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Vera Sollova Industrialization, demographic change and feminine economic participation in the State of Mexico and Toluca City's Metropolitan Zone, 1970-2000 Papeles de Población, vol. 14, núm. 55, enero-marzo, 2008, pp. 201-235, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México México

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Papeles de Población, ISSN (Printed Version): 1405-7425 [email protected] Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México México

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www.redalyc.org Non-Profit Academic Project, developed under the Open Acces Initiative Papeles de POBLACIÓN No. 55 CIEAP/UAEM Industrialization, demographic change and feminine economic participation in the State of Mexico and Toluca City’s Metropolitan Zone, 1970-2000 Vera Sollova

Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México

Resumen Abstract

En el artículo se explora la situación del trabajo Industrialization, demographic change and femenino en el Estado de México y la zona feminine economic participation in the State of urbana vinculada a su capital. En primer lugar Mexico and Toluca City’s Metropolitan Zone, se analizan las características del mercado 1970-2000 laboral, destacando las diferencias en la participación económica entre la población The article explores the situation of feminine ocupada de hombres y mujeres. Se muestra la labor in the State of Mexico and the distribución por sexo en las diversas ramas, metropolitan zone linked to its capital. In the ocupaciones y formas del trabajo, en particular first place the characteristics of the labor en la industria manufacturera y servicios. En market are analyzed, distinguishing the segundo lugar, se examina el cambio en el differences in economic participation between perfil de las tasas específicas de participación the employed population of men and women. de la mano de obra. En el periodo que abarca el Distribution by gender is shown in the diverse artículo se observa el proceso de feminización branches, occupations and ways of work, del mercado laboral y un importante cambio particularly in manufacturing industry and sectorial. services; in the second place, the change of profile in the specific rates of workforce Palabras clave: trabajo femenino, población, participation are also shown. In the period the urbanización, Zona Metropolitana de Toluca, article comprehends the process of workforce Estado de México. feminization and an important social change are observed.

Key words: feminine labor, population, urbanization, Toluca city metropolitan zone, Socioeconomic context State of Mexico. ne of the topics that have transformed the gender approach is the relation between the changes in the world’s economy, in particular the Ointernationalization of productive investment and the growth of incorporation of women into the labor market. This process has been occurring as from the 1960’s decade as a part of the new international division of labor

182 Industrialization, demographic change and economic participation... /V. Sollova

(Froebel, Heinrichs and Kreye, 1982); at the same time an expansion of new jobs was observed and the list of occupations associated with feminine work was extended. The course of economic transformations went on as the so called new productive restructuration in the framework of globalization, when several countries, among them Mexico, showed a tendency towards the liberalization of their national economy. When these countries started to direct their production to the demands of international markets, the new occupations reflected relatively low wages, flexible working hours and temporary contracts, as well as loose links with the unions (Fernández Kelly and Sassen, 1995). Nevertheless, the generalized growth of feminine employment had its reasons and effects in the familial sphere (Boeri et al., 2005). On the one side, the number of children per women decreased, and the time women devoted to their upbringing was now spent on remunerated labor. Arising from the participation of women in extradomestic work, households have changed from single-supplier households to several-supplier households (Anker, 1998; Szasz and Pacheco, 1998; Damián, 2004). In the present text the situation of feminine labor in the State of Mexico is explored, particularly in the urban zone around its capital city. We take as a starting point the epoch of the Mexican miracle, which was ruled by industrialization via imports substitution. Likewise, we examine the scenario of the exhaustion of the model and the conditions of the feminine employment along the 1980’s decade. Later we retake the context of economic restructuration and feminization and pauperization that characterize the national labor market as from the 1990’s decade. In this framework we witness the evolution and dynamics of salaried employment, self-employment and unremunerated employment, phenomena which came along with demographic change and urbanization.

Demographic change

By the end of the Porfiriato (1910) the population of the country was mainly composed of farmers; the conditions of extreme poverty, illiteracy and lack of health services were accompanied by high mortality rates and low growth rates. As from the 1930’s decade mortality rates started to decrease, consequently, the rate of demographic growth began its fast rise. Between 1930 and 1980, mortality fell from 27.7 deceases to 6.6 per thousand inhabitants, to later reach less than 5 deceases per thousand inhabitants. Infantile mortality, which in the early XX century represented a rate of 275 deceases per 1000 inhabitants,

