, in turn, is connec­ – s u s a n n e d o d i l l e t , r e s e a r c h e r ted to the common view of the state”. And lastly, on the influence of religion: “In Germany, the Christian Democrats have half the seats in Parliament, and thus Therefore there has been no need for the Left “In Germany, however, there is still an exert a strong influence on the social debate. to go through this debate in Sweden. But that active debate on the significance of morality. The Church opposes prostitution for moral is exactly why she thinks there is still an old The concept is also included in the German reasons. So, the Christian Democrats are, in a moralistic view in Sweden. legislation. I think the Swedish lack of aware­ way, in a position reminiscent of that of the “My research shows that moralistic values ness is explained by the fact that Christian feminists in Sweden. Because of the Christian have survived in Sweden, too, but they are morals have been openly upheld by relatively Democrat dominance, it is more legitimate to very much hidden – although nobody is activ­ few in this country”. discuss moral issues in Germany than in Swe­ ely hiding them. The fact that the sexual Susanne Dodillet is very critical of the ­den. The German left-wing opinion opposes­ legi­slation originates in traditional Christian Swedish research on prostitution that was the moral arguments, and so their view of sexual morality has gradually been forgotten, carried out in the 1970s and 1980s, and which prostitution is more liberal than in Sweden”. which is exemplified by the concept of mora­ is the basis for the sex-purchase law. lity disappearing from the Swedish Criminal “There is a degrading view of women in Hidden Swedish morality Code. The ‘morality offences’ were renamed early Swedish research. The researchers saw Susanne Dodillet emphasizes that in Sweden, ‘sexual offences’ in Sweden in the 1980s with­ prostitution as a social problem that they not that many people talk openly about out the underlying Christian tradition being wanted to eliminate. But they never talked norms and values, or stand up for them. discussed at all”. to the prostitutes. They just regarded them

32 NIKK magasin 1.09 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries

as social problems that were ill and suffering. One of the politicians who was most active tween the existence of prostitution and traf­ Even the women who said they felt fine were in creating the sex-purchase law was Inger ficking, which many have previously denied. regarded as social problems”. Segelström, who was then Member of Par­ “I have the support of women’s organisati­ But Susanne Dodillet is not only critical liament and Chair of the Social Democratic ons around Europe. Only Germany, the Nether­ of Sweden. She also criticizes the fact that Women in Sweden. Since 2004 she has been lands and Austria constitute as an exception. German prostitution has now fallen into a a Member of the European Parliament and All the others recognise the connection be­ legal void. It is legalized, but although Ger­ Vice Chair of the European Social Democratic tween prostitution and human trafficking”. man politicians say that prostitution is an Women. She does not recognise herself in the “The Football World Cup showed that occupation, there are no laws ensuring good explanation provided by Susanne Dodillet. those who claim there is no connection, are working conditions. “I think the explanation is to be found wrong. The Germans were shocked when it “It is now permitted to open brothels, but elsewhere,” says Inger Segelström. turned out that their legal prostitutes were there are no regulations on how a brothel is imported women.” to be run and by whom. Other occupational Support for the Swedish view “We, the Social Democratic women in groups have rights that prevent salary dum­ “What happened in 1994, was that women Sweden, have actually been proven right in ping and ensure safety in the workplace. Pro­ got half of the seats in Parliament. Before our view that prostitution is a question of stitutes in Germany lack all of this. In other then, there had been no possibility to pass power which should be included in the words, not even in that country do sex sellers any laws concerning violence against women whole gender equality debate”. have the same rights as other people.” or similar questions. Subsequently we got the If Germany has not yet come that far, such law on violence against women, and later the an attitude is even more unfamiliar in Swe­ sex-purchase law”. den. Susanne Dodillet thinks that the various The first thing Inger Segelström did after cultural, ideological and political differences having been elected into Parliament in 1994, between Sweden and Germany explain why was to propose a motion on the prohibition politicians often find it difficult to discuss of buying sex. It was voted down. But in 1997 issues on prostitution. The debate is simply she won the support of the Social Democratic at cross-purposes. Swedish politicians can be Congress for the issue, in 1998 the law was perceived as arrogant within the European passed in Parliament and it came into force Union when they praise their sex-purchase in 1999. law, and present it as the only right path. Inger Segelström has had similar experi­ This was the case before the Football ences in the European Parliament. When she World Cup in Germany in 2006, when the entered in 2004, nobody listened to her when Swedish Equal Opportunities Ombudsman she talked about prostitution. Now she is and the Swedish Government claimed that getting greater support for the Swedish view, Germany had built brothels next to the to a great extent due to the increasing prob­ arenas, where the prostitutes were said to be lem with human trafficking. Inger Segelström victims of trafficking. consistently emphasises the association be­ “Unfortunately the work we have done has not come as far in Germany. Therefore we find reasons to try to push the debate in Germany forward in this area”, said Social We, the Social Democratic women Democrat Bosse Ringholm, then Sports Min­ in Sweden, have actually been proven is­ter in Sweden. However, prostitution is no longer a left-or-right-wing issue in Sweden. right in our view that prostitution is In December 2007, Minister Maria Larsson, representing the Christian Democrats, said a question of power. in a parliamentary debate, referring to the – i n g e r s e g e l s t r ö m , sex-purchase law, that “the struggle for human m e m b e r o f t h e e u r o p e a n p a r l i a m e n t rights has actually gone one step further in our country than in many other countries”.

