NPS Form 10-900 OMB No. 1024-0018 (Expires 5/31/2012)

United States Department of the Interior National Park Service National Register of Historic Places Registration Form

This form is for use in nominating or requesting determinations for individual properties and districts. See instructions in National Register Bulletin, How to Complete the National Register of Historic Places Registration Form. If any item does not apply to the property being documented, enter "N/A" for "not applicable." For functions, architectural classification, materials, and areas of significance, enter only categories and subcategories from the instructions. Place additional certification comments, entries, and narrative items on continuation sheets if needed (NPS Form 10-900a).

1. Name of Property historic name Pagoda Creek other names/site number 48PA853

2. Location street & number X not for publication X city or town Wapiti vicinity state Wyoming code WY county Park code 029 zip code 82414 3. State/Federal Agency Certification

As the designated authority under the National Historic Preservation Act, as amended, I hereby certify that this X nomination _ request for determination of eligibility meets the documentation standards for registering properties in the National Register of Historic Places and meets the procedural and professional requirements set forth in 36 CFR Part 60. In my opinion, the property X_ meets _ does not meet the National Register Criteria. I recommend that this property be considered significant at the following level(s) of significance: national X statewide local

Signature of certifying official/Title Date

State or Federal agency/bureau or Tribal Government

In my opinion, the property meets does not meet the National Register criteria.

Signature of commenting official Date

Title State or Federal agency/bureau or Tribal Government

4. National Park Service Certification I hereby certify that this property is:

entered in the National Register determined eligible for the National Register

determined not eligible for the National Register removed from the National Register

other (explain:) ______

Signature of the Keeper Date of Action

1 United States Department of the Interior National Park Service / National Register of Historic Places Registration Form NPS Form 10-900 OMB No. 1024-0018 (Expires 5/31/2012)

Pagoda Creek site Park County, Wyoming Name of Property County and State

5. Classification

Ownership of Property Category of Property Number of Resources within Property (Check as many boxes as apply.) (Check only one box.) (Do not include previously listed resources in the count.)

Contributing Noncontributing private building(s) buildings public - Local district 1 sites public - State X site structures X public - Federal structure objects object 1 Total

Name of related multiple property listing Number of contributing resources previously (Enter "N/A" if property is not part of a multiple property listing) listed in the National Register

N/A N/A

6. Function or Use Historic Functions Current Functions (Enter categories from instructions.) (Enter categories from instructions.) Domestic (camp) Recreation and Culture (outdoor recreation) Landscape (park) Landscape (natural feature)

7. Description

Architectural Classification Materials (Enter categories from instructions.) (Enter categories from instructions.)

N/A foundation: N/A

walls: N/A

roof: N/A

other: N/A

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United States Department of the Interior National Park Service / National Register of Historic Places Registration Form NPS Form 10-900 OMB No. 1024-0018 (Expires 5/31/2012)

Pagoda Creek site Park County, Wyoming Name of Property County and State

Narrative Description (Describe the historic and current physical appearance of the property. Explain contributing and noncontributing resources if necessary. Begin with a summary paragraph that briefly describes the general characteristics of the property, such as its location, setting, size, and significant features.)

Summary Paragraph

The Pagoda Creek site (48PA853) is located on a terrace of the North Fork of the Shoshone River in Park County, Wyoming. The site is a winter season game processing camp, comprised of two separate occupations which include an intact bonebed containing bighorn sheep and mule deer, a dense lithic floor, and multiple thermal features, including three hearths and a rock alignment. Associated diagnostic artifacts indicate the presence of a Late Plains Archaic Pelican Lake cultural component. AMS dates from bone samples reveal that the site was occupied between approximately 2750-2799 and 2730-2773 calibrated years B.P. (OxCal 3.4). Because the Pagoda Creek site is an unusually well-preserved example of a Pelican Lake winter occupation with the potential to yield further scientific data, it is eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places under Criterion D at the statewide level of significance.

______Narrative Description

Environmental Setting

The Pagoda Creek site (48PA853) is located in the eastern Absaroka Mountains, in the North Fork valley in Park County, Wyoming. The site is approximately 5980 ft. above sea level, and situated 12.2 km (7.6 mi.) west of Wapiti, Wyoming and 38.9 km (24.2 mi.) east of Yellowstone National Park’s east entrance. Specifically, the Pagoda Creek site is on the eastern end of a terrace, approximately 400 m (1,312 ft.) south of the North Fork of the Shoshone River, the principal drainage of the north-central Absaroka Mountains (Eakin 1989) (Figures 1-6).

The Absaroka Mountains encompass a 50 x 170 km (31 x 105.6 mi.) area in northwestern Wyoming, surrounded by the Bighorn Basin to the east, the Yellowstone Plateau to the west, the Beartooth Plateau to the north, and the Washakie-Owl Creek Mountains to the south (Eakin 1989). The Absarokas are the only volcanically derived mountain range in Wyoming (Love and Christiansen 1985). As a result of the volcanic nature of the mountains, the North Fork valley landscape exhibits complex structure and erodibility, characterized by steep escarpments, easily eroding slopes, and isolated rock pinnacles called hoodoos (Eakin 1989; Eakin 1993) (Figure 7).

Alluvial fans and terraces are common in the North Fork valley with numerous steep mountain drainages bringing sediment into the Shoshone River. Many of the fans that formed during the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs are currently down-cut stepped terraces, including the location of the Pagoda Creek site. The Pleistocene terraces typically consist of a coarse gravel matrix deposited when the riverbed was dammed during glacial stages (Baker 1985). The Holocene terraces typically consist of deposits of fine-grained sediment (Baker 1985); the Pagoda Creek site is covered by such a Holocene terrace, providing for excellent preservation (Eakin 1989).

Vegetation on the Holocene terrace in which the Pagoda Creek site is situated is characterized as a Sagebrush Steppe, dominated by Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) and rabbitbrushes (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus and Chrysothamnus nauseosis). Grasses covering the site include needle and thread (Stipa comata), bluebunch wheatgrass (Agropyron spicatum), and thickspike wheatgrass (Agropyron dasystachyum). Low-lying forbes on the terrace include pussytoes (Artennaria microphylla), hood’s phlox (Phlox hoodii), and plains pricklypear (Opuntia polycantha) (Dueholm 1989). The riparian vegetation along the Shoshone River, just north of the site, is characterized by a mix of plains cottonwood (Populus deltoids), narrow-leaf cottonwood (Populus angustifolia), and various willows (Salix spp.) (Knight 1994).

A multitude of animal and bird species are native to the sagebrush steppe and its surrounding riparian and coniferous ecosystems. Medium and large ungulate populations represented a potentially important resource to the prehistoric people of the area, and continue to inhabit the modern landscape. These include Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus canadensis), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), white-tail deer (Odocoileus virginianus), bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), and bison (Bison bison) (Buskirk 2016: 340-370; Frison 1991:251-275). Other mammals present in the vicinity of the site include cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus sp.), jackrabbits (Lepus sp.), bobcat (Lynx rufus), black bears (Ursus americanus), grizzly bears (Ursus arctos ssp.), coyote (Canis latrans), wolves (Canis lupus),

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United States Department of the Interior National Park Service / National Register of Historic Places Registration Form NPS Form 10-900 OMB No. 1024-0018 (Expires 5/31/2012)

Pagoda Creek site Park County, Wyoming Name of Property County and State various foxes (Vulpes vulpes and Urocyon cinereoargenteus), and beavers (Castor canadensis) (specific to the immediate riparian ecosystem) (Buskirk 2016; Frison 1991; Kornfeld et al. 2010). Various rodents, birds of prey, grouse, and songbirds are also common (Pitkin and Quattrini 2010).

The North Fork valley, like much of Wyoming, is classified as a cold semiarid climate (Strahler and Strahler 1978). The Pagoda Creek site, situated in a mountain valley, is subject to westerly winds from the Yellowstone Plateau. The elevation typically results in increased precipitation and lower temperatures (Martner 1986). The nearest weather station is in Wapiti, Wyoming, and their similar elevations indicate that weather trends are similar. The average maximum temperature in July is 27.9° C (82.3° F), while the average minimum temperature in January is -8.1° C (17.4° F). Average annual precipitation is 24.9 cm (9.81 in.). The faunal assemblage from the Pagoda Creek site indicates it was occupied early- to mid-winter. The average maximum and minimum temperatures for December are 3.5° C (38.4° F) and -.7.9° C (17.7° F), while the average maximum and minimum temperatures for January are 3.6° C (38.5° F) and -8.1° C (17.4° F) (WRCC 2016).

Period of Time

Stratigraphically, there are two cultural levels that are separated by overbank deposits (Figure 8). Projectile points from both cultural levels at the site represent the diagnostic Late Plains Archaic Pelican Lake style (Eakin 1989:49). Radiocarbon samples recovered solely from the lower cultural level suggest the earliest occupation of the site was between 2860 and 3340 calibrated years B.P., during the Late Plains Archaic period (Eakin 1989:18; Kornfeld et al. 2010:65, Table 1, Figure 9). However, AMS (Accelerated Mass Spectrometer) dating techniques were recently used to date three faunal samples from each of the occupations, revealing the approximate age of each occupation, with smaller margins of error (Todd 2017, Table 2, Figure 10).