183 January / March 2008 Papeles de POBLACIÓN No. 55 CIEAP/UAEM decreased to 57 per thousand in 1980. Birth rate remained high and steady up to 1970’s decade and as from then it rapidly decreased (Sandoval, 1988). What was the cause of the fast growth of the Mexican population during the first fifty years after the Revolution? What was the cause of an important diminution in the fertility levels during recent decades? Are the changes in demographic dynamics attributable to the demographic policy of the Mexican State or are they the result of economic and social changes occurred after the Revolution? And finally, which consequences does this situation have for the life of women? We have to remember that during the 1950’s and 1960’s Mexico and Latin America experienced important economic and social changes; in Mexico two important processes were unfold: the one of industrialization, via substitution of imports and, at the same time, an important process of urbanization. The economic expansion that characterized the 1960’s decade provoked a significant growth of GDP, and also, stimulated social transformation never seen before, such as the increment in educational levels of the population. In the macro- structural sphere, the impact of change was observed both in the offer and demand of work (Oliveira, 2001); in the 1960’s and 1970’s decades the total and feminine employment grew in non-agricultural sectors (Rendón and Salas, 1992). The women, who entered the urban labor market, were largely young and single; a particular demand for feminine employment was witnessed in the public sector. The natural growth of population and the heavy migratory flows between the countryside and the city, altogether with the socioeconomic transformations, contributed to the creation of new ways of urban life and the urban society pretended to forget the stagnation of the rural environment. In the cities, particularly in the three main metropolises, Mexico City, Guadalajara and Monterrey, the social transformations were reflected in the middle classes in formation, however, the less favored groups, especially the migrants, added up growing strata of marginalized urban population (Lomnitz, 1975). The 1970’s and 1980’s decade appeared in Mexico as a transition stage; in the former, the depletion of the model of substitution of imports started to be evident, while in the latter, together with the crisis of debt, a new model of development arose which was characterized by the aperture of the markets to the exterior. As for feminine employment, during this period a transcendental change in the incorporation of women into extradomestic labor; from the 1980 crisis, a great deal of feminine population increased the numbers of female salaried workers, and what is more, to work on their own. The economic

184 Industrialization, demographic change and economic participation... /V. Sollova participation of women increased more during the 1990’s decade. As from the last decade of the XX century significant changes both in offer and demand of labor force were observed. As a part of the analysis of the phenomenon of economic restructuration and globalization, the feminization of labor force reappeared; however, Rendón and Salas (1992) observed two paradoxical processes; on the one hand, the feminization of industrial employment, and on the other, the masculinization of commerce and services. Besides, during the 1990’s decade in Mexico the weight of employment in public sector decreased and the process of tertiarization of the economy was accelerated. Informal employment began to bloom and it was divided into that carried out by own means and micro- enterprises. Altogether with feminization, globalization has been the witness of the increment of position of bad quality. The trend has been to replace men with women in labor market, responding to the global strategy of competence based on the intensive reduction of wages (Standing, 1989). The official stats gave an account of the feminine employed population growth in recent decades, whilst the social scientists analyzed the fall of the monetary income of the laborers, in particular that of women. Familial wage has definitely disappeared from the economic scenario; at the time that manufacturing production was directed abroad, labor market was characterized by offering short-lived positions with no social benefits; moreover, the control of inflation was supported on a policy oriented to congeal salaries, whereas the employers applied new flextime labor processes; thus, hardening the conditions of work, already precarious. The structure of employment has posed important changes, which denote the impact of the productive restructuring, exercised with the new economic model that characterizes the stage of globalization. Consequently, significant transformations were unfolded in the spheres of labor, both in relation to labor market, and the institutions and organizations that take part in it (Rendón and Bensusán, 2000).

Demography and industrialization in the State of Mexico

The State of Mexico is currently the most populated state in Mexico; by the end of the Mexican Revolution, it did not even have a million inhabitants and it grew at a rate of 1.3 percent annually. With the beginning of the industrialization process, in the 1940 decade, the population’s pace of growth increased. In 1950, the State had 1.4 million inhabitants, a figure that represented 5.4 percent of the population of the country (Camposortega, 1994; Conapo, 1985).

