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Fate and Effects Associated with Contaminants Released from Pressure

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Fate and Effects Associated with Contaminants Released from Pressure Fate and Effects Associated with 5 Contaminants Released from Pressure- Treated Wood into Sensitive Environments Kenneth M. Brooks his chapter will discuss the fate of biocides leached each of the following active ingredients: polycyclic aro- from pressure-treated wood into aquatic environments matic hydrocarbons (PAH), copper, arsenic, chromium, Tand the effects those contaminants can have on aquat- zinc, copper naphthenate, pentachlorophenol, didecyldi- ic fauna and flora. The fate of contaminants is considered methylammonium chloride (DDAC), tebuconazole, propi- important because it affects their persistence in the envi- conazole, and imidacloprid. ronment and their bioavailability to aquatic organisms. Available sediment and water quality criteria (SQC and 5.1 POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC WQC) will be reviewed and benchmarks will be recom- HYDROCARBONS mended when criteria are not available. Understanding these criteria is important because they form the basis for Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) form a family of evaluating the suitability of site-specific projects through compounds whose fates and effects are different for the the risk-assessment process described in Chapter 9. In major classes of PAH. In water, PAH evaporate, disperse addition, these criteria are somewhat general in nature in into the water column, become incorporated into bottom that they are protective of the most sensitive species and sediments, and concentrate in aquatic biota, where they therefore necessarily contain significant safety factors. are oxidized and/or biodegraded. The following discussion However, the criteria must be carefully considered in light will focus on PAH derived from pressure-treated wood. of the special needs of threatened or endangered species 5.1.1 Fate of PAH in aquatic or highly valuable communities. The additional discussion provided for some contaminants is intended to assist environments readers in defining site-specific criteria that are reasonably As discussed in Chapters 7 and 9, the suite of PAH in protective of these sensitive species, communities, or pressure-treated wood is dominated by intermediate habitats. Some newly developed preservatives rely on weight compounds. These compounds have low water combinations of copper and organic pesticides such as solubility (Sw) and were not found in significant dissolved propiconazole, tebuconazole, and imidacloprid. concentrations near creosote-treated wood by Goyette The chapter includes reviews of studies undertaken to and Brooks (1998, 2000), Colwell and Seesman (1976), or better understand the additive, synergistic, or antagonistic Wade et al. (1988). The reasons for these low dissolved action of these combinations of pesticides and the naturally concentrations are found in the physicochemical properties toxic wood extractives released from untreated and treated of the various PAH compounds. Low molecular weight lumber, timbers, and piling. Sediment- and water-quality (<200 g/Mole) PAH or “LPAH”, such as naphthalene(s) (Sw criteria have not been established for some of these organic = 32 mg/L), acenaphthene (Sw = 3.42 mg/L), fluorene (Sw biocides and the bioassays also help fill this gap. This in- = 1.69) and phenanthrene (Sw = 1.00) were the dominant formation is not presented in lieu of existing regulatory compounds found in concentrations of >1.0 ng/L within criteria, but rather as an interim means of assessing risk 0.25 m of the Sooke Basin (British Columbia) “BMP dolphin” while those criteria are being developed. Chapter 5 is by Goyette and Brooks (1998). Concentrations of these organized to discuss first the fate and then the effects of LPAH, detected by using semi-permeable membrane The author is Environmental Consultant with Aquatic Environmental devices, varied between 4.57 and 7.17 nanograms/liter Sciences, Port Townsend, WA 98368. (ng/L). Of the intermediate- and high molecular weight 59 60 Managing Treated Wood in Aquatic Environments PAH, only fluoranthene (M.W. = 202) was detected in the times more PAH in the particulate phase than in the dis- water at a maximum concentration of 3.70 ng/L. All higher solved phase. The concentration of PAH in the dissolved molecular weight compounds were either below detection phase represented less than 10% of the PAH in the water limits or were detected in concentrations < 1.0 ng/L. The column. Wade et al. (1987) found creosote-associated ∑PAH detected at the open control station was 13.4 ng/L polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons only in surface sheen and the sum of all the detected PAH within 0.25 m of the samples collected at the Charlestown Navy Yard. They creosote-treated dolphin was <30.8 ng/L. Another found no creosote-associated PAH in the water column characteristic of LPAH is that they have relatively high immediately adjacent to the piers. In addition, no observ- vapor pressures (Pv = 2.3 to 45,466 mPa), whereas the HPAH able response was seen in sea urchin (Arbacia punctulata) do