NIKK magasin 1.09 33 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries

How much prostitution is there in the Nordic countries? This is a question many would like to know the answer of. by MAY-LEN SKILBREI What do numbers tell us?

hen the social institutions that politicians, the police, the social services of the countries, the proportion of foreign working with the issue of and other actors feel that it is difficult to get women has increased as has organised prosti­ prostitution in different an overview of the market, and therefore tution, and shifts between the various areas parts of Norway publish continuous mapping is needed in order not of the market have taken place. It might be annual reports with over­ to lose control of it. Previously “everybody” difficult to say anything on the current extent Wviews of how many women they have en­ knew where prostitution took place and of prostitution and changes in it over time. countered in prostitution, all the main media which groups could be found where. New In Denmark, Tema Prostitution calculated are eager to cover this as an important piece groups in prostitution have gone against this that in 2007 there were 5,567 women in of news. Headlines like “More prostitutes predictability by operating outside of the prostitution who had either advertised or found” and “Kristiansand swarming with traditional prostitution arenas and by wor­ encountered social measures aimed at street prostitutes” help everybody follow the details king in other ways. prostitution. of the prostitution market development. The most recent survey of the extent of Only a few years ago, there was not such Work should be measured prostitution in Finland was conducted in a great interest in exactly how many prosti­ Another reason why it has become so impor­ 2005. The data consists of interviews with tutes there were; approximate numbers were tant to present numbers might be that the experts in the field of prostitution, and based enough. As the media, politicians, the police public debate on prostitution to a large on these interviews Kontula concludes that and the social services have, in the last few extent centres on how prostitution should be about 8,000 persons sell sex in Finland. years, become increasingly focused on know­ handled. The constantly updated figures that It is impossible to know precisely how ing the exact figures for the extent of prosti­ are produced appear as objective measures of much prostitution is happening in all the tution, it is important to ask what function the impact of society’s work to counteract Nordic countries. It is particularly difficult numbers hold for the understanding and the phenomenon. to find out how much prostitution there is handling of prostitution. The prostitution markets in the Nordic in Iceland, since no attempts have been made One reason why numbers have gained in countries have altered very much over the to estimate the extent at all. significance might be that the prostitution last ten years. In this period, extensive chan­ In 2007, the Norwegian national compe­

markets are undergoing changes which mean ges have been made in the legislation in all tence centre Pro Sentret counted 2,654 persons Photo: I stockphoto

34 NIKK magasin 1.09 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries

in prostitution in Norway. This number is ded in the calculation, since the decrease of based on the women encountered in street prostitution in the home country does not prostitution by social workers in the larger­ reflect an efficient prostitution policy if, at cities and on the number of advertisements. the same time, the amount of sex-tourism In Sweden, the National Board of Health increases. This aspect, however, is very dif­ and Welfare recently conducted a survey of ficult to include in the estimates. knowledge on prostitution in the country. Thirdly, the numbers are produced in According to interviews with experts wor­ various contexts and are therefore influenced king on prostitution, there were 299 women by who is doing the counting and for what in street prostitution in Stockholm, Malmö purpose. The prostitution that is already and Gothenburg in 2006, and a survey of visible is also the one that social services and advertisements on the internet found 247 the police have the best overview of. women and 51 men, and three who did not The numbers put together by social insti­ give their gender. tutions are characterised by their mission to help the most marginalised groups. The figu­ Confusing messages res of the police are produced in an attempt Comparing the estimates of each individual to identify criminal involvement of a third country with each other is problematic. party, that is, a procurer or trafficker in There are three important arguments against humans, which is why they are not, to any believing too blindly in the message conveyed greater extent, concerned with the numbers by the numbers. of women in Nordic prostitution generally. Firstly, the way in which prostitution is If the social work or the measures of the defined influences what is included in the police against prostitution are increased, estimates. Often men who sell sex are omitted the number of prostitutes will go up, simply If the social work from the overviews, as if their activities are because more frequent contacts with the is increased, the not prostitution. The police and social services market means that more prostitutes are work directly with the visible prostitution, observed. If, on the other hand, there are few number of prosti- where the exchange of money for sex happens measures in relation to prostitution and the most explicitly, and therefore this area is phenomenon is left to sail on its own, the tutes will go up, counted. There is seldom any problemati­ numbers found will be lower. sation as to where the borders of the prosti­ Thus, the question is whether the num­ simply because tution phenomenon are drawn. bers are as exact as we would want them to more frequent Secondly, the number of women who sell be. And whether they tell us what we would sex is just one part of the whole picture; we like to know. Particularly since we do not contacts with the do still not know how many prostitution know whether changes in the market are transactions take place. We can, of course, caused by political decision, or by some market means that also form an idea of the extent of prostitution totally different factors. As the Nordic pro­ by counting the customers. This is done today stitution markets have become increasingly more prostitutes by conducting quantitative studies, where the international, there are grounds to ask if respondents are asked to answer whether processes in other places are not crucial for are observed. they have bought sex or not. the development of effective measures against The problem here is that there are many prostitution, while local and national politi­ who do not answer these questions; the cal decisions have less of an impact than is response rate is very low. Furthermore, the currently assumed. respondents answer both whether they have bought sex in their home country or abroad, May-Len Skilbrei is Doctor in Political Sciences, so the numbers produced are too imprecise researcher at Fafo in Norway and co-leader of NIKK’s to say anything on how much prostitution is research project Prostitution in the Nordic countries. happening in one country. Ideally, the prostitution that Nordic citi­