Table 1. Radiocarbon dates and their calibrated ages

Beta Number Radiocarbon Years BP Calibrated Years BP 14631 2850 ± 70 2991 ± 99 14037 2990 ± 90 3169 ± 131 14630 2890 ± 90 3050 ± 130

Table 2. AMS Dates and their calibrated ages

Calibrated Years BP (2-Sigma UCIAMS# Cultural Level Radiocarbon Years BP Range) 188914 Upper 2600 ± 15 2735-2756 188913 Upper 2645 ± 15 2747-2773 188912 Upper 2595 ± 15 2730-2754 188911 Lower 2680 ± 15 2753-2794 188910 Lower 2690 ± 15 2756-2799 188909 Lower 2675 ± 20 2750-2797

The Plains Archaic Period

The Plains Archaic period began ~ 8000 years B.P. and is manifested archaeologically by the abrupt change in lithic technology from the lanceolate and stemmed projectile point styles of the Paleoindian period to various side-notched styles (Kornfeld et al. 2010:106). This transition is likely a result of changes in subsistence strategies, settlement systems, and expansion of the use of the atlatl (Fagan 2011:113-114; Frison 1965:248; Frison 1998:145, 151). Many extremely well-preserved sites from this time suggest that hunter-gatherers began to emphasize the procurement of plant foods while continuing to exploit local fauna, sometimes communally (Frison 1965:86-87; Kornfeld et al. 2010:362; Larson et al. 1995:1; Simpson et al. 1984; Wedel 1978:24).

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United States Department of the Interior National Park Service / National Register of Historic Places Registration Form NPS Form 10-900 OMB No. 1024-0018 (Expires 5/31/2012)

Pagoda Creek site Park County, Wyoming Name of Property County and State

The Late Plains Archaic Period

The transition into the Late Plains Archaic period is characterized archaeologically by the shift from Middle Plains Archaic McKean complex projectile points to the Pelican Lake projectile point style. The Late Plains Archaic Pelican Lake complex, named from sites in southern Saskatchewan, is found over most of the Northern Plains. This point style is described as a true corner- notched type with wide, open notches that form sharp points as they intersect blade edges and bases (Kornfeld et al. 2010:124). The period terminated with the arrival of the bow and arrow on the Northwestern and Northern Plains (Frison 1998:147).

Culturally, the Late Plains Archaic period (~3000 – 1500 years B.P.) is defined by the proliferation of trends that emerged during the beginning of the Early Plains Archaic period (Kornfeld et al. 2010:49). Populations were likely at their highest in prehistory at this time, based on the high frequency of radiocarbon dates recovered that fall within that span of time (Kelly et al. 2013; Kornfeld et al. 2010:68, 128). A number of rockshelter and cave sites in the Bighorn Mountain and Basin areas dating from around A.D. 200 to A.D. 500 suggest a relatively intense occupation in this region. Some of these sites were found to contain perishable materials like digging sticks, spear shafts, cordage and basketry (Kornfeld et al. 2010:125-128).

Communal hunting of ungulates, especially bison (Bison bison) proliferated on the plains during this time, although people occupying the foothill-mountain areas of the Absaroka and Bighorn mountains in northwestern Wyoming emphasized the hunting of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) (Kornfeld et al. 2010:304). The Absaroka Mountains have yielded a wealth of evidence of drivelines, nets, catch pens, and traps for procuring mountain sheep. The exploitation of bighorn sheep in northwestern Wyoming has been documented in Late Plains Archaic deposits from Mummy Cave, Spring Creek Cave, Daugherty Cave, the Lookingbill site, as well as the Pagoda Creek site (Eakin 1989:5; Frison 1965:93; Frison 1968:292; Hughes 2003: 139; Husted and Edgar 2002:70; Larson et al. 1995:17; Simpson et al. 1984:62; Wedel 1978:28). Of particular interest for comparative analysis of site assemblages, Mummy Cave, located approximately seven miles west of Pagoda Creek, has yielded evidence for intense use of bighorn sheep with the assemblage providing information about human procurement and processing methods (Kornfeld et al. 2010:315). Research on the faunal remains from Mummy Cave has suggested the sheep carcasses were brought to the occupation site either whole or in portions for further processing (Hughes 2003. There the meat was stripped while the long bones were opened for marrow removal.

The use of manos and metates, digging sticks, rock-filled and slab-lined roasting pits, and food storage features increased in the archaeological record during this time, suggesting that the inhabitants of northwestern Wyoming were conducting economic activities intended to maximize the use of plant and animal resources in a wide range of ecological areas from season to season (Frison 1978:49; Frison 1998:148; Kornfeld et al 2010:128; Neusius and Gross 2014:305; Pelton 2017:18). Common plant foods found in Late Plains Archaic deposits in sites from northwestern Wyoming include seeds, berries, fruits, leaves, roots, and tubers (Frison 1965:93; Frison 1998:141, 150). Sites exhibiting plant food storage features and roasting pits include Spring Creek Cave, Mummy Cave, and Southsider Rockshelter (Freeland 2011; Frison 1965; Kornfeld et al. 2010:362; Wedel 1978:24).

Previous Investigations

The Pagoda Creek site was first recorded in 1984 during a cultural resources inventory for a road improvement project in the Wapiti Ranger District of the Shoshone National Forest (Eckles 1984). The original site form indicates that a scatter of bone fragments and ~25 pieces of debitage representing multiple raw material types were observed on the surface in a sandy, non- vegetated area (Eckles 1984). It was estimated that the road improvement project would impact 50% of the site, and since it was located on a river terrace with probable soil deposition, the Pagoda Creek site was recommended as eligible for the National Register of Historic Places (Eckles 1984). Since its discovery, archaeologists have returned three times to further investigate the site (Figure 11).

In 1985, the Office of the Wyoming State Archaeologist (OWSA) conducted the first full site testing and evaluation, resulting in the most extensive data recovery and analysis on the site to date. Excavations totaled 342 m of test excavations (n artifacts = 27,000) (Figure 12) (Eakin et al. 1989:10; Eakin 1993:344). Twenty-one auger probes and twenty-four isolated excavation units were placed within the site to gauge the extent of subsurface cultural deposits (Eakin et al. 1989:10). Larger excavation blocks were placed around two of the isolated units containing dense cultural materials, including lithic materials, bone, three hearth features, and a stone alignment (Eakin et al. 1989:10). It became apparent to the excavation crew that this was a prehistoric butchering and processing camp.

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United States Department of the Interior National Park Service / National Register of Historic Places Registration Form NPS Form 10-900 OMB No. 1024-0018 (Expires 5/31/2012)

Pagoda Creek site Park County, Wyoming Name of Property County and State

Initial post-excavation analysis revealed two Late Plains Archaic Pelican Lake occupations. The age of the lower cultural layer is evidenced by three radiocarbon dates: 2850 ± 70 (Beta 14631), 2890 ± 90 (Beta 14630), and 2990 ± 90 (Beta 14037) radiocarbon years B.P., calibrated to approximately 2860-3340 years B.P. The samples included one piece of carbonized wood from each of the two lower level hearth features (in Blocks BB and EE, refer to Figure 12) and one piece of dispersed carbonized wood from excavation unit fill. The excavations from the upper cultural layer did not yield any radiocarbon samples. Recent AMS dates were obtained from bone samples from each of the cultural levels, tightening the range of time that each occupation occurred, between 2750 – 2799 and 2730 – 2773 calibrated years B.P. Please refer to Table 2 for the approximate age and margin of error for each bone sample.

More specifically, the chipped stone assemblage consists of debitage, projectile points and preforms, a drill, utilized and modified flake tools, bifacial tools, and an antler knapping tool (Eakin et al.1986:39-55, 70-73). Taxa represented in the faunal assemblage include bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), deer (Odocoileus sp.), grizzly bear (Ursus arctos), bobcat (Lynx rufus), rabbit (likely Lepus sp. and Sylvilagus sp.), and other medium and large mammals (Eakin et al. 1989: 55, 73, 77). Features include three hearths (one in the upper level and two in the lower level) and one alignment of rocks (Eakin et al. 1989: 56, 77). These provide the framework for investigating on-site activities, site seasonality, and various aspects of hunter-gatherer mobility (Eakin et al. 1989).

In 1987, United States Forest Service (U.S.F.S.) archaeologists excavated 13, 1 x 1 m test units on the north edge of the terrace for potential improvements to the Horse Creek Picnic Area (Figure 13). This investigation resulted in the recovery of bone fragments (n = 2,194) and chipped stone (n = 872). The report suggests that a single excavation unit in this area revealed intact deposits, but that this area of the site has been somewhat disturbed by previous flooding events and the original construction of the picnic area (Eakin 1993:365-366; Rose 1987:6).