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In 1960’s decade, the growth of population was heavily accelerated because of a rapid countryside-city migratory process. The inhabitants of other States were attracted by the processes of industrialization and urbanization. By 1990 the State had a population of nine million 815 thousand 795 inhabitants, and by the year 2000, this number surpassed 13 million inhabitants (graph 1). Most of the population is urban; circa 80 percent of it lives in two valleys: the valley of Mexico and the valley of Toluca. While the rate of demographic growth in the 1960’s reached 7.3 percent annual, in the 1980’s decreased to 2.7 percent, to later reach below three percent. The migratory flows of the rural population, who seeks better life conditions and new jobs, have contributed altogether with the demographic aging process to the transformation of structure by age. In graph 2 one sees how the proportion of children’s population (from 0 to 14 years of age) has decreased and the size of population in working age (15 to 64 years of age) has increased during the last thirty years. The tendency clearly indicates a process of fertility diminution; demographic aging and the consequential growth of the proportion population between 15 and 64 years of age influenced the increment of groups of women in reproductive and working ages. The productive industry was established as from the 1940’s decade in the valley of Mexico and by the end of the 1960’s in the valley of Toluca. The production was developed under the process of industrialization via substitution of imports. The industrialization of the valley of Toluca was the result of governmental decentralizing policies. Large companies began to flourish, particularly in the neighboring municipalities; rural areas started to become cities and the population changed from rural to urban, yet, how does this important process of socioeconomic transformation begin? It can be said that the main characteristics of the dynamics are in industrialization, urbanization and feminine participation in salaried work. The modernization of the State of Mexico was integrated under the model of stabilizing development, accompanied by the plan of substitution of imports. In this respect, two elements typical of Mexican industrialization can be identified: the important participation of the State and the leadership of the transnational enterprises. The State contribution created a series of favorable conditions for the new enterprises; it procured all manner of facilities of fiscal nature, infrastructure and services. To explain the establishment of enterprises in Toluca, the advantage that it is very near the largest market of the country, namely Mexico City, cannot be overlooked.

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The State was also in charge of the formation and stabilization of the contractual conditions in the companies that had just settled in the region; another of the favorable elements was the fact that the industrial wage registered an expansive tendency (Bortz, 1986) until the second lustrum of the 1960’s. Along this period we see a significant increment in the workers’ real wage and the consequent transformation of the patterns of family consumption. In the background of the large changes the boost to productivity growth is observed (Ibíd., 1986); this was due to the incorporation of new processes of labor. Under these conditions, women who entered into salaried work did it only while they were single and when they married became fulltime housewives. The growth of employed population was stagnant during the first lustrum of the 1980’s decade; most of the companies were making their personnel redundant and several were shut down, either temporarily or permanently. Conversely, the large automotive companies began in that moment a new phase of modernization and production for importations. Despite the economic crisis of the 1980’s decade, which caused a series of dismissals in local industries, cut-downs of working days, intensification of production, partial or total shut downs of the companies and an administrative realignment, the feminine incorporation to labor was preserved. Whilst many suppliers of familial income were dismissed, wives and sisters started to look for additional incomes; as a matter of fact, married women and mothers gradually become incorporated into extradomestic work. In the second lustrum of the decade, the restructuration reached large transnational companies; in the 1990’s decade, under pressures from macroeconomic nuisances, a new phase of capital accumulation was defined, accompanied with a process of flextime (De la Garza, 2000) in labor markets. Ever since the temporary contracts began to prevail in the labor panorama, many workers were left without benefits and with low wages. At the time, the number of low-quality positions increased; under the hard labor conditions the feminine participation grew significantly. To sum up, the changes in the work force between 1970 and 2000 include the transformations caused by the new model of development and economic policy. Early in the period the model of substitution of imports was in operation; during the 1980’s and 1990’s decades, governments fostered a process of economic adjustment and restructuration as a response to the crisis of debt and the following structural crises. The new logic of development was based upon the reorientation of manufacturing production towards the external sector; at the

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GRAPH 1 1900 1910 1921 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1990 2000 TOTAL POPULATION IN THE STATE OF MEXICO, 1895 - 2000 5 189 8 6 4 2 0 Population in millions 14 12 10 Población en millones Source: Camposortega, 1994.

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and older 65 y más 15 - 64 GRAPH 2 0 - 14 19 70 1990 20 00 0% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 100% DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY LARGE AGE GROUPS, STATE OF MEXICO, 1970 - 2000 Source: IX, XI, XII General Censuses of Population.

189 January / March 2008 Papeles de POBLACIÓN No. 55 CIEAP/UAEM same time, it is important to observe the demographic changes that include the diminution of the population growth and the transformation in its structure by age and gender. Both aspects have effects on the social changes produced in the State of Mexico and the Metropolitan Zone of Toluca.