Photo: C olourbox zens partake of abroad should also be inclu­

NIKK magasin 1.09 35 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries Mobilising public opinion The population in most of the Nordic countries has, during the last few years, taken an increasingly critical attitude towards prostitution. The media, politicians and interest groups have influenced the attitudes of people. by Bosse parbring

n Sweden, there has been a ban on the ban on the buying of sex? In Denmark, where prostitution. This seems to have worked. In buying of sexual service for ten years. the selling of sex was decriminalized in 1999, a survey, ordered by the newspaper Politiken The law has extensive support among an opinion survey conducted in 2002 by the at the end of 2006, the proportion who thought the Swedes – as many as 70 per cent sociologist Claus Lautrup shows that the prostitution to be an unacceptable part of want to keep the sex-purchase law. Danes hold contradictory attitudes towards society had increased from 25 to 42 per cent. IThere are, however, considerable differences prostitution. Many accept the phenomenon, 22 per cent of the respondents supported a between women and men; 79 per cent of the but would, nevertheless, like to limit it. prohibition of prostitution. women support the law, while 60 per cent of There is a general tendency that men accept the men do so. prostitution and are opposed to society reg­ Support for a sex-purchase law These are results from a recent survey ulating it, while women tend to take the In Norway, a law banning the buying of sex­ study conducted by Jari Kuosmanen, resear­ opposite stance. ual services came into force in 2009. There cher in Social Work at the University of has been an intense debate for and against Gothenburg, within the framework of NIKK’s Resistance to law the law in the last years. In Norway, too, prostitution project and with financial sup­ However, a majority (63 per cent of the men there is a big difference between the opinions port from the Swedish Government. and 82 per cent of the women) would want of women and of men. Several studies con­ Young people and persons born in Sweden prostitution to be reduced or limited in scope. ducted by newspapers over the last few years have a more positive attitude to the Swedish Half of these think that this should be done show that a majority of women support a sex-purchase law. Also among those born by legislation and giving help to the pro­ sex-purchase law, while a minority of men do abroad, it is primarily the women who sup­ stitutes. Interestingly enough, lawyers and so. The law has a larger degree of support port the law. policemen had a more sceptical attitude to­ among those who live in Oslo than in other But not all women share the same opini­ wards criminalisation, while social workers parts of the country. on; as many as 83 per cent of women with a were more positive. In 2006, prostitution attracted a lot of high level of education want to keep the law, In some later surveys ordered by Danish media attention because of its growing visi­ while the proportion who thinks so among newspapers, the support for criminalisation bility caused by the increased proportion of women with a brief education is 63 per cent. was weak. On the contrary, half of the respon­ foreign prostitutes. Several studies conducted However, the Swedes do not only want a dents in one of the surveys wanted prostitu­ that year show a tendency towards greater ban on buying sex. A majority would also like tion to be recognised as an occupation, as it support for a sex-purchase law. to forbid the selling of sexual services – wo­ is in Germany. Politicians, authorities and In Iceland, the Centre for Women’s and men particularly take this stance. organisations have launched several cam­ Gender Studies conducted an opinion survey What is the situation in the other Nordic paigns in attempts to influence the Danish on gender equality in 2003. In the survey, 60 countries that have not introduced a general opinion in a direction more critical towards per cent of the men and 69 per cent of the

36 NIKK magasin 1.09 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries

women answered that the buying of sex should be illegal. An even larger proportion opposed the recognition of prostitution as an occupation (67 per cent of the men and 92 per cent of the women). A study made in 2007 showed that 70 per cent of Icelanders wanted a sex-purchase law. Here, as in many other countries, the gender difference is considerable; 83 per cent of the women want to prohibit the buying of sex, while 57 per cent of the men do so. Thus, a big change in attitudes has taken place among the women, but not among the men. Finland was on the road towards a general ban against the buying of sex, but in the end, as the result of a political compromise, a ban which only concerns buying sex from victims Reden regards prostitution as violence against women of human trafficking was introduced at the and is therefore an active advocate for the criminalisation end of 2006. The Finns probably hold the of prostitution customers. In one of its campaigns, the most permissive attitude towards prostitu­ organisation used an image of ten naked women who had tion in all the Nordic countries. According to been packed as meat for sale in the cold counter. the gender equality barometers of 2004 and 2008, almost 60 per cent of the men and a little over 30 per cent of the women accepted of its campaigns, the organisation used an Pro Sentret, a national competence centre the buying of sex from a prostitute. No con­ image of ten naked women who had been on prostitution, opposes a sex-purchase law siderable changes have happened during the packed as meat for sale in the cold counter. and, in a contribution to the debate, points four intervening years. Compared to surveys The will to criminalise the buying of sex out that the claim that prostitution would in the 1990s, it seems instead that the Finnish is a historical turning point in Norway, in the have increased explosively is wrong. It is attitudes towards prostitution have become opinion of Synnøve Jahnsen at the University more a question of prostitution having chan­ more tolerant in the 2000s. of Bergen. She has analysed the Norwegian ged form and become more visible in the media debate on prostitution. Earlier, pro­ public space. Influence public opinion stitution was, to a large degree, regarded as Attitudes towards prostitution do not emerge a social problem to be countered through Broad debate in a vacuum. The media, politicians, autho­ social measures. But, in a short period of time, The criminalisation debate has been broad rities and interest groups try to influence several political parties have changed their and comprised many different aspects. Syn­ public opinion in various ways, and, at the attitude. The reason for this has been the nøve Jahnsen distinguishes three different same time, they are dependent on the public descriptions in the media of the increasingly main positions in the debate: attitudes in order to take the issue in the foreign and more visible street prostitution. • A ban sends a moral signal to men that direction they want. society does not accept the buying of sex. In Denmark, Reden has been an important “The largest Nordic whore street” • Norwegian legislation takes the fight actor in the debate, according to Jeanett Bjøn­ The papers describe the growing visible pro­ against human trafficking seriously and ness, doctoral student at Aarhus University stitution with large headlines: “Prostitution does not want to appear as a liberal free in Denmark. Reden is an organisation with frolics freely” and “The largest Nordic whore zone for pimps. help points for prostitutes and it has conduc­ street” about the most famous street in Oslo, • Maintenance of the view that prostitu­ ted several campaigns against prostitution Karl Johans gate. tion should be tackled by social-political and trafficking in humans. Reden regards Letters to the editor depict Oslo as being means and not through criminal-

eden I nternational/www.redeninternational.dk prostitution as violence against women and turned into a slum by homeless people, beg­ political measures. is therefore an active advocate for the crimi­ gars and prostitutes. Trade and industry think

Photo: R nalisation of prostitution customers. In one that visible prostitution is “bad for business”.