The last on-site investigation was conducted on the site in 1989 when OWSA returned for the purpose of assessing the extent of subsurface cultural materials (Figure 12). Fifteen 50 x 50 cm test units were excavated; cultural materials were mapped and described upon discovery, and the units were refilled. No collections were made. This fieldwork extended the site boundary 60 m to the east (Eakin 1993:366).

Environmental Conditions at the Pagoda Creek Site During Its Period of Use

AMS dates from bone samples from the excavations at the Pagoda Creek site place the known period of use between 2730 - 2799 calibrated years B.P. The projectile points recovered from the site represent the diagnostic Pelican Lake style (Eakin 1989:49). This places the site’s two occupations during the Late Plains Archaic period, which experienced a return of the most mesic environmental conditions on the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains since the beginning of the Holocene (Kornfeld et al. 2010:38,49).

Just prior to this time, the Middle Holocene (between approximately 8200 and 5000 years B.P.) was a period characterized by extreme aridity and temperature rise, resulting in vegetation changes and shorter growing seasons, and fewer ungulate species and people on lower altitude landscapes (Kelly et al. 2013:446; Shuman 2012; Wanner et al. 2011:3117).

Conversely, the Pagoda Creek site was occupied during a much more mesic time for hunter-gatherers, as evidenced by higher populations in the adjacent Bighorn Basin (Kelly et al. 2013:443). Fossil pollen from both wood rat middens at low elevation sites and lakes located in present-day Yellowstone National Park show a return to longer-lasting wet phases between 4400 and 2700 years B.P. (Lyford et al. 2002:179; Whitlock and Bartlein 1993:232). Continuous alluviation resulted in gravel deposits and cutbank exposures in the North Fork valley just prior to the site’s Late Plains Archaic occupations (Eakin 1989:34). Although alluviation decreased after these major depositional events, the river’s channel remained consistent until long after the site’s occupations, supporting the wetter conditions that were suggested to have occurred in the broader area (Eakin 1989:37).

Current paleoclimatalogical data suggest that weather trends were dominated by cool, wet summers and warm, dry winters (Kelly et al. 2013:444; Lyford et al. 2002:179; Whitlock and Bartlein 1993:232). If accurate, faunal species during the late Holocene may have resumed a wider distribution on the landscape.

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United States Department of the Interior National Park Service / National Register of Historic Places Registration Form NPS Form 10-900 OMB No. 1024-0018 (Expires 5/31/2012)

Pagoda Creek site Park County, Wyoming Name of Property County and State

Physical Characteristics

According to Eakin (1989), the Pagoda Creek site was characterized as an open, winter campsite where bighorn sheep carcasses were processed on at least two occasions during the Late Plains Archaic period, following a communal kill conducted at an unknown locality. The site is located on a Holocene terrace adjacent to the North Fork of the Shoshone River.

Spatially extensive activity areas have been reconstructed based on the results of the block excavations. The more recent, upper Pelican Lake occupation revealed one hearth with similar associated cultural materials but insufficient charcoal for carbon dating (Eakin 1993:356,365) (Figure 14-15). Two hearths, a linear rock concentration/alignment, and a multitude of associated chipped stone and bone artifacts were observed in the lower Pelican Lake occupation (Figures 16-20). Tool manufacture and maintenance occurred mostly upwind, or west of the hearths. Hide working likely occurred next to one of the hearths. Bone refuse was dumped east, or downwind of the hearths (Eakin 1993:347, 356). While the northern portion of the site contains artifacts such as Late Prehistoric projectile points, most of the excavation units were described as disturbed from flooding events, channel cutting, and modern human impacts (Rose 1987:15). Due to the small sample that was tested during these investigations, and the period of use being based solely on the present diagnostic artifacts, it is recommended that more intensive testing should be conducted to confirm whether this portion of the site is non-contributing (Figure 12). The excavations in the southeastern portion of the site revealed the presence of intact cultural materials away from the excavation blocks; thus indicating good potential for additional activity areas to be located in this area (Eakin 1993:366).

The following discussion of the materials observed at the Pagoda Creek site pertain only to the southern portion of the site, since the remainder of the site has either shown natural disturbance, has not been the subject of analysis, or has not been evaluated. The primary artifact type is lithic debitage (n = 25,005), followed by faunal remains (n=22,753), chipped stone tools (n=39), and worked antler (n=1).

The chipped stone assemblage is dominated by lithic debitage. Common raw material types included obsidian, silicified wood, quartzite, and chert. Although Eakin (1989) does not indicate the specific geological formations represented by the chipped stone artifacts, he considers most of them to have been procured near to the site. Recent obsidian sourcing of a small sample (25 pieces) reveals that obsidian was procured from Obsidian Cliff within Yellowstone National Park (Hughes 2017). The debitage assemblage is dominated by chert flakes and small flakes without cortex (up to 95%). Chipped stone artifacts include flake tools, bifacial tools, projectile point preforms, a drill, and Pelican Lake style projectile points (Eakin 1989:45, 48) (Table 3, Figures 21-24). Analysis of the raw material types, presence of cortex, and flake size revealed that a great deal of tool maintenance and some tool manufacture occurred at the site, which is expected given intensive butchering activities (Table 4; Eakin 1989). A single deer antler tool was recovered; the grinding, nicks, and gouges on one end indicate a striking surface, while grinding in the break area suggests modifications to provide a more comfortable grip (Figure 25, Eakin 1989:55).

The MNI (minimum number of individuals) for the faunal remains recovered from the site is 13, all of which are bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis). This was generated from the frequency of bighorn sheep mandibles in the lower level only (Eakin 1989:56). Species identified include: elk (Cervus canadensis, n=3), bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis, n=182), deer (Odocoileus hemionus n=10), grizzly bear (Ursus horribilus, n=2), bobcat (Lynx rufus, n=1), rabbit (Lepus sp., n=1), medium artiodactyl (n=1,940), and large mammal (n=4). Fecal matter from either domesticated dog (Canis lupus familiaris) or coyote (Canis latrans) was also recovered (n=4) (Eakin 1989:57). A bulk of the faunal assemblage is dominated by remains classified as “unidentified” (n = 20,592) (Table 5; Eakin 1989:55). This is because of the extreme fragmentation of the assemblage which Eakin suggests is a result of intensified marrow processing. When fractured and fragmented bones are found in the archaeological record, they are often associated with the exploitation of bone marrow and bone grease, two highly nutritious substances. While some of the identified remains exhibit cutmarks, percussion indentations, spiral fractures, and burning, the bighorn sheep and medium artiodactyl remains more frequently exhibit these attributes. Both of the trends in bone attributes and the number of individuals further suggest this site was a bighorn sheep processing camp. A single bighorn sheep tooth pendant was also recovered (Figure 26).

Cultural materials from both Pelican Lake period occupations were recovered to a maximum depth of 50 cm below the surface. The site is situated within the lowest and largest terrace of two or more alluvial terraces of the river. The fine-grained alluvium in which the site is located is stratigraphically above gravel deposits typical of those deposited by braided streams. According to Eakin (1989), both occupations were buried as a result of overbank sediment deposition from the river, preserving the artifacts and activity areas soon after their use and abandonment.

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United States Department of the Interior National Park Service / National Register of Historic Places Registration Form NPS Form 10-900 OMB No. 1024-0018 (Expires 5/31/2012)

Pagoda Creek site Park County, Wyoming Name of Property County and State

Table 3. Lithic Tools Frequencies Per Each Pelican Lake Occupation

Upper Cultural Level Lower Cultural Level Flake Tools 1 5 Bifacial Tools and Preforms 5 13 Projectile Points 3 9 Drills 0 1

Table 4. Debitage Classifications Per Each Pelican Lake Occupation

Upper Cultural Level Lower Cultural Level

Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Non-Cortical 755 93% 906 95% Broken Flakes 9478 91% 10142 83% 1/4-inch and smaller 9317 90% 11395 94%

Table 5. Faunal Classifications Per Each Pelican Lake Occupation

Upper Cultural Level Lower Cultural Level Unidentified 6091 10959 Medium Artiodactyl 110 1612 Elk 1 1 Bighorn Sheep 8 127 Deer 3 3 Grizzly Bear - 2 Carnivore - 2 Large Mammal 1 3 Rabbit - - Fecal Matter 2 1

Current and Past Impacts

The Pagoda Creek site has been exposed to multiple human and non-human formational agents and processes. The setting near the Shoshone River has influenced the deposit in various ways, including changes in river channel, occasional flooding, and saturation. Human-caused impacts include the proximity to the Cody-Yellowstone Highway and the Horse Creek Picnic Area, located within the NRHP boundary. It should be noted that subsurface deposits have only been impacted on the northern and western edge of the site.

Based on the geoarchaeological analysis conducted in 1985, the North Fork of the Shoshone River’s channel has shifted and braided since the two Pelican Lake occupations, which occurred at approximately 3000 years B.P. Between 2700 and 2100 years B.P., the river abandoned its channel and incised a lower level of the terrace (Eakin et al. 1989:37). Rose (1987) claims that several excavation units placed close to the river’s edge exhibited channel cutting and truncated cultural deposits, evidenced by dense gravel accumulations. Given the presence of cultural materials in the 1987 U.S.F.S. excavations, recent changes in the river channel appear to have cut through cultural deposits along the northern-most margin of the site, removing them from their original depositional context.