Feminine economic participation

Below some indicators that characterize the evolution of labor market and its differentiation by gender in the State of Mexico and the Metropolitan Zone of Toluca (MZT) as from the 1970’s decade are presented. As it was previously stated the distribution of the population in the State of Mexico is organized around two large urban and industrial centers; the demographic concentration is located in the Metropolitan Zone of Mexico City (MZMC), located in the Valley of Mexico, and the Metropolitan Zone of Toluca, in the Valley of Toluca. In the first place, we mentioned the sectorial transformation as for employment and in the second, the fields of economy. In order to show the tendencies of the behavior of feminine occupation in the State and observe the changes we use data from the general censuses of population during the 1970-2000 period. Along these years we notice that the participation of women in labor force was on the rise; nonetheless, within the general panorama we have to distinguish the changes that reflect a diminution in the quality of employment. One realizes the decline in the participation rates in the protected sector that includes salaried labor and formal contracts, and the increment of the forms of self-employment and unremunerated economic activities. All of this in a labor market where feminine incorporation seems to be restricted to only some branches of the industry, commerce and services. Whereas an ever larger number of people, among them more women, demand employment, the behavior of economy experiences the negative effects of the recurrent crises; moreover, the wide inequality between regions and municipalities generates a market overly heterogeneous. The most important sector for feminine employment is that of communal and social services, restaurants and hotels and public administration. Under the conditions of precariousness, personal services are the traditional shelter of remunerated feminine labor. A more limited situation may be observed in the manufacturing industry, where in spite of the restructuration in several branches, the traditional segregation by gender is still evident. Although in the process of industrialization have appeared new production fields, these do not always represent new sources

190 Industrialization, demographic change and economic participation... /V. Sollova of jobs for women; the diversification of the industrial labor market benefitted the masculine population more. The rates of economic participation in the different fields of production in the State clearly show a noticeable reduction of the population’s participation in the agricultural sector between 1970 and 2000, and a generalized increment in tertiary activities. The tendency is more acute in the case of women; when analyzing the specific rates one can observe that the incorporation of the population into the economic activity does not increase between 1970 and 1990. In graph 3 it is shown that even the total population presents a slight diminution in the proportion of the employed population. For the group of men the diminution is even more acute. The masculine economic participation decreased from 72.1 percent in 1970 to 67.3 in 1990; on the contrary, the participation of women grew from 15.6 to 20.7 percent. In the year 2000, women broadened their participation in more than ten percentage points to reach 31.2 percent, whereas masculine participation has grown to a lesser extent to reach 70.9 percent. In tables 1 and 2 it is shown how the structure of occupation in the State according to the main branches and sectors of the economic activities between 1970 and 2000 has changed. We notice a generalized trend to move the labor force from the primary sector toward the tertiary sector. In the 1980’s decade an increase in the participation in the manufacturing industry was registered, both for men and women; however, in the 1990’s decade there was a definitive diminution in industrial work altogether with self-employment in the tertiary sector. When considering the rates of growth of the different productive branches in the State of Mexico between 1970 and 2000, one sees negative figures in agriculture and the increment of the population employed in the tertiary sector. In the State, as in the country, the markets of labor are exceedingly heterogeneous, both in respect to the use of different technologies and the different ways of work. In relation to the latter, more often women carry out a job on their own, while their participation has decreased in salaried work. Finally, the increment of feminine participation in unremunerated work is worrisome. In the State there are municipalities, particularly those most urbanized, which provide occupation in all of the production branches; others however, commonly the most remote from the urban centers, only offer employment in the primary sector and some communal services. In the urban labor forces, which are located in municipalities with greater development levels, there is a wider variety of possibilities of employment; occupations in the sector of services, commerce and

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Women 2000 1990 GRAPH 3 Men 197 0 Tot al Hombres Mujeres RATES OF ECONOMIC PARTICIPATION IN THE STATE MEXICO 0 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Percentage Fuente: IX, XI and XII general Censuses of Population

192 Industrialization, demographic change and economic participation... /V. Sollova % 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 6.68 7.70 2.22 5.27 3.35 17.84 14.31 15.68 22.66 48.89 10.84 26.67 Women Men 82.16 93.32 85.69 92.30 84.32 97.78 94.73 77.34 96.65 51.11 89.16 73.33 % 0.21 0.14 0.79 0.21 0.53 1.96 11.34 21.84 11.75 40.59 10.64 100.00 379 254 373 934 1 396 3 466 20 063 38 638 20 782 71 801 18 826 Women 176 912 % 0.28 0.37 7.55 0.82 8.71 3.31 9.21 3.50 6.35 34.39 25.51 100.00 TABLE 1 n Me 2 269 3 044 6 710 61 500 70 944 26 970 75 066 28 516 51 754 814 861 280 233 207 855 % 0.27 0.33 6.34 0.71 9.25 2.81 3.22 7.12 30.28 24.85 14.81 100.00 WORKFORCE BY ACTIVIY AND GENDER, STATE OF MEXICO, 1970 2 648 3 298 7 083 Total Total 62 896 91 726 27 904 31 982 70 580 991 773 300 296 246 493 146 867 m

y merce merce riculture riculture m g Activit Total A Oil Extractive Transformation Construction Electricity Co Transp. and Com Services Government Unspecified

Source: IX General Census of Population, 1970.