NIKK magasin 1.09 37 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries

An increasing number of foreign prostitutes come to the Nordic countries. This changes the focus of social measures and affects specific groups of national prostitutes, among others, men, who have ended up forming ‘the blind spot’.

by Anette Dina Sørensen

Social measures Men on the periphery

n the Nordic countries, prostitution is stitution, but in recent years, contacts have Information dissemination is also included defined as a social problem, which is also been established with prostitutes wor­ in the work of the prostitutions units. They first and foremost to be tackled through king indoors. cooperate with the police, who focus on the social measures, write May-Len Skilbrei The Norwegian Pro Senter focuses on da­ customers, while the workers at the prosti­ and Charlotte Holmström in the final mage limitation and on the rights of the tution units take care of the social measures Ireport of the project Prostitution in the Nordic prostitutes. Their working methods consist in relation to the women. countries, which they headed. However, the of short meetings, including distribution of ways in which the measures are structured condoms and lubricants, and the provision Transnational prostitution and administered vary between the countries, of relevant information. Seen from a historical perspective, social mea­ not least because of differences in their pro­ The private organisation Kirkens Bymission sures in the Nordic countries have mainly stitution legislation. (Church City Mission), on the other hand, been aimed at national prostitution, but the In Denmark and Norway, where procu­ offers more extensive discussions and home considerable changes in the global prostitu­ ring is forbidden, but the buying and selling calls. Even if they, too, work from a damage tion market over the last ten years, which of sexual services are not punishable, social limitation perspective, their main emphasis have led to increased transnational prostitu­ measures are mainly characterised by damage is on helping women out of prostitution. tion, have challenged their scope and forced limitation. In Sweden, where the buying of Looking at Sweden, a major part of the the Nordic countries to refocus. May-Len Skil­ sexual services has been forbidden since 1999, social measures are organised by the so-called brei describes some of the consequences: social measures are primarily aimed at redu­ prostitution units subordinate to municipal “Norwegian prostitutes are under pressure cing prostitution and at getting women and authorities in Stockholm, Gothenburg and by the presence of foreign prostitutes in the men to leave the occupation. Malmö. They do visiting work at street level, country. They must, for example, be more In Norway, social measures are provided but also offer individual, therapeutic and mobile in order to get customers. At the same by both public and private establishments. long-term treatment in combination with time, they have become less visible in terms Most of them primarily work with street pro­ web-based counselling and social support. of the application social measures over the

38 NIKK magasin 1.09 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries

last few years, since these to a large extent now on the website of Kompetencecenter for prostitu- experiences of selling sex is larger than the turn their attention to visible street prostitu­­ tion, their anonymous phone counselling and number of girls with this experience. tion and foreign prostitutes,” she points out. therapeutic discussion groups. The activities The fact that the Nordic countries focus of the Swedish prostitution units are also Criminalisation of customers almost exclusively on adult women, inclu­ aimed at men in prostitution, but, contrary In 2009, the buying of sexual services will ding women in transnational prostitution, to the situation in Finland, existing measures become punishable in Norway. May-Len Skil­ affects other groups of prostitutes. Thus, are basically designed with women in mind. brei thinks, however, that the possible crimi­ male prostitutes are on the periphery of so­ There are signs that support for male pro­ nalisation will be successful only if the leg­ cial measures; they form what May-Len Skil­ stitutes has decreased because of the growth islation does not lead to the cancelling of brei calls ‘the blind spot’. in transnational prostitution. The Norwegian social measures. Pro Senter had to make changes in their acti­ ”Much of what has already been done in Difficult to trace vities in 2007 and give lower priority to the that area has a positive impact,” she thinks. Since they seldom advertise, they are difficult work aimed at men in prostitution as a con­ “The number of prostitutes is not increa­ to trace. The measures aimed specifically at sequence of the increasing number of foreign sing, so something is at work here. Therefore them are scarce, as is knowledge of their par­ prostitutes in Norway. it’s crucial that the legislation must not over­ ticular needs for counselling and support. According to Inger Björne-Fagerli, who has rule the social measures, and that the Nor­ In Finland, the social measures are arran­ written her Master’s thesis at the University wegian State follows up the legislation with ged by the NGO Pro-Tukipiste in Helsinki. The of Oslo on male prostitution, there is no rea­ social action plans, so that the constant atten­ organisation also has a special programme son to believe that the number of male pro­ tion that the area has attracted over the last for men in prostitution, which is based on stitutes is small. Even if the blind number is 15 years will continue.” damage limitation. large, several studies conducted among very In Denmark, men in prostitution can, simi­ young people in Iceland, Norway and Sweden Anette Dina Sørensen is freelance journalist specialising in gender research. Photo: Istockphoto larly to female prostitutes, use the letterbox indicate that the number of boys who have

NIKK magasin 1.09 39 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries

“There is more talk about controlling prostitution than from the perspectives of the prostitutes themselves. This is typical for the Nordic countries.” These were the words of Jaana Kauppinen from the Finnish organisation Pro-tukipiste.