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United States Department of the Interior National Park Service / National Register of Historic Places Registration Form NPS Form 10-900 OMB No. 1024-0018 (Expires 5/31/2012)

Pagoda Creek site Park County, Wyoming Name of Property County and State

It is probable that proximity to the river has resulted in a multitude of flooding events since the site was occupied ~3000 years ago. Heavy snow-melt years and large rains could easily cause sustained and flash-flooding in an area typified by steep escarpments and easily eroding slopes (Eakin 1989). When the U.S.F.S. conducted work close to the river at the Horse Creek Picnic Area in 1987, cultural materials were identified as having been disturbed from previous flooding events, one of which occurred in 1982 (Rose 1987:6). However, based on current information, high energy fluvial reworking has affected only the northern most portion of the site.

The Cody-Yellowstone Highway is located just south of the Pagoda Creek site. The highway was rerouted in an attempt to avoid destroying any portions of the site. However, this highway carries a high volume of traffic to and from Cody, Wyoming and Yellowstone National Park, especially in the spring through fall. It is likely that modern debris has found its way onto the site’s southern-most edge.

The Horse Creek Picnic Area and its access road are located within the site boundary. According to Rose (1987), the original construction of the picnic area disturbed cultural materials (Rose 1987:17). The original dirt-road likely truncated any cultural materials beneath it (Rose 1987:17). In addition, visitor use has resulted in some impacts. The U.S.F.S. investigation revealed modern debris intermixed with prehistoric artifacts, and modern burn areas that had oxidized the surrounding soil matrix (Rose 1987:15). It is also not out of the question that surface collecting has occurred in the past. However, these impacts are likely exclusive to the western and northern edges of the site.

Integrity

“Integrity is the ability of a property to convey its significance…it must always be grounded in an understanding of a property’s physical features and how they relate to its significance (NPS 1991:44)”. Discussion of integrity focuses primarily on integrity of association, design, location, and materials as these are deemed to be the most relevant aspects of integrity under Criterion D (Hardesty and Little 2009). Integrity of setting, feeling, and workmanship are each addressed but are not of critical importance to this nomination.

Location Integrity of location is high because the physical location of the Pagoda Creek site has not changed since the period of significance.

Design The Pagoda Creek site retains high integrity of design. As mentioned above, the site’s location on the river terrace resulted in quick deposition, burying and protecting the site, including delicate organic specimens (e.g. bone). As observed by Hardesty and Little (2009:63), evidence of intrasite patterning is necessary for the integrity of design. Activity areas where animal processing, hide working, and tool manufacture and maintenance occurred have been identified at the Pagoda Creek site.

Setting The Pagoda Creek site retains fairly good integrity of setting. Within the viewshed of the site are the Cody-Yellowstone Highway to the south, and the Horse Creek Picnic Area to the north. While these modern developments are near to the site, the surrounding landscape is intact and is likely very similar to that experienced by the site’s occupants. The western and eastern views from the site do not include any developments. The flora and fauna present within the landscape are predominately native species.

Materials There is high integrity of materials at the Pagoda Creek site, which contains a large variety of organic as well as inorganic artifacts with excellent preservation. Faunal material and lithics are the most common components of the site and are well investigated. The faunal remains are dominated by bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) bone and horn cores, but also include elk (Cervus canadensis), deer (Odocoileus hemionus), grizzly bear (Ursus horribilus), bobcat (Lynx rufus), and rabbit (Lepus sp.) (Eakin 1989:57). While the majority of these faunal remains are extremely fragmented due in part to intense marrow processing, a bighorn sheep incisor shows a drilled hole on the root portion of the tooth, suggesting it was worked into a bead.

The lithic assemblage reflects what is understood as a whole to represent the Late Plains Archaic hunter-gatherers of northwest Wyoming. The site exhibits trends associated with this period, such as the proliferation of the Pelican Lake projectile points and the use of lithic tools to carry out communal hunting tasks (Kornfeld et al. 2010:147, 304). While the assemblage is

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Pagoda Creek site Park County, Wyoming Name of Property County and State dominated by debitage, tools include modified flakes, bifaces, a drill, projectile point preforms, and Pelican Lake projectile points. Another related tool is the deer antler flint knapping tool (Eakin 1989:45, 48). Debitage attributes suggest that a majority of lithic reduction occurred due to the sharpening of tools used during butchering, although some tool manufacturing also occurred (Eakin 1989). The presence of a drill suggests that hide working may have taken place, which supports the interpretation of a longer-term camp site.

Workmanship Workmanship is described as “the physical evidence of the crafts of a particular culture or people during any given period in history or prehistory” (NPS 1991:45). The workmanship associated with a group game meat procurement event includes evidence of butchering strategies used to process animals and the lithic technology employed to complete this task. The ability to process game meat efficiently with stone tools is an example of workmanship and the faunal assemblage from the Pagoda Creek site retains moderate to high integrity of workmanship as an example of this practice. Specifically, Eakin (1989) observed butchering cut marks on several intact specimens. While it has been suggested that much of the bone from the site is heavily fragmented as a result of butchering strategies and marrow processing, additional in-depth cut mark and fragment analysis is required. The lithic tools used to process these medium artiodactyls are also an example of workmanship and those from the Pagoda Creek site exhibit excellent integrity. Notably, excavations recovered flake tools, multi-functional bifaces, projectile point preforms, and completed Pelican Lake projectile points. Some of these lithic tools are intact and provide an excellent example of the workmanship associated with lithic tool production. Overall, the site retains moderate to high integrity of workmanship.

Feeling This aspect of integrity is not critical to this nomination however integrity of feeling is judged to be fairly good. While there are a few modern intrusions in the site vicinity, overall the setting still conveys a “historic” sense of the property during its period of significance (NPS 1991: 45).

Association For properties eligible under Criterion D, integrity of association is dependent upon a strong relationship between site content and important research questions (Hardesty and Little 2009). This site has provided data relevant to archaeological research questions significant at the statewide or regional level of significance. Analyses conducted on the data recovered from the Pagoda Creek site have already addressed the following research questions:

Question 1: What is the seasonality of the site?

Eakin (1989:56) analyzed the bighorn sheep mandibles and horn cores to determine that the site was occupied during mid- winter. Since modern bighorn sheep in the northern Rocky Mountains give birth in late May and early June, stages in tooth eruption occur at fairly predictable times of the year (Burt and Grossenheider 1976). Tooth eruption sequences on the bighorn sheep mandibles (n = 13) from the site revealed two ages (20-21 months and 32-33 months), suggesting they were butchered in late December to early January (Eakin 1989:56). In addition, winter herds of bighorn sheep tend to be nursery herds, comprised primarily of mature females (ewes) and juveniles of both sexes, with mature males (rams) mostly absent (Kornfeld et al 2010:151). The horn cores (n = 9) recovered during excavations are exclusively mature females and juveniles, supporting the evidence for a winter occupation (Eakin et al. 1986:90).

Question 2: Can activity areas be discerned by looking at the spatial distributions of the artifacts?

As mentioned above, as a result of excellent preservation, activity areas at the site are intact for the lower cultural level. Bighorn sheep, deer, and other mammals were transported to the Pagoda Creek site from where they were killed (Eakin 1989). Butchering and processing occurred in distinct locations around two hearths. Debitage from tool maintenance and manufacture was deposited upwind of the hearths suggesting that lithic reduction activities took place away from wind-blown smoke (Eakin 1989:81). Second, faunal remains are mainly found east of the hearths suggesting that the pulverizing of bone to obtain marrow occurred in a different location than the stone chipping area and that bone refuse was deposited downwind of the hearths (Eakin 1989:81). This evidence also suggests these activities occurred in an open-air setting, rather than within a structure (Eakin 1986:81). The stone drill was recovered south of the hearths and may indicate that hides were being worked in this location in the vicinity of the campfire. (Eakin 1989:82).

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Question 3: What do lithic raw material types tell us about migration routes of the site’s occupants?

Analysis of the chipped stone assemblage from the Pagoda Creek site revealed several interesting insights for assessing aspects of hunter-gatherer technological organization and Late Plains Archaic mobility strategies. First, the debitage reflects a high frequency of tool maintenance/sharpening and some tool manufacture, evidenced by a low percentage of cortical flakes (4%), and the fact that the debitage is fairly small overall (Eakin 1989:39, 70). This indicates the occupants came to the site with a ready-to-use toolkit, characteristic of highly mobile groups. However, they appear to have stayed at the site long enough to procure locally available raw materials and make new tools (Eakin 1989:83). Secondly, nonlocal raw material types were identified from as far west as the Yellowstone Plateau (Obsidian Cliff) to as far east as the Bighorn Basin (Morrison Formation quartzite), suggesting at least a 30-mile foraging radius throughout the year (Eakin 1989:87; Hughes 2017).

Question 4: To what extent was game meat processed at the site?