193 January / March 2008 Papeles de POBLACIÓN No. 55 CIEAP/UAEM % 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 3.16 3.16 6.60 8.07 2.69 8.13 24.61 24.61 19.36 21.84 28.45 33.61 22.52 59.06 25.47 40.52 34.37 38.35 Wo men Men Men 75.39 75.39 96.84 93.40 80.64 78.16 91.93 97.31 71.55 91.87 66.39 77.48 40.94 74.53 59.48 65.63 61.65 % 1.11 1.11 0.04 0.29 0.28 0.78 1.91 2.07 4.47 2.24 5.06 5.60 25.16 25.16 17.96 19.05 13.98 100.00 100.00 251 7 847 2 021 1 943 5 488 Wo men 431 13 589 14 465 31 746 15 652 35 462 98 420 39 704 121 704 177 177 459 126 170 134 % 0.16 0.39 1.03 9.21 7.04 1.34 5.02 4.31 2.14 2.43 8.72 2.94 11.14 11.14 29.40 14.74 100.00 100.00 TABLE 2 Men 3 551 3 419 8 22 144 22 819 28 003 93 065 46 330 52 362 63 240 293 240 092 634 722 198 008 318 845 151 227 108 975 187 2156 855 2156 % 8.67 0.13 0.36 0.84 7.14 5.78 1.52 4.88 7.94 2.16 3.08 3.59 28.36 15.54 10.01 100.00 100.00 Total Total 3 802 3 802 10 440 10 440 24 087 43 408 61 811 87 982 248 140 248 140 811 269 204 210 444 467 165 276 139 692 227 173 286 437 102 782 2 860 976 860 976 2 e EMPLOYED POPULATION BY GENDER AND ACTIVITY, STATE OF MEXICO, 1990 Activity Total Agriculture Mining Oil Manufacturing water and Elec. Construction Commerce andTransp. Comm. Financial services Pub Defens Adm & Communal service Professional serv Restaurants Personal serv Unspecified

Fuente: XI General Census of Population, 1990.

194 Industrialization, demographic change and economic participation... /V. Sollova also the industrial one are present. In these cases one observes a greater proportion of salaried employment, besides the presence of self-employment in the field of commerce; rural and semi-rural municipalities provide fewer probabilities to employ their population. The lesser rates of economic participation of women occur in municipalities with an important percentage of rural population and greater degrees of marginalization (Sollova, 1995). According to the 1990 General Census of Population and Housing (Censo General de Población y Vivienda de 1990), in the State of Mexico there were 2860976 employed people, from which 2215685 were men and 704121 women; this means that there was one woman per three men. Comparing the total of employed with that of unemployed, there were 1023855 men and 2695444 women. Per each unemployed woman there were 2.6 men, which expresses that, in spite of the relevant increment of feminine incorporation into the labor market in recent decades, their level of participation remained relatively low. The situation allows glimpsing the importance of domestic work in the entity; nevertheless, we do not exactly know how many women who declared being unemployed carry out some economic activity which they consider complementary and preferred declaring their house chores as their main activity; we have to underscore that by the year 2000, feminine participation had increased in a considerable manner. Whilst in 1970 there were 176912 employed women, in 2000 this figure reached one million 410782 employed women (tables 1 and 3). When comparing the sectorial composition, it may be seen that between 1970 and 1990 there was an important diminution in work into the primary sectors. In respect to feminine population it is seen that in 1990 only slightly more than one percent was located in this entry. Meanwhile, the participation into commerce and services continued increasing constantly for three decades. Likewise, there are significant changes in the feminine participation by age groups. In graph 4 one notices the transformations which took place between 1970 and 2000. In 1990 the age of starting work decreased; nevertheless, the participation as from 20 years of age increased. Then, the diminution is gradual and it accelerates as from 50 years of age; what is more, in comparison with 1970, during the 1980’s there was not the massive exit from the labor market of young women who were exclusively devoted to maternity in previous decades. In data from the 1990’s there is not the sudden fall of the feminine participation rate after 20 years of age; one observes that women do not leave their jobs to be only devote to raise their children. Leaving the economic activity is gradual and coincides with the end of the so called reproductive age.