By Bosse Parbring Heated debate

uring the conference Prostitution vices,” says Jaana Kauppinen. “There is much led the issue differently. The reason why the in the Nordic Countries, held in also in our work that needs to be discussed.” Norwegian opinion has turned so sharply Stockholm, Sweden 16–17 Oct­ Jaana Kauppinen thinks that the Nordic lately towards criminalisation is that a group o­ber 2008, and arranged by the countries should turn their gaze more towards of Nigerian women has come to Norway and Nordic Council of Ministers and themselves in order to explore what features they have been both active and visible,” says DNIKK, a heated debate arose. of the Nordic welfare societies make things Inga Marte Thorkildsen. Jaana Kauppinen is Director of the Finnish difficult for prostitutes instead of helping “I think there are strong tendencies to­ NGO Pro-Tukipiste, which works for the bene­ them in their situation. wards creating a society divided into ‘us’ and fit of prostitutes. “More research is needed – but why should ‘them’. This tendency originates from among “In the Nordic countries, prostitutes are the prostitutes provide information about both conservative and socialist feminists. I victims. We don’t talk about empowerment. themselves, when it’s turned against them?” myself am a socialist feminist, and I’m very That kind of activity is lacking. Instead of The empowerment work of Pro-tukipiste disappointed. Nobody listens to the prosti­ supporting prostitutes, we have made them primarily focuses on attitudes. tutes themselves. They are described either a problem which undermines the order of “We don’t know what the prostitutes as victims or as disturbing elements.” our society,” claims Jaana Kauppinen. need, but they themselves do. A person descri­ “I find it very important that the lawis “When we talk about procuring, the pro­ bes what she needs, and then we work out followed up by research and that the politici­ stitute becomes an object useful for getting what we can do and what we can’t do. The ans should not simply sit back now,” says Inga hold of the criminals. Unfortunately this is important­ thing is that people themselves Marte Thorkildsen. “It’s easy for politicians to also the case when it comes to human traf­ own the issue.” pass laws and believe that that’s enough.” ficking. The prostitutes become objects rather “In my heart, I’m for criminalisation, but than people we should help.” Opposes the law in my head I’m against it. I hope things will “I’m a bit doubtful as to that description,” Member of the Norwegian Parliament Inga go well anyway.” says Sven-Axel Månsson, Professor of Social Marte Thorkildsen from the Socialist Left “It’s not surprising that prostitutes oppose Work at Malmö University in Sweden. Party opposes the law for criminalising the this law,” says Katarina Storalm from the “I have a feeling that the women are en­ buying of sex, which the Parliament is about Norwegian women’s organisation Ottar. “The countered as subjects.” to take a decision on. basis for their livelihood is taken away. There­ “The response we get from our clients is “My party stands behind the law, and I fore it’s important that society must provide that they are stigmatised by some social ser­ bend to that. But I wish we could have hand­ support for them.”

40 NIKK magasin 1.09 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries

Heated

debate Facts or opinions? Director Jaana Kauppinen from Finland and politician Inga Marte Thorkildsen The debate in Denmark has also changed Party, would have preferred a law similar to from Norway, two of the panel members. in character over the last few years, and is the Swedish sex-purchase law. Photo: Bosse Parbring now inclined towards an attitude of wanting “Even if there are some who are prosti­ to criminalise the buying of sex. Nell Rasmus­ tutes of their own free will, the cost is too sen from the Danish National Board of Social high for other women.” window for prostitution disappears,” says Services, which is assigned by the Govern­ “I regard prostitution from a gender equa­ Drifa Snædd. ment to work on knowledge and social meas­ lity perspective. That is, that there is a con­ “There is a radically different way, which ures in the area of prostitution, thinks that nection between prostitution, violence in the is not about accusing the prostitutes – and the debate has been ideologised. home, pornography and unequal salaries. that is to criminalise the buying of sex,” says “The public debate says that foreign pro­ The Icelandic financial crisis has forced gen­ Sven-Axel Månsson. stitution has exploded, and that all women der equality issues to take several steps back,” “I hope you are right,” replies Inga Marte are victims of human trafficking. It’s also claims Drifa Snædd. Thorkildsen. “But we mustn’t think that claimed that women in prostitution have been cri­mi­nalisation is a flagship solving every- sexually assaulted in childhood. It’s difficult No room for gender equality thing.” to find a more perfect victim.” “Now there is no room for being politically “The flagship doesn’t have only one sail,” “The problem with the debate is that correct. Gender equality issues are margi- Sven-Axel Månsson points out. “There is a there are hardly any empirical grounds at nalised. There is no room for such trivial criminalisation sail and there is a helping all for what is being said,” Nell Rasmussen questions. Now, we see the real position of sail. Helping doesn’t mean that the prosti­ points out. these issues.” tutes are victimised.” “The debate is therefore void of facts and “We know that when Finland went through “But we must also realise that there are only based on opinion. Very little new research a economic crisis in the early 1990s, prostitu­ those who do not want that help,” says Inga has been produced lately in the field.” tion increased. We will certainly see the same Marte Thorkildsen. In the 1990s, strip-tease clubs were estab­ thing happening in Iceland now. So gender “I’m afraid we sometimes forget the thing lished in Iceland, which in practice function equality issues are as important as ever.” that Karl Marx called false awareness,” says as brothels. But this spring, a law was intro­ The law prohibiting restaurant staff appea­ Sven-Axel Månsson. “There is sometimes a duced which makes it forbidden to appear ring naked might have a certain effect on the tendency to idealise the attitudes represented naked among restaurant patrons. Drifa Snædd, strip-tease clubs and thus on prostitution. by the weaker ones. It’s not a given that all Party Secretary in the Icelandic Left-Green “It has a preventive effect, since the show prostitutes stand for their own truth.”