The degree of fragmentation and the differential representation of various skeletal elements and portions provide insight into the extent to which game meat was processed on site. Preliminary faunal analysis conducted by Eakin (1989) revealed that the target species were bighorn sheep and deer and that remains of both species were treated in a similar manner. According to Eakin (1989:92), the presence of cut marks and the use and maintenance of formal lithic tools indicates that butchering and potential meat filleting occurred first. However, the intense fragmentation of bone suggests that marrow processing was a main task during both of the Pagoda Creek site occupations (Eakin 1989:92).

Based on Eakin’s (1989) research, it appears that nearly complete carcasses were brought to the Pagoda Creek site from one or more spatially distinct kill site locations. Elements of the axial skeleton such as crania and ribs are present at the site, but vertebral elements are absent. While the appendicular skeleton is present throughout the assemblage, the articular ends of long bones are notably under-represented. Although the distances separating the inferred kill location(s) from the Pagoda Creek site are unknown, the presence of numerous limbs, as well as crania, mandibles, and ribs suggests the kill events occurred relatively nearby. The lack of long bone articular ends is expectable, given the extreme fragmentation of the faunal assemblage, combined with evidence for marrow processing. Eakin argues that the missing long bone portions have been selectively processed and discarded outside the current excavation area based on the lack of evidence for fragile collagenous bone within the excavated area (Eakin 1989:92, 94).

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8. Statement of Significance Applicable National Register Criteria Areas of Significance (Mark "x" in one or more boxes for the criteria qualifying the property (Enter categories from instructions.) for National Register listing.) Archaeology: Prehistoric A Property is associated with events that have made a significant contribution to the broad patterns of our history. B Property is associated with the lives of persons significant in our past.

C Property embodies the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction or represents the work of a master, or possesses high Period of Significance artistic values, or represents a significant and distinguishable entity whose components lack ~2730 – 2799 calibrated years B.P. individual distinction. (Late Plains Archaic period) X D Property has yielded, or is likely to yield, information important in prehistory or history. Significant Dates

N/A

Criteria Considerations (Mark "x" in all the boxes that apply.) Significant Person Property is: (Complete only if Criterion B is marked above.) N/A A Owned by a religious institution or used for religious purposes.

B removed from its original location. Cultural Affiliation Undefined C a birthplace or grave.

D a cemetery. Architect/Builder E a reconstructed building, object, or structure. N/A F a commemorative property.

G less than 50 years old or achieving significance within the past 50 years.

Period of Significance (justification)

Based on the ranges produced by six AMS dates taken from three bone samples from both cultural levels, prehistoric hunter- gatherers occupied the Pagoda Creek site during the Late Plains Archaic period. See figure 10 for the calibrated dates and their margins of error.

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Criteria Considerations (explanation, if necessary)

N/A

Statement of Significance Summary Paragraph (Provide a summary paragraph that includes level of significance and applicable criteria.)

The Pagoda Creek site is eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places under Criterion D at the statewide level of significance. The site contains one of the earliest Pelican Lake occupations currently known in the region and exhibits two extremely well-preserved occupations associated with bighorn sheep and mule deer winter processing activities. A search of the Wyoming State Historic Preservation Office’s database indicates that sites with identified Pelican Lake components are rare, with only approximately 100 listed in the database, compared with over 100,000 prehistoric sites from all time periods. Extant investigations at Pagoda Creek has revealed important information on the organization of subsistence-related activities, as well as the spatial structure of a winter camp oriented around the processing of medium artiodactyls (i.e., bighorn sheep and mule deer). Based on this preliminary research, the potential for additional areas with intact archaeological deposits at Pagoda Creek, including identifiable activity areas, is considered to be high. To date, only one intensive excavation has been conducted, leaving a considerable portion of the site available for future research. Based on the high archaeological integrity of the deposits, additional fine-grained excavations, including 3-dimensional mapping of artifacts and features, could reveal more refined information on the extent of the site, the organization of butchering and consumption processes, as well as provide a better understanding of the human settlement systems and mobility strategies employed by the site’s occupants.

______Narrative Statement of Significance (Provide at least one paragraph for each area of significance.)

The importance of the Pagoda Creek site lies in its potential to address current anthropological and archaeological research questions. To date, the investigations have been Cultural Resource Management (CRM) compliance-based, addressing narrowly defined goals associated with particular undertakings involving road construction and picnic area improvement. Excellent information on site seasonality, the primary forms of lithic reduction, and animal processing were collected and published in the technical report, but no further research has been conducted. Potential topics for future research include a comparison of lithic raw material types between the two Pelican Lake components to assess the mobility strategies employed by the site’s occupants. More information on the extent and organization of the camp, as well as a more fine-grained faunal analysis could provide additional information on the organization of subsistence-related activities conducted during the two primary occupational episodes at the site, including evidence for variable strategies of medium artiodactyl procurement, transport of carcass portions, processing, consumption, and discard. These patterns can then be compared to other medium artiodactyl procurement and processing sites in the area.

What is the extent of the features and activity areas at the Pagoda Creek site?

An important first step for potential future research involves determining if additional features and activity areas are present at the site. This information would help to refine the site boundary (vital for proper land management) and would provide researchers with a general idea of what work remains to be done and where future work could be most fruitful. Since the upper Pelican Lake component is located approximately 20 cm below surface, it is not likely that many artifacts will be evident on the surface, except for in sandy, non-vegetated areas.

Archaeogeophysical survey can reveal subsurface artifact clusters and features through an examination of the differences in physical and chemical soil composition (Bales and Kvamme 2004:158). Not only are these survey techniques fast, but they are relatively cheaper since the only other way to reveal features would be to conduct additional excavations. There are multiple geophysical techniques that can reveal the shape, size, orientation, and depth of possible subsurface features, such as hearths or structures. The technique that may be best suited for the Pagoda Creek site is GPR (Ground Penetrating Radar). This method sends pulses into subsurface deposits, generating an image for each individual layer. By converting the amount of time it takes for the radar pulse to reflect back to a depth below surface, one can gain a three dimensional view of the site, including anomalies such as hearths and dense artifact clusters (Conyers 2010:177). GPR is a suitable survey method because the deposits surrounding the two

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Pagoda Creek site Park County, Wyoming Name of Property County and State cultural levels are relatively consistent throughout, as they are alluvial sediments. Therefore, it is likely that any anomalies detected by the radar pulses are cultural in nature.

If geophysical methods prove not to be effective in locating areas with artifact deposits and features, 1x1 m test units or auger probes should be systematically placed north to south between the picnic area and the Cody-Yellowstone highway, and as far to the east as the units were placed during the 1993 investigations by OWSA.

Can mobility patterns employed by the occupants of the site be determined and are there differences between the two occupations?

The archaeological record indicates that the prehistoric occupants of the High Plains and Rocky Mountains were semi- nomadic hunter-gatherers, often moving short distances frequently (Kelly 2007:129; Fagan 2011:111). Movement trends of hunter- gatherer groups on the plains are a result of the quick depletion of resources surrounding a given camp (Kelly 2007:129). Therefore, the potential to compare mobility strategies between these two temporally proximate occupations may reveal interesting patterns in seasonal movements and foraging area.

Surovell (2009:133) suggests that lithic raw materials sourced within a 20 km radius of a site are procured locally, since this is the approximate maximum distance a forager is likely to travel in a day. Therefore, it is assumed that if the occupants of a site have a foraging radius, or area surrounding a camp in which food and stone resources are procured, larger than 20 km, their lithic assemblage would contain both local and nonlocal raw materials. Initially, foragers would use and maintain tools procured from beyond the 20 km radius due to their arrival from elsewhere (Carr 1994; Kelly 1988; Kuhn 1994). As these tools reach the end of their use-life, locally procured raw materials would be collected and used to manufacture new tools, eventually leading to their maintenance, sharpening, and potential discard (Andrefsky 1994; Beck 2008).

The lithic assemblage recovered from the 1985 excavations provides a large sample, including over 25,000 pieces of debitage (Eakin 1989:45). The patterns observed in the analysis conducted for the 1989 report indicate that tool maintenance is responsible for nearly all of the flakes deposited, combined with some tool manufacture. This is evidenced by the overall prevalence of small flakes combined with the general absence of cortical/outer material on the flakes (Eakin 1989: 39; 70). Eakin identifies at least two nonlocal raw material types, obsidian and Morrison Formation Quartzite (MFQ) in the site assemblage. The presence of these raw material types has interesting implications for modeling foraging radius and mobility patterns since the nearest obsidian source is approximately 80 km west on the Yellowstone Plateau; the nearest MFQ source is approximately 50-60 km east in the Bighorn Basin.

By submitting several obsidian samples for sourcing, combined with the use of comparative raw material samples to identify the other raw material types, as well as the provenience information from the recovered debitage, one could gauge where the occupants were prior to their stay at the Pagoda Creek site. Then, a comparison between the two occupations may reveal whether or not they shared similar foraging patterns.

What was the length of each occupation?