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TABLE 3 EMPLOYED POPULATION BY ACTIVITY AND GENDER, STATE OF MEXICO, 2000

Activity¹ Total % Men % Women %

Total 4 462 361 100.00 3 051 579 100.00 1 410 782 100.00 Agriculture 232 448 5.21 213 781 7.01 18 667 1.32 Mining² 6 222 0.14 5 706 0.19 516 0.04 Electricity & water 23 354 0.52 20 857 0.68 2 497 0.18 Construction² 363 243 8.14 352 779 11.56 10 464 0.74 Manufacturing 998 583 22.38 724 407 23.74 274 176 19.43 Commerce 863 785 19.36 529 416 17.35 334 369 23.70 Transports 260 243 5.83 247 138 8.10 13 105 0.93 Media 43 848 0.98 30 723 1.01 13 125 0.93 Financial serv 38 190 0.86 23 625 0.77 14 565 1.03 Movables 17 781 0.40 12 046 0.39 5 735 0.41 Professional serv 95 207 2.13 64 249 2.11 30 958 2.19 Suppor t to business³ 119 787 2.68 86 151 2.82 33 636 2.38 Education 219 803 4.93 83 294 2.73 136 509 9.68 Health 131 575 2.95 47 695 1.56 83 880 5.95 Leisure 35 661 0.80 27 536 0.90 8 125 0.58 Restaurants 192 027 4.30 102 880 3.37 89 147 6.32 Other services 431 345 9.67 219 490 7.19 211 855 15.02 Government 207 793 4.66 147 960 4.85 59 833 4.24 Unspecified 181 466 4.07 111 846 3.67 69 620 4.93

1 Disaggregation presented based on the System of Industrial Classification of North America (Sistema de Clasificación Industrial de América del Norte, SCIAN) and the keys correspond to said catalogue. 2 21 mining sector comprises the perforation of oil and gas rigs, and other services related to mining. For the ends of the census of population and housing the services related to mining were placed in the 21 mining sector, and oil and gas rigs was included as part of the 23 construction sector. 3 Includes services of direction of corporations and companies. Source: XII General Census of population, 2000.

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TABLE 3 EMPLOYED POPULATION BY ACTIVITY AND GENDER, STATE OF MEXICO, 2000 (CONTINUATION)

Activity¹ Men Women %

Total 68.38 31.62 100.00 Agriculture 91.97 8.03 100.00 Mining² 91.71 8.29 100.00 Electricity & water 89.31 10.69 100.00 Construction² 97.12 2.88 100.00 Manufacturing 72.54 27.46 100.00 Commerce 61.29 38.71 100.00 Transports 94.96 5.04 100.00 Media 70.07 29.93 100.00 Financial services 61.86 38.14 100.00 Movables 67.75 32.25 100.00 Professional services 67.48 32.52 100.00 Support to business³ 71.92 28.08 100.00 Education 37.89 62.11 100.00 Health 36.25 63.75 100.00 Leisure 77.22 22.78 100.00 Rest aurants 53.58 46.42 100.00 Other services 50.89 49.11 100.00 Government 71.21 28.79 100.00 Unspecified 61.63 38.37 100.00

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20 00 19 70 50-54 45-49 2000 40-44 35-39 1990 GRAPH 4 Age groups Grupos de e dad 30-34 -29 5 2 1970 20-24 19 - 15 12-14 0 5 10 15 25 20 30 35 40 45 RATES OF FEMININE PARTICIPATION BY AGE GROUPSIN THE STATE MEXICO Percentage Porcentajes Source: IX, XI and XII General Censuses of Population.

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2000 1990 1970 54 50- 49 45- 2000 44 40- GRAPH 5 39 35- 1990 34 30- Age groups - 29 25 Grup os d e eda d 24 20 - 1970 19 15- 14 12- 0 10 30 20 50 40 70 60 90 80 10 0 Percentage RATES OF MASCULINE ECONOMIC PARTICIPATION BY AGE GROUPS, STATE MEXICO Source: IX, XI and XII General Censuses of Population.

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The situation is different in the group of the masculine population. In graph 5 one notices that, in comparison with the 1970’s decade, entering into the labor market occurred at older ages in the 1990’s, which might be explained by the fact that now the population studies for longer; however, also in 1990, men started to decrease their labor activities in the quinquennium from forty-five to forty-nine years of age. The late entrance and earlier exit from labor, compared with 1970, can partly explain the diminution in male participation. By 2000, their economic participation increased from the quinquennium from 20 to 24 years of age and the exit was slightly delayed.