NIKK magasin 1.09 41 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries

Human trafficking Demands for better protection The fight against human trafficking is a very topical and hot theme in the Nordic social debate. Often the issue of prostitution is reduced to being only a question of trafficking in humans. by anne winsnes rødland

42 NIKK magasin 1.09 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries

“Human trafficking and prostitution are Finnish researcher Anne-Maria Marttila at Victims of human trafficking. The movie often confused in the social debate, parti­ the Helsinki University, Department of Social Lilja 4-ever about 16 year old Lilja, from the former cularly among those who want to criminalise Science History. She participated in NIKK’s Soviet Union, who was sold to Sweden as a prostitute. the buying of sex. Some describe all foreign research project on prostitution in the Nor­dic Photo: Memfis film prostitutes as victims of human trafficking, countries, which was completed recently. which is not the case. Others describe all “Particularly when discussing the crimi­ prostitutes as exploited. That is not the case, nalisation of buying sex, the concepts of human trafficking in relation to prostitu­ either,” says Senior Consultant Nell Rasmus­ human trafficking and of prostitution are tion,” says Rasmussen. sen at the Danish Centre for Research on confused. The supporters of criminalisation “But there might be other, essential Social Vulnerability (DCR/SV) at the National regard such a law as an important measure grounds for not criminalising prostitution,” Board of Social Services. in the struggle against trafficking in hu­ she adds. The Board is a subdivision of the Ministry mans,” she continues. Finland has its own version of the sex- of Social Affairs, and prostitution, among In Sweden, the purchase of sexual services purchase law, which has been in force since other issues, is included in its areas of res­ was prohibited on 1 January 1999. In Nor­ 1 October 2006. It is only forbidden to buy ponsibility. Last year Rasmussen published way, a similar proposition was discussed by sexual services from victims of human traf­ a book on prostitution and she is member the Parliament in November, and the law will ficking or procuring. of the EU Expert Group on Trafficking in come into force on 1 January 2009. In Den­ “Nobody has so far been convicted for Human Beings. She has also participated in mark, no such prohibiting law exists. breaking this law. According to the police, the preparation of a new strategy for comba­ “I do, however, think that the arguments this is not only due to lack of resources. ting human trafficking within the Nordic for a ban on buying sex are reasonable in There are also problems with the evidence: co-operation. relation to those who traffick in human For somebody to be suspected for having “Everybody agrees that human trafficking beings. When the buying of sex is forbid­ committed such a crime, there must be docu­ is serious crime that must be prevented, but den, it is financially less profitable to send mentation that the person knew that the there is not the same agreement when it prostitutes into the country. Therefore such prostitute was victim of procuring or human comes to prostitution in general,” explains legislation might contribute to reducing trafficking,” Marttila explains.

NIKK magasin 1.09 43 Focus: Prostitution in the Nordic countries

as a rule, get a permanent residence and work permit in the country. Support Lawyer Eva Frivold is pleased that the legislation will now give the victims better protection. She has previously made radical statements that she will not recom­ mend vic­tims of human trafficking to testify unless they are promised a residence permit in Norway. “There have been a few cases where vic­ tims who have given evidence have not recei­ ved a residence permit. It is obvious that they would not have testified, had they known that they would be denied the permit. They fear reprisals when they are sent back to their home country,” she says. “Of course they fear retaliation in Nor­ way, too. But here we have an efficient wit­ ness protection programme. It is a totally Even if it is, so far, difficult to say very There have been different system of caring for them than in much on the effects of the law, it might seem their home countries. In addition, they have that it has had an impact for traditional Fin­ a few cases where to start from scratch if they are sent back. nish prostitutes. They have probably become Psychological support, safe accommodation more attractive for clients who do not want victims who have and general follow-up are not very common,” to break the law. Frivold continues. “Based on a study I conducted of Finnish given evidence In Finland, victims of human trafficking prostitution clients before the law was intro­ have not received can be given a special residence permit if they duced, I think that the sex-purchase law has co-operate in solving the case. They are first greater effect on people who seldom buy sex. a residence permit. given a reflection period of between 30 days The permanent clients are more knowledge­ and 6 months in order to find out whether able about the practices in the market, and – e v a f r i v o l d , s u p p o r t l a w y e r they want to co-operate with the authorities. surer about their ability to avoid being “Practitioners have, however, argued that caught,” Marttila assumes. the threshold for being given a reflection Nell Rasmussen warns against reducing period should be lowered, and that the prac­ human trafficking to prostitution. tices must be better defined so that victims “A sex-purchase law does not obstruct the days, if there are particular grounds for this. dare contact the authorities,” Marttila says. abuse of women, men and children in other They then have the opportunity to co-operate Victims of human trafficking typically contexts. There are many types of immi­ with the police to prepare for their return suffer a psychological blow afterwards, and grants and many ways of exploiting people. home. In the meantime, they are protected need to be followed up for several years. For example, both builders from Eastern in crisis centres or in special safe houses for “In Norway, we try to give them psycho­ Europe and girls working as au pairs might victims of human trafficking,” Rasmussen logical help as soon as possible. Many stay at live in circumstances akin to slavery,” she explains. a crisis centre for a long time. Even when they points out. There is no obligation to co-operate with move to a flat of their own, many continue the police for solving the case in order to get their counselling at the centre. They also get Conflict with migration laws an extended reflection period, but the persons help with practical matters that they cannot In Denmark, victims of human trafficking must co-operate about their return home. cope with themselves”, Frivold explains. basically come under the migration legisla­ Nevertheless, the victims are often called to She would like to see specific centres for tion. This means that the persons are sent witness in court, so that their evidence can victims of human trafficking established, back to their home country. Nell Rasmussen be used in a case. where they could stay after they move out underlines that they are only sent out from In Norway, the Ministry for Labour and from the crisis centres, and receive professio­ the country, not deported. Social Inclusion recently sent an instruction nal follow-up help for several years. “In addition, they have had a reflection to the Directorate of Immigration which says G period of 30 days before being sent home. that victims who have testified in serious Anne Winsnes Rødland is a journalist and former Now it is possible to extend this period to 100 criminal cases on human trafficking should, Information Officer at NIKK. Photo: V

44 NIKK magasin 1.09 column

Eva Magnusson Professor of Psychology Eva Magnusson is Professor of Psychology at Umeå University, Sweden. She has among other things studied Danish, Finnish and Swedish women and men and their joint stories about themselves as couples and families with children. She has also been Research Director at NIKK.