not significantly vaporize with Pv = 0.00001 for the bioassays using water from either Piers #2 or #4. All of this seven ring compounds to 0.7 mPa for fluoranthene. evidence indicates that creosote-derived PAH do not read- Based on the results for water and sediment PAH analy- ily dissolve in water. ses presented by Goyette and Brooks (1998), the authors 5.1.1.1 Fate of PAH in the water hypothesized that most creosote-derived PAH is not dis- solved and subsequently adsorbed to particulates, but Borthwick and Patrick (1982) estimated the chemical and rather is transported to sediments as microparticles or biological half-life of dissolved components of marine micro-liter-size droplets. Preliminary laboratory studies grade creosote at less than one week in laboratory experi- (Brooks, unpublished data) have supported this hypothesis. ments. More recently, Bestari et al. (1998a, 1998b) observed Micro-liter quantities of PAH released beneath the air-water an exponential decline to background concentrations in interface settled to the bottom of graduated cylinders their 84-d microcosm study. The most important degrada- filled with sterile 30 PSU seawater with speeds that appear tive processes for dissolved PAH in aquatic environments consistent with those predicted by Stokes’ Equation. are photooxidation, chemical oxidation, and biological Furthermore, the particles settled into either quartz sand transformation by bacteria and animals (Neff 1979, EPA or crushed oyster-shell substrates and remained intact for 1980) and/or evaporation of LPAH from surface sheens. at least 2 y. Small quantities of creosote oil injected above The low concentrations of dissolved PAH observed in water, the air-water interface formed sheens on the water’s sur- coupled with high degradation rates, suggest that dis- face. These sheens remained intact until the water was solved PAH do not present a significant risk to aquatic disturbed, as would be occur with waves. The sheen then organisms. broke up into small, irregularly shaped particles that settled 5.1.1.2 Fate of sedimented PAH to the bottom and worked their way into the sediments. This hypothesis, if substantiated, will significantly change Because of their low aqueous solubility and hydrophobic our approach to assessing the toxicity of creosote-con- character, intermediate and high molecular weight PAH taminated sediments. Infauna, rather than being subjected either remain in a particulate form, as discussed above, or to an environment that is uniformly contaminated by a they readily adsorb to particulate materials and solid diffuse pattern of PAH, would be confronted with an en- surfaces in water. The ultimate fate of PAH in sediments is vironment that is dominantly uncontaminated with foci believed to be biotransformation and degradation by of high contamination. In this scenario, exposure is best bacteria, fungi, and algae (EPA 1980, Borthwick and Patrick described stochastically with consideration for possible 1982, Cerniglia 1984, Boldrin et al. 1993). avoidance or attraction to the PAH foci by various organ- Low molecular weight PAH, such as naphthalene, de- isms. This hypothesis would explain the patchiness of PAH grade rapidly, while the higher molecular weight PAH, concentrations found in association with PAH-contaminated such as benz[α]anthracene and benzo[α]pyrene, are more sediments. It would also help explain why mixtures of PAH, resistant to microbial attack. Herbes (1981) reported turn- like creosote, are found to be less toxic than an additive over times for naphthalene, anthracene and benz[α]an- toxicity assumption would predict (Tagatz et al. 1983, thracene of 13, 62, and 300 h, respectively. Mueller et al. California EPA 1994). Lastly, this hypothesis would explain (1991) found that natural microbial communities mineral- the presence of cm2 microsheens observed at sediment ized 94% of the low molecular weight PAH in 14 d; only depths of 4 cm in Sooke Basin. Axelman et al. (1999) ob- 53% of the high molecular weight PAH was degraded served 10 times more PAH in the colloidal phase and 5 during the same period. They also noted that the most Chapter 5. Fate and Effects of Contaminants released into Aquatic Environments Kenneth M. Brooks 61 rapid biodegradation of PAH occurred at the water/sedi- molecular weight PAH being leached from the pile sections ment interface. This is because prokaryotes oxidize PAH in his study. Tagatz et al. (1983) noted that creosote con- as a first step in metabolism. Deeper sediments usually centrations decreased by 42% over an 8-wk period in have reduced oxygen, thus inhibiting microbial metabo- sediments artificially contaminated as part of their meso- lism of HPAH. cosm studies. They attributed the decrease to microbial Sayler and Sherrill (1981) and Cerniglia and Heitkamp metabolism. (1989) summarized the available literature describing the Neff (1979) attempted to integrate the degradative half-life of PAH in aquatic environments. The results were processes associated with PAH removal from aquatic en- highly variable and depended on PAH species together vironments. He concluded that the residence time of PAH with a range of environmental and biological factors, such in water is brief.
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