Although extensive archaeological research has been conducted on the seasonal movements of hunter-gatherers on the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains over the last century, attempts to reconstruct specific details of past settlement and subsistence behaviors for these groups, including questions of occupation length and activity type have been limited. Issues of differential site type visibility, preservation potential, small sample sizes, and poor preservation of organics contribute to this problem. Occupation span can be defined as the time elapsed from the arrival of the first occupant at a site to the departure of the last occupant for any continuous occupation (Surovell 2009:67).

There are, at least two ways to estimate occupation length using the current Pagoda Creek assemblage, both of which have the potential to contribute to our understanding of Late Plains Archaic settlement and subsistence behaviors on a regional level. Surovell (2009:106) argues that sites with single occupations are good candidates for application of a semi-quantitative estimate of occupation span length employing characteristics of the lithic assemblage. By estimating the occupation span at Barger Gulch, a Paleoindian site in Colorado, it was shown that these people, previously understood to have been highly mobile, potentially occupied the site for up to one month (Surovell 2009:107). At the Bugas-Holding site in northwestern Wyoming, analysis of tooth

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Pagoda Creek site Park County, Wyoming Name of Property County and State eruption and wear patterns on bison and bighorn sheep dentitions, together with fetal bison remains, was employed to establish a four to five month occupation span for the site (Rapson 1990:137).

As mentioned above, the Pagoda Creek site represents two primary occupations separated by approximately 20 cm of deposition (Figure 8). Thirteen bighorn sheep mandibles were recovered from the lower cultural level, together with a large sample of debitage and tools. Recoveries from the upper cultural level do not include any mandibles, although a large sample of debitage and tools are present. Establishing an approximate occupation span for each cultural level will therefore require multiple lines of evidence. Lithic assemblage calculations require that the site boundaries be clearly defined. Given a better understanding of the site perimeter and estimating the amount of space that individual people would need to carry out tasks, the approximate number of occupants can be calculated (Surovell 2009:69, 233). Further, these calculations can be used to estimate the discard rate per unit of time (Schiffer 1987:53). This information can be used in conjunction with data collected from the bison and bighorn sheep dentitions as another line of evidence in determining length of occupation at the Pagoda Creek site. Together, these data may provide insight into how mobile the Late Plains Archaic Pelican Lake site occupants were during the winter, as well as offer insights on whether the processed animals were taken during a few large communal kills, or more slowly over a span of time. In addition, the data may illuminate functional and technological differences between the two occupations.

What processes fragmented the faunal remains?

A multitude of experimental and ethnoarchaeological research has attempted to tease out the characteristics that result from taphonomic processes, carnivore modification, and human processing of faunal remains on archaeological sites. Binford (1981) suggests that carnivore scavenging is one of the primary avenues of bone modification, dispersal, and destruction. Typically, the evidence for such scavenging involves tooth punctures, furrows, pitting, and scoring (Hill 2008:11; Binford 1981; Haynes 1980). However, scavenging, human marrow processing, trampling during grazing, and taphonomic processes can also result in bone breakage and modification. Differentiating the contribution of the various agents and processes involved in the modification and distribution of faunal remains in archaeological contexts requires a program of intensive attribute-based faunal analysis (Hill 2008; Binford 1981; Fisher 1984; Haynes 1980; Rapson 1990; Rapson and Todd 1999). Fisher (1984) outlined a series of potential factors influencing patterns of skeletal element representation at the Middle Plains Archaic age Dead Indian Creek site, in northwestern Wyoming.

Eakin (1989:56,77) conducted a preliminary faunal analysis that largely revealed the most frequently represented species and skeletal elements in the assemblage, as well as the percentages of identifiable bone exhibiting cutmarks, spiral fracturing, and burning. However, because of the time demands of compliance-oriented research, he limited his exploration to remains that were identifiable by species and did not address other potential modifications, from carnivore scavenging, trampling, or weathering.

Specifically for this assemblage, fragmented remains could be examined for evidence of non-cultural modification. Remains could be examined for spiral fracturing and transverse/longitudinal fracture outlines. Spiral fracture outlines tend to occur on fresh bone, which would be the prime bone condition for marrow processing (Hill 2008:12). Transverse/longitudinal fractures tend to occur on dry bone lacking in nutritional value. These modifications are unlikely to be a result of marrow processing, and are more likely the result of freezing and thawing, grazing, or other post-depositional factors (Hill 2008:12). Thus, an assemblage that exhibits a great deal of spiral fracturing without evidence of carnivore modifications would indicate marrow processing. Not only would a more intensive faunal analysis potentially reveal synchronic and diachronic trends in processing that were likely undetected in the initial investigation, such analysis would provide important information for reconstructing the patterned use and organization of space at the Pagoda Creek site.

What inferences can be made about human behavior at the Pagoda Creek site, and how do the patterns observed fit into the larger regional context of Late Plains Archaic subsistence and settlement?

Through an attribute based spatial analysis, Rapson (1990) was able to reveal the subsistence-oriented decisions made by the occupants of the Bugas-Holding site, a Late Prehistoric winter occupation in northwest Wyoming where bighorn sheep and bison were processed and discarded. Based on this analysis, game animals were procured, processed, and consumed according to the animal’s seasonal behavior, body size, sex, and the economic benefit of specific skeletal elements (Rapson and Todd 1999:455). This analysis provided insight into high altitude Late Prehistoric hunting strategies, butchering practices, transport choices, and modes of storage. Specifically, bighorn sheep were hunted and processed for meat storage, while bison were hunted and consumed 15

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Pagoda Creek site Park County, Wyoming Name of Property County and State throughout the course of a four to five month winter season occupation (Rapson and Todd 1999:462). It is likely that bighorn sheep were selected as a target for meat storage based on their predictable late fall behavior, group size, and high caloric return rate (Rapson and Todd 1999:459).

The ability to draw inferences similar to those of Rapson (1990) at Pagoda Creek will depend on determining whether or not additional activity areas exist, conducting a more intensive faunal analysis, and understanding the spatial patterns of artifacts and features. For example, an attribute-based spatial analysis has the potential to reveal the agents and processes responsible for the missing appendicular and axial skeletal elements at the Pagoda Creek site, differentiating among formational processes including carnivore scavenging, human processing, and placement in meat storage. A more intensive faunal analysis (outlined in the question above) could also provide insight on the processing techniques employed and any differences in the utilization of bighorn sheep versus mule deer. A better understanding of spatial patterning at the site has the potential to reveal the functions of additional activity areas, as well as the hunting/processing strategies employed among and between the two Pelican Lake occupations.

Mummy Cave, located approximately seven miles from the Pagoda Creek site, is a continuously occupied rockshelter with over 28 feet (8.5 m) of cultural deposits which contains evidence of the use of bighorn sheep throughout the site’s occupational history. The deposits have been classified into 38 occupation levels that represent at least seasonal use of the site on an annual basis, extending from the Paleoindian period to the Late Prehistoric period. Figure 27 illustrates the Mummy Cave stratigraphy with the concurrent radiocarbon dates from the Pagoda Creek site. Hughes (2003) conducted stable isotope analysis on bighorn sheep remains from Mummy Cave. By assessing specific signatures of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen isotopes in teeth, Hughes was able to gauge aspects of animal migratory behavior in the area of the North Fork River. Between 5500 and 1270 calibrated years B.P. (during which the Pagoda Creek site was occupied) carbon isotope values declined among the Mummy Cave bighorn sheep (Hughes 2003:213). This transition in carbon isotope levels is interpreted as evidence for shifting patterns of bighorn sheep territoriality, with local populations restricting their movements to the North Fork valley during winter (Hughes 2003:214). This change in prey behavior may have influenced the potential longer-term winter occupations at the Pagoda Creek site. In order to further evaluate this hypothesis, isotope analysis could be conducted with the 13 mandibles recovered during the 1985 OWSA excavations at Pagoda Creek. Such analyses would contribute not only to a better understanding of human behavior at the Pagoda Creek site, but also to the reconstruction of Late Plains Archaic settlement and subsistence organization on a regional level.

9. Major Bibliographical References Bibliography (Cite the books, articles, and other sources used in preparing this form.)

Baker, Victor R. 1985 Late Pleistocene Fluvial Systems. In Late Quaternary Environments of the United States, edited by H.E. Wright, Jr., pp. 157- 189. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.

Bales, Jennifer R., and Kenneth L. Kvamme 2004 Geophysical Signatures of Earthlodges in the Dakotas. In Plains Earthlodges: Ethnographic and Archaeological Perspectives, edited by Donna C. Roper, Elizabeth P. Pauls, and W. Raymond Wood, pp. 157-183. University of Alabama Press, Birmingham.

Binford, Lewis R. 1978 Nunamuit Ethnoarchaeology: A Case Study in Archaeological Formation Processes. Academic Press, New York.

1981 Bones: Ancient Men and Modern Myths. Academic Press, New York.

Burt, William H. and Richard P Gossenheider 1978 A Field Guide to the Mammals. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston.

Buskirk, Steven W. 2016 Wild Mammals of Wyoming and Yellowstone National Park. University of California Press, Oakland.