How politics re-invents inequality

hen I was young (more gender equality are created and upheld policies are to be implemented in appoin­ years ago than I care to seem worthy of study. Such meaning- ting local assemblies, it is not unusual for remember) many were making occurs at all societal levels, in the quota rules to be discussed and given convinced that when the most cultural arenas, and in ever change­ meaning in the local context in ways that old geezers then in power able intersections. make them seem unpleasant and unappe­ Win politics, corporations and universities Details about how certain meanings are tizing or even undemocratic. This local retired, that would mean the end of gende­ made dominant and legitimate – and con­ rhetoric can make it difficult or impossible red inequality. sequently others become marginal and to realise the original intentions of the legi­ There have indeed been impressive illegitimate – might tell us why equality slators to increase the number of women changes since then, not least in the Nordic policies do not always have their projected in the assemblies. countries. All the same, inequality seems to results. The researchers in our network When women and men in the Nordic be re-made again and again, in many socie­ have traced a great number of such ”mea­ countries talk about their daily lives, they tal arenas and in ever-changing forms. This ning details” and their often not so small often employ contradictory meanings of re-invented and re-shaping of inequality in consequences. Here are a few examples: the terms man, woman, femininity, mascu­ the midst of increasing equality intrigues In national and regional politics, the linity and gender equality. Thus, for many feminist researchers, especially researchers meaning of the term gender equality often heterosexual couples, traditional and un­ interested in variations in the meanings gets shifted away from its original sense of equally gendered meanings subvert expres­ tied to the terms involved. being about power relations between men sed favourable general notions about equa­ A few years ago, a group of Nordic re­ and women. In this shift, often both the lity, in ways that seem to limit the possible searchers formed a network around their power dimension and the impetus to ad­ success of gender equality politics in the common critical interest in the ways that vance the position of women vanish from private sphere. words such as gender and equality are given the term, in favour of a hetero-romantic The network has gathered the results meaning and play themselves out in gender image of harmony and conflictlessness. of its work together in a book. Thus, I, equality legislation, policies and practices Since such images tend to be ethnocentric together with Malin Rönnblom and Har­ in these countries. as well, they create serious confusion of riet Silius of Åbo Akademi University in These scholars argue that such meanings meaning in political situations when ”Nor­ Finland, are proud to be the editors of the are continually made – that is, produced dic” cultural practices increasingly encoun­ anthology Critical Studies of Gender Equa­ and re-produced – in more or less unequal ter ”other” cultural practices. lities: Nordic Dislocations, Dilemmas and Con­ relations between individuals, groups and In some countries, national equality tradictions (Makadam Publishers, Stock­ structures. Since in this meaning-making policies have been sharpened to include holm/Göteborg 2008). the words are sometimes made to serve quota rules that stipulate the minimum We welcome you to share our fascina­ less than wholesome purposes, the details proportion of women in political assemblies tion with the often very materially gende­ of how dominant notions of gender and (usually 40 per cent). However, when such red impact of words and meanings!

NIKK magasin 1.09 45 Research news send tip-offs to [email protected]

(E)QUALITY 2009 norway Nordic conference on gender equality in research Quality in research is important. But what do we Earmarking is back actually mean by quality? How can it be measured and strengthened? And what role does gender play in this? The relation between gender equality and According to the Nor­wegian quality in research will be the main theme at the Minister for Research, Tora Nordic conference on research policy: (E)QUALITY 2009, which will be held in Oslo, March 23-24, 2009. Aasland, this year posts within A number of key actors within research policy and Nor­wegian academia will be prominent researchers from the Nordic countries and the rest of Europe are invited to discuss gender earmarked for women. equality in academia, the concept of excellence and the outstanding research of the future. The programme comprises, among other things, a panel Especially posts at intermediate level will be debate with representatives from the national established particularly for women. The research councils in the Nordic countries. Committee for Main­streaming – Women in Science has demanded such research and the Government now submits to the Committee’s the nordic countries suggestions. Society for research on men “We used earmarking as a tool in the The Nordic academic environment for research 1990s, and I think that is the reason why into men and masculinities has founded its first there were so many women in post-doc posts society. In January 2009, the first board of the when the system was dismantled in 2003,” Nordic Society for Research on Men and says Tora Aasland on kvinneriforskning.no. “We need to focus on intermediate posi­ Masculinities was appointed at the conference The earmarking was abolished since it was tions in areas where there are few women “Changing Men and Masculinities in Gender Equal regarded as going against the EES Agreement. today. We’re working on finding ways how Societies” at Roskilde University in Denmark. The EFTA Court opposed the earmarking of best to do this. We need to recruit women One concrete action of the Society will be holding professorships. Therefore Tora Aasland wants to doctoral student posts, but we also need bi-annual Nordic conferences on research into men to concentrate on doctoral and post-doc posts to recruit women to top positions,” says and masculinities. In addition, a central task of the for women. Tora Aasland. Society will be to take over the publication of NORMA – Nordic Journal for Masculinity Studies. Since 2005, NIKK has been responsible for publishing the journal. Membership in the society Finland includes a subscription to NORMA, which is published twice a year as bilingual issues in Scandinavian and English. Steen Baagøe Nielsen, PhD, Roskilde University, New information centre was elected as the first Chair of the Society, and he spoke at the founding general assembly: Now Finland, too, will get an information The tasks of the Information Service will “We need a formalisation and democratisation of centre for gender equality. The Parliament include producing information on gender the existing Nordic networks within this research has decided that an Information Service is to equality, furthering development and re­ area. We should, of course, not exaggerate the be created in 2009. search in the field and gender mainstreaming significance of such a society, but be realistic about The need has been pointed out repeatedly, in the most common information sources. In it developing into a solid alternative to the present but only now the Finnish Government and addition, the Information Service will func­ national networks in the Nordic countries.” Parliament have chosen to allocate the mo­ tion as a contact forum between the European ney needed. The Information Service will Institute for Gender Equality and Finland. receive 180,000 euros in 2009. The Information Service will be located in Tampere.