Population, urbanization and labor participation in MZT

The MZT is currently composed of the municipality of Toluca, where the capital city of the State is seated, and five neighboring municipalities (Almoloya de Juárez, Lerma, Metepec, San Mateo Atenco and Zinacantepec), according to the classification by the National Institution of Statistics, Geography and Computing (Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática), Almoloya de Juárez was the last one whici officially joined the metropolitan zone in 2000. For time to time, some governmental problems also include the municipalities of Mexicaltzingo, Ocoyoacac and Xonacatlán; in this the criterion of INEGI (2000) is considered. All of the municipalities were rural, however as from the second lustrum of the 1960’s decade a slow territorial transformation began, this ended up with their incorporation into the metropolitan zone.1 The process of conurbation was accelerated by the advancement of industrialization in Toluca, which was developed as one of the policies of industrial decentralization in Mexico City. The transformation occurred in a propitious moment for the economy of the country, when the model of substitution of imports was in full swing. 1 Currently it is important to distinguish the process of metropolization that has a lengthy tradition in Mexico and the urban processes which have occurred as a result of the economic transformation under the neoliberal model. In respect to this issue Hiernaux and Carmona (2003:59) mention that “now the ordering will not be from the State any more, but from the transference of the control of the economy to the market forces”. The authors utilize the classification by Ascher (2000), who states that the model of metropolis, created in the Fordist decades, is currently undergoing a thorough restructuration and distinguishes the metropolis from the metapolis. “Metropolization might be defined as the consecution of the concentration of material and human wealth in the most important agglomeration…” (Ascher, 2000:59) whilst… “a metapolis is a set of spaces, within which all or a part of the inhabitants, the economic activities and the territories are integrated into quotidian (ordinary) functioning of a metropolis. A metapolis is generally a single basin of employment, residence and activities. The spaces that compose it are profoundly heterogeneous and are not necessarily adjacent; a metapolis comprehends at least some hundred thousands inhabitants” (Ascher, 1995: 147-162) cited in Hiernaux and Carmona, 2003.

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Even if the formation of the metropolitan territory, which comprises the capital of the states and the neighboring municipalities, began in the times of the model of substitution of imports under the State direction, the most transcendental changes have taken place as from the introduction of the processes of economic restructuration and commercial aperture. Moreover, linked to the economic and regional transformation, in the 1980’s decade the migration to this region was accelerated.2 The second largest industrial area of the State of Mexico is to be found in the MZT; likewise, here one finds fully expressed the social and cultural heterogeneity that characterize the country and the State: the main banks, the State administration, the modern commercial centers and malls, and the large plants of the globalized industry arise amidst the households of poor immigrants and middle class. In the zone important indigenous groups live as well,3 whose population is mainly concentrated on the municipalities of Toluca and Lerma. The neighboring municipalities were incorporated into the metropolitan zone through new roads, public transport routes and telephone lines. Their population has grown because of immigration of the inhabitants from the rural zones of the occident of the State of Mexico and Michoacan; in the same manner, new urban inhabitants have arrived from Mexico City, Veracruz, Chiapas, Hidalgo, among other States. In Toluca, similarly to the municipalities of Lerma, San Mateo Atenco, Metepec, Zinacantepec and Almoloya de Juárez many contrasts can be spotted. The process of urbanization is extraordinarily uneven; the poorest live in peripheral zones where there are few public services, for instance: in the municipality of Zinacantepec, which provides an important share of labor force to the economy of the Valley of Toluca, there are recently created residential zones, upper and upper-intermediate level, altogether with immigrant localities from rural zones of the occident of the State which lack services such as piped water, sewerage, gas or telephone and are characterized by semirural ways of life.

2 In respect to growth and distribution of the population in Mexico, particularly in the central zone, Daniel Hiernaux and Teresa Carmona (2003: 60) recognize that “ever since the direct application of a neoliberal laissez-faire, the average cities started to grow, and the growth of Mexico City was considerably restrained in particular”. The authors consider that the Valley of Toluca has a privileged position in this change for, besides the important growth of population, the economic participation of this place also increased. Finally, they pinpoint that there is a reduction in the role of Mexico City in favor of the growth of the Valley of Toluca (Ibíd.: 65). 3 Mazahua and Otomí peoples mainly.