Carr, Philip J.

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1994 Technological Organization and Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherer Mobility: Examination of the Hayes Site. In The Organization of Prehistoric North American Chipped-Stone Tool Technologies, edited by P.J. Carr, pp. 35-44. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Conyers, Lawrence B. 2010 Ground-Penetrating Radar for Anthropological Research. Antiquity 84(323): 175-184.

Dueholm, Kevin 1989 A Vegetation survey of the North Fork of the Shoshone River Valley. Manuscript on file at the Office of the Wyoming State Archaeologist.

Eakin, Daniel H. 1989 Report of Archaeological Test Excavations at the Pagoda Creek Site 48PA853. Office of the Wyoming State Archaeologist. Submitted to Wyoming Highway Department, Project No. SCPF-031(21). Copies available from Office of the Wyoming State Archaeologist, Laramie.

Eakin, Daniel H. 1993 Cultural Resource Investigations Along U.S. Highway 14-16-20. CRM report on file at the Office of the Wyoming State Archaeologist.

Eakin, Daniel H., David Darlington, and Linda Peyton 1986 Results of Archaeological Investigations along Sections of the North Fork of the Shoshone River, Highway 14, 16, 20. Office of the Wyoming State Archaeologist. Submitted to Wyoming Highway Department. Copies available from Wyoming State Historic Preservation Office, Laramie.

Eckles, David 1984 Archaeological Investigations Highway Project scpf-031-1(21) Cody-Yellowstone Park Road. Office of the Wyoming State Archaeologist. Submitted to Wyoming Highway Department. Copies available from Wyoming State Historic Preservation Office, Laramie.

Fagan, Brian 2011 The First North Americans: An Archaeological Journey. Thames and Hudson, Ltd., London.

Freeland, Nicholas P. 2011 National Register of Historic Places Registration Form, Southsider Shelter. On File at the Wyoming State Historic Preservation Office, Laramie.

Frison, George C. 1965 Spring Creek Cave, Wyoming. American Antiquity 31:81-94.

Frison, George C. 1968 Daugherty Cave, Wyoming. Plains Anthropologist 13(42):253-295.

Frison, George C. 1991 Prehistoric Hunters of the High Plains. Academic Press, Inc., New York.

Frison, George C. 1998 The Northwestern and Northern Plains Archaic. In Archaeology on the Great Plains, edited by W. Raymond Wood, pp. 140- 172. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence.

Hardesty Donald L. and Barbara J. Little 2009 Assessing Site Significance. 2nd Edition. AltaMira Press., New York. 17

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Haynes, Gary 1980 Evidence of Carnivore Gnawing on Pleistocene and Recent Mammalian Bones. Paleobiology 6:341-351.

Hill, Matthew G. 2008 Paleoindian Subsistence Dynamics on the Northwestern Great Plains. Archaeopress, Oxford.

Hughes, Sarah S. 2003 Beyond the Altithermal: The Role of Climate Change in the Prehistoric Adaptations of Northwestern Wyoming. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle. Electronic Document, Ann Arbor.

Hughes, Richard 2017 Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence Analysis of Obsidian Artifacts from UWAR Northwest Archaic Project Archaeological Sites, Wyoming. Report from the Geochemical Research Laboratory, Portola Valley, California.

Husted, Wilfred H. and Robert Edgar 2002 The Archeology of Mummy Cave, Wyoming: An Introduction to Shoshonean Prehistory. Midwest Archeological Center and Southeast Archeological Center. Submitted to the National Park Service, Special Report No. 4. Copies available from the United States Department of the Interior, Lincoln.

Kelly, Robert L., Todd Surovell, Bryan N. Shuman, and Geoffrey M. Smith 2013 A Continuous Climatic Impact on Holocene Human Population in the Rocky Mountains. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110:443-447.

Larson, Mary Lou, Marcel Kornfeld, David J. Rapson 1995 High Altitude Hunter-Gatherer Adaptations in the Middle Rocky Mountains. 1988-1994 Investigations: NSF Grant # BNS- 91095914. Department of Anthropology, University of Wyoming. Submitted to The National Science Foundation. Copies available from University of Wyoming, Laramie.

Love, J.D. and Ann C. Christiansen 1985 Geologic Map of Wyoming. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia.

Lyford, Mark E., Julio L. Betancourt, and Stephen T. Jackson 2002 Holocene Vegetation and Climate History of the Northern Bighorn Basin, Southern Montana. Quaternary Research 58:171- 181.

Kelly, Robert L. 1988 The Three Sides of a Biface. American Antiquity 53:717-734.

Kelly, Robert L. 2007 The Foraging Spectrum. Percheron Press, Inc., New York.

Knight, Dennis H. 1994 Mountains and Plains: The Ecology of Wyoming Landscape. Yale University Press, New Haven.

Kornfeld, Marcel, George C. Frison, and Mary Lou Larson. 2010 Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers of the High Plains and Rockies: Third Edition. Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek.

Kuhn, Steven L. 1994 A Formal Approach to the Design and Assembly of Mobile Toolkits. American Antiquity 59:426-442.

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Martner, Brooks 1986 Wyoming Climate Atlas. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.

Neusius, Sarah W. and G. Timothy Gross 2014 Seeking our Past: An Introduction to North American Archaeology. Oxford University Press, New York.

Pelton, Spencer R. 2017 Provisioning the High Country: A Distributional Analysis of Ground Stone Tools from the Colorado Front Rang. Plains Anthropologist, DOI:10.1080/00320447.2017.1291468.

Pitkin, Melissa and Laura Quattrini 2010 Pocket Guide to Sagebrush Birds. Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory.

Rapson, David J. 1990 Pattern and Process in Intra-site Spatial Analysis: Site Structural and Faunal Research at the Bugas-Holding Site. Published Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.

Rapson, David J. and Lawrence C. Todd 1999 Linking Trajectories of Intra-Site Faunal Use with Food Management Strategies at the Bugas-Holding Site: attribute-based spatial analysis of a high altitude winter habitation, Wyoming, USA. In Le Bison: Gibier et Moyen de Subsistance des Hommes du Paléolithique aux Paléoindiens des Grandes Plaines, edited by J. Ph. Brugal, F. David, J. G. Enioe, and J. Jaubert, pp. 455-478. Éditions APDCA, Antibes.

Rose, J. A. 1987 Cultural Resource Evaluation, Horse Creek Picnic Area 48PA853, Park County, Wyoming. Wapiti Ranger District, Shoshone National Forest. Submitted to USDA Forest Service.

Schiffer, Michael B. 1987 Formation Processes of the Archaeological Record. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.

Shuman, Bryan 2011 Recent Wyoming Temperature Trends, Their Drivers, and Impacts in a 14,000 Year Context. Climate Change 112:429-447.

Simpson, Caryl W., Karen West Scott, George M. Zeimens, Mark Miller, Jean Bedord, Charles Jefferson, Ross Hillman, John Jamesome, and George C. Frison 1984 Artifact and Feature Descriptions In The Dead Indian Creek Site: An Archaic Occupation in the Absaroka Mountains of Northwestern Wyoming, edited by George C. Frison and Danny N Walker, pp. 23-51. A publication of The Wyoming Archaeological Society, Inc. Volume 27(1-2).

Strahler, Arthur N. and Alan H. Strahler 1978 Modern Physical Geography. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Surovell, Todd A. 2009 Toward a Behavioral Ecology of Lithic Technology: Cases from Paleoindian Archaeology. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.

Wanner, Heinz, Olga Solomina, Martin Grosjean, Stefan P. Ritz, and Marketa Jetel 2011 Structure and Origin of Holocene Cold Events. Quaternary Science Reviews 30:3109-3123.

Wedel, Waldo R. 1978 Mummy Cave – A Synopsis. In Mummy Cave Project in Northwestern Wyoming, edited by Harold McCracken, Waldo Wedel, Robert Edgar, John H. Moss, H.E. Wright, Wilfred M. Husted, Dr. William Mulloy, pp. 43-47. The Buffalo Bill Historical Center, Cody. 19

United States Department of the Interior National Park Service / National Register of Historic Places Registration Form NPS Form 10-900 OMB No. 1024-0018 (Expires 5/31/2012)

Pagoda Creek site Park County, Wyoming Name of Property County and State

Western Regional Climate Center (WRCC) 2016 Climate Data for Wapiti, Wyoming. Electronic Document, http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliMAIN.pl?wy9467, accessed September 13, 2016.

Whitlock, C., and P.J. Bartlein 1993 Spatial Variations of Holocene Climate Regimes in the Yellowstone Region. Quaternary Research 39:231-238.

Previous documentation on file (NPS): Primary location of additional data: preliminary determination of individual listing (36 CFR 67 has been State Historic Preservation Office requested) Other State agency previously listed in the National Register Federal agency previously determined eligible by the National Register Local government designated a National Historic Landmark X University recorded by Historic American Buildings Survey #______Other University of Wyoming Archaeological recorded by Historic American Engineering Record # ______Name of repository: Respository recorded by Historic American Landscape Survey # ______

Historic Resources Survey Number (if assigned):

10. Geographical Data

Acreage of Property ~14 (Do not include previously listed resource acreage.)