46 NIKK magasin 1.09 editorial

Solveig Bergman D.Soc.Sc. and Director of NIKK Financial crisis – does gender matter?

t’s January 2009. The centre of Rey­ kjavik looks much the same as always; the main shopping street, Laugar­ vegur, flourishes with its exclusive shops and fancy restaurants that Icater to all tastes. On the surface the Icelan­ dic capital still appears extremely wealthy. Behind the prosperous façade lurks, how­ ever, a different reality. The luxury shops are mostly empty, except for foreign visitors hunting for cut-price bargains. Reykjavik has become quiet and empty. The country’s financial sector has collapsed. People are justifiably worried about their jobs, homes, personal savings and pensions. In Iceland as elsewhere the current cri­ sis is not without implications for gender, class or ethnicity. The conditions that have the right time for a breakthrough in inno­ wide crisis gives hope for a new balance in given rise to this crisis are clearly anchored vations and bold new ideas that may con­ society – with less gaps between income in existing divisions and inequities within tribute to a restructuring of gender rela­ groups, classes, ethnic groups, women and society. Although it is primarily the indu­ tions within the family and in the larger men. But already today we can claim that strial sector that has been affected hitherto, society. The financial crisis can result in the crisis has led to one positive thing: the there are signs that the crisis will spread to stronger demands for women to enter into culture of excessive greed and consumerism, the non-financial services sector and that positions of political and economic leader­ where a small group of people (mostly men it will eventually also impact the public ship, as well as into entrepreneurial acti­ with a similar social and ethnic background) sector. Women are in especially vulnerable vity. Iceland gives us good examples of this, have received gigantic bonuses and exces­ positions during financial downtowns, both including the recent appointment of Jóhanna sive options as rewards, is increasingly globally and in the Nordic societies. Many Sigurðardóttir as the first female Prime ques­tioned. People are demanding a shift feminists express the fear of a systematic Minister of the country. The world-famous of paradigm. Catarina af Sandeberg (advisor rolling back of gender equality and women’s singer and song-writer Björk has, together to the former Social Democratic govern­ rights in times of financial turbulence. The with a capital venture firm established by ment in Sweden on a law proposal that male breadwinner model is still a powerful two women, started a fund that will invest aimed to increase the share of women in norm in society. The emphasis is on the in companies that are socially and environ­ company boards) has recently pointed out need to protect male jobs. Gender equality mentally responsible and will help the reco­ in Veckans Affärer that we need to discuss is easily considered a “luxury product” that very of the Icelandic economy. The philo­ social responsibility and the ethical dimen­ we can afford in good times, but that can sophy of the firm is to invest in women’s sion of the financial crisis. The world of be put aside during a recession when “real economic power and entrepreneurship, in finance has been overwhelmingly male. We jobs” should be provided for “real men”. innovation, creative thinking and increased may ask, as does af Sandeberg, whether But the crisis can also enhance gender diversity in the economy. “Lehman Sisters” would have taken risks equality. Economic turmoil can be exactly It remains to be seen whether the world­ similar to those taken by their brothers? Illustration: simonox/iStock.com Illustration:

NIKK magasin 1.09 47 Next issue B Focus: PB 1156 Blindern, NO-0317, Oslo, Norway Climate change and gender Calendar 2009 23.3-24.3 equality (E)QUALITY 2009 Nordic conference in Oslo, Norway, on gender equality in research. Men and women have very different carbon www.nikk.no footprints. Climate changes affect men 26.3-28.3 and women differently. Women are rarely Welfare and Values in Europe: Transitions related to religion, minorities and gender. involved in the decision-making processes Conference in Uppsala, Sweden. when development and strategies are drawn www-conference.slu.se/wave09 up. Read more in the next issue of NIKK 27.4-29.4 Men and Masculinities, Moving On! magasin which is focusing on climate Embodiments, Virtualities, Transnationalisations. Conference in Linköping, Sweden. change and gender equality. www.genderexcel.org/node/179

18.5-19.5 Women in Academia – Do you like to have a copy Barriers and Good Practice. Conference in Aarhus, Denmark. of your own? www.wia.au.dk 4.6-7.6 Order a free subscription at Gendered Cultures at the Crossroads of Imagination, Knowledge and Politics. www.nikk.no! 7th European feminist research conference, Utrecht, Netherlands. www.7thfeministconference.org

14.6-16.6 Challenging Education: Feminist and Anti- Oppressive Strategies in Teaching and Learning. Nordic conference on feminist pedagogies, Uppsala, Sweden.

5.8-8.8 Changing the Gender Order. PB 1156 Blindern, 6th conference on gender equality in higher NO-0317, Oslo, Norway education, Stockholm, Sweden. Telephone +47 22 85 89 21 Telefax: +47 22 85 89 50 MORE CONFERENCES AT [email protected] www.nikk.no www.nikk.no