UTM References (Place additional UTM references on a continuation sheet.)

North Coordinate East Coordinate NW Point 4924662 612398 NE Point 4924632 612589 SE Point 4924366 512587 SW Point 4924365 612403

Verbal Boundary Description (Describe the boundaries of the property.)

The southern margin of the NRHP Boundary, which includes all known cultural materials and features, extends to the Cody- Yellowstone Highway and 440 m to the north to the bank of the North Fork of the Shoshone River. The site’s western extent is the north-south trending gravel road to the Horse Creek Picnic Area and extends approximately 200 m to the east.

Boundary Justification (Explain why the boundaries were selected.)

The site boundary is defined by the observation of artifacts/features that exist on the same terrace. This includes subsurface artifacts observed as a result of auger testing and excavation units, as well as those observed on the surface.

11. Form Prepared By name/title Laura K. Cannon/GIS Specialist; edited by Judy K. Wolf/Chief Planning and Historic Context Development Program 20

United States Department of the Interior National Park Service / National Register of Historic Places Registration Form NPS Form 10-900 OMB No. 1024-0018 (Expires 5/31/2012)

Pagoda Creek site Park County, Wyoming Name of Property County and State organization Wyoming State Historic Preservation Office date 4/28/2017 street & number State Historic Preservation Office/Anthropology Dept. 307-766-5366 12th and Lewis St., Dept. 3431 1000 E. University Ave. telephone city or town Laramie state Wyoming zip code 82072 e-mail [email protected]; [email protected]

Additional Documentation Submit the following items with the completed form:

 Maps: A USGS map (7.5 or 15 minute series) indicating the property's location.

A Sketch map for historic districts and properties having large acreage or numerous resources. Key all photographs to this map.

 Continuation Sheets

 Additional items: (Check with the SHPO or FPO for any additional items.)

Photographs: Submit clear and descriptive photographs. The size of each image must be 1600x1200 pixels at 300 ppi (pixels per inch) or larger. Key all photographs to the sketch map.

Pagoda Creek Site Park County, WY Photographs 1-4 by Kyle Wright, October 2016 Photographs 5-9 by Dan Eakin, Fall 1985 Photographs 10-13 by Laura Cannon and Ross Hillman, March 2017 Photographs 14-15 by Dan Eakin, 1986

Description of Photograph(s) and number:

Overview of the Pagoda Creek site from the south end of the site, facing north. 1 of 15

Overview of the Pagoda Creek site, facing west. 2 of 15

Overview of the Pagoda Creek site, facing south. 3 of 15

Overview of the Pagoda Creek site, facing east. 4 of 15

Overview of the Pagoda Creek site during the 1985 OWSA investigations, facing east. 5 of 15

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United States Department of the Interior National Park Service / National Register of Historic Places Registration Form NPS Form 10-900 OMB No. 1024-0018 (Expires 5/31/2012)

Pagoda Creek site Park County, Wyoming Name of Property County and State

Photograph of hearth feature in the upper cultural level excavation block seen in Figure 14, photograph is oriented east. 6 of 15

Photograph of hearth feature in the lower cultural level excavation block seen in Figure 16, photo oriented north. 7 of 15

Photograph of rock alignment feature in the lower cultural level excavation block seen in Figure 18, photograph is oriented north. 8 of 15

Photograph of hearth feature in the lower cultural level excavation block seen in Figure 18, photograph is oriented west. 9 of 15

Photograph of bifacial tool recovered from 1985 excavations. 10 of 15

Photograph of Pelican Lake preforms recovered from 1985 excavations. 11 of 15

Photograph of lithic drill recovered from 1985 excavations. 12 of 15

Photograph of Pelican Lake style projectile points recovered from 1985 excavations. 13 of 15

Photograph of deer antler flint knapping tool recovered from 1985 excavations. 14 of 15

Photograph of bighorn sheep tooth pendant recovered from 1985 excavations. 15 of 15

Property Owner: (Complete this item at the request of the SHPO or FPO.) name United States Forest Service – Shoshone National Forest street & number 808 Meadow Lane Avenue telephone 307-527-6241 city or town Cody state Wyoming zip code 82414

Paperwork Reduction Act Statement: This information is being collected for applications to the National Register of Historic Places to nominate properties for listing or determine eligibility for listing, to list properties, and to amend existing listings. Response to this request is required to obtain a benefit in accordance with the National Historic Preservation Act, as amended (16 U.S.C.460 et seq.). Estimated Burden Statement: Public reporting burden for this form is estimated to average 18 hours per response including time for reviewing instructions, gathering and maintaining data, and completing and reviewing the form. Direct comments regarding this burden estimate or any aspect of this form to the Office of Planning and Performance Management. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1849 C. Street, NW, Washington, DC.

List of Figure Captions

Figure 1: Location of the Pagoda Creek site (48PA853). (map by Laura K. Cannon)

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United States Department of the Interior National Park Service / National Register of Historic Places Registration Form NPS Form 10-900 OMB No. 1024-0018 (Expires 5/31/2012)

Pagoda Creek site Park County, Wyoming Name of Property County and State

Figure 2: Overview of the Pagoda Creek site from the south end of the site, facing north. The trees indicate the North Fork of the Shoshone River. The buildings toward the river are for the Horse Creek Picnic Area. (photograph by Kyle Wright)

Figure 3: Overview of the Pagoda Creek site, facing west. The truck is parked on the gravel road that leads to the Horse Creek Picnic Area. (photograph by Kyle Wright)

Figure 4: Overview of the Pagoda Creek site, facing south. (photograph by Kyle Wright)

Figure 5: Overview of the Pagoda Creek site, facing east. (photograph by Kyle Wright)

Figure 6: Overview of the Pagoda Creek site during the 1985 OWSA investigations, facing east. (photograph by Dan Eakin)

Figure 7: The location of Pagoda Creek site (48PA853) in the Absaroka Volcanic Supergroup (Love and Christiansen 1985) in relation to other regional sites (Bugas-Holding 48PA563, Dean Indian Creek 48PA55, Mummy Cave 48PA201, and Lookingbill 48FR308). (Map by Larry Todd)

Figure 8: Stratigraphic profile showing the two occupations at the Pagoda Creek site. (Eakin 1989:19)

Figure 9: Distribution plot of radiocarbon dates from the Pagoda Creek site. (Figure by Larry Todd)

Figure 10: Distribution plot of recent AMS dates from the Pagoda Creek site. (Figure by Larry Todd)

Figure 11: Locations of the previously conducted investigations at the Pagoda Creek site. (map by Laura K. Cannon)

Figure 12: Investigations Conducted by OWSA in 1985 and 1993. (map by Laura K. Cannon)

Figure 13: Investigations conducted by the U.S.F.S. in 1987. (map by Laura K. Cannon)

Figure 14: Upper cultural level excavation block EE (Eakin 1993:362)

Figure 15: Photograph of hearth feature in the upper cultural level excavation block EE, photograph is oriented east. (photograph by Dan Eakin)

Figure 16: Lower cultural level excavation block BB (Eakin 1993:350)

Figure 17: Photograph of hearth feature in the lower cultural level excavation block BB, photo oriented north. (photograph by Dan Eakin)

Figure 18: Lower cultural level excavation block EE (Eakin 1993:351)

Figure 19: Photograph of rock alignment feature in the lower cultural level excavation block EE, photograph is oriented north. (photograph by Dan Eakin)

Figure 20: Photograph of hearth feature in the lower cultural level excavation block EE, photograph is oriented west. (photograph by Dan Eakin)

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United States Department of the Interior National Park Service / National Register of Historic Places Registration Form NPS Form 10-900 OMB No. 1024-0018 (Expires 5/31/2012)

Pagoda Creek site Park County, Wyoming Name of Property County and State

Figure 21: Photograph of bifacial tool recovered from 1985 excavations. Fragmentary artifacts were not photographed. (photograph by Laura K. Cannon and Ross G. Hilman)

Figure 22: Photograph of Pelican Lake preforms recovered from 1985 excavations. Fragmentary artifacts were not photographed. (photograph by Laura K. Cannon and Ross G. Hilman)

Figure 23: Photograph of lithic drill recovered from 1985 excavations. (photograph by Laura K. Cannon and Ross G. Hilman)

Figure 24: Photograph of Pelican Lake style projectile points recovered from 1985 excavations. Fragmentary artifacts were not photographed. (photograph by Laura K. Cannon and Ross G. Hilman)

Figure 25: Photograph of deer antler flint knapping tool recovered from 1985 excavations. (photograph by Dan Eakin)

Figure 26: Photograph of bighorn sheep tooth pendant recovered from 1985 excavations. (photograph by Dan Eakin)

Figure 27: Mummy Cave stratigraphy showing the period of the Pagoda Creek occupation for comparison. (Husted and Edgar 2002: Figure 2, Plates 8, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 23, 24, 32, 34, 36, and 60; Hughes 2003:Table 2.3)

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