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In the same manner, the workforce in the metropolitan zone has experienced very important changes in the three last decades; in the fist place we have to mention the fast sectorial transformation of employment, when agricultural labor force moved to the industrial and services sector. The differences of occupation by sector between men and women are evident in table 6, where it is seen that almost three quarters of the female laborers are in the tertiary sector in the year 2000,4 where slightly less than half of the men were to be found. In respect to labor participation in the secondary sector,5 it is observed that it concentrated a sizable proportion of men and only a little more than a fifth of the women. Nonetheless, we have to mention other aspects that are outstanding in the behavior of the employed population in MZT; firstly, a significant growth of feminine workforce is observed. In table 4 the increment in the feminine rates of economic participation is displayed. As one follows the rates of economic participation between 1970 and 2000, the great difference between the growth of the contribution of men and women is noticed; whereas masculine rates grew between one and three percent in the last thirty years, the feminine ones were doubled or triplicated in several municipalities of the neighboring zone. According to data from the Census of Population and Housing in the year 2000 the rates of feminine economic participation oscillated between 18.2 and 35.8 percent in the municipalities of MZT. In 1970, the same rates were placed between 11.1 and 13.4 percent, save the municipality of Toluca, where 19.8 percent was registered. Secondly, it indispensable to observe the differences between the municipalities that are part of MZT, as for the vocation or specialization in the economic activity; despite the generalized increment of the economic participation of women, Metepec and Toluca are still the most representative spaces of the zone (graph 7). We have to remember that in both municipalities most of the population is employed in the tertiary sector. In table 5 it is shown that in Lerma and San Mateo Atenco there is relevant participation in the secondary sector. The vocation for industrial work concentrated the masculine participation in this sector, where the feminine rate reached 37 percent in Lerma and 35.5 percent in San Mateo Atenco. The distribution of the employed population in the different forms of labor is another noteworthy aspect; in table 5 the distribution of the employed population in 2000 according to the situation in the job by activity sector can be seen.

4 Includes the employed in the different branches of commerce and services. 5 Includes the employed in the different branches of industry and construction.

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TABLE 4 POPULATION OF 12 YEARS OF AGE AND OLDER, EMPLOYED POPULATION AND PARTICIPATION RATES IN MZT, 1970-2000

1970 1990 Population Employed Rate of Population Employed Rate of of 12 y.o.a. populatio participatio of 12 y.o.a. populatio participatio Municipality and older n n and older n n

Almoloya de Juárez Total 28 547 12 158 42.6 54 647 21 831 40 Men 15 140 10 668 70.5 28 071 19 234 68.5 Women 13 407 1 490 11.1 26 576 2 597 9.8 Lerma Total 21 368 8 840 41.4 45 909 18 708 40.8 Men 10 685 7 530 70.5 22 671 14 857 65.5 Women 10 683 1 310 12.3 23 238 3 851 16.6 Metepec Total 19 293 7 701 39.9 98 292 43 117 43.9 Men 9 363 6 581 70.3 46 921 30 650 65.3 Women 9 930 1 120 11.3 51 371 12 467 24.3 San Mateo Atenco Total 10 463 4 339 41.5 27 840 11 570 41.6 Men 5 333 3 758 70.5 13 490 9 267 68.7 Women 5 130 581 11.3 14 350 2 303 16.0 Toluca Total 148 338 62 175 41.9 342 633 149 953 43.8 Men 71 014 46 879 66.0 163 013 107 275 65.8 Women 77 324 15 296 19.8 179 620 42 678 23.8 Zinacantepec Total 26 509 10 345 39.0 56 110 22 263 39.7 Men 13 643 8 918 65.4 27 682 18 179 65.7 Women 12 866 1 427 11.1 28 428 4 084 14.4 MZT Total 254 518 105 558 41.5 625 431 267 442 42.8 Men 125 178 84 334 67.4 301 848 199 462 66.1 Women 129 340 21 224 16.4 323 583 67 980 21.0 Source: IX, XI and XII General Censuses of Population. P.T.O.

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TABLE 4 POPULATION OF 12 YEARS OF AGE AND OLDER, EMPLOYED POPULATION AND PARTICIPATION RATES IN MZT, 1970-2000 (CONTINUATION)

2000 Population of 12 Employed Rate of Municipality y.o.a . and older population participation

Almoloya de Juárez Total 71 774 29392 40.1 Men 35 492 22790 64.2 Women 36 282 6602 18.2 Lerma Total 68 230 32449 47.6 Men 33 475 23551 70.4 Women 34 755 8898 25.6 Metepec Total 141 490 73905 52.2 Men 67 034 47282 70.5 Women 74 456 26623 35.8 San Mateo Atenco Total 40 782 20769 50.9 Men 19 789 14762 74.6 Women 20 993 6007 28.6 Toluca Total 467 568 237157 50.7 Men 220 896 156 128 70.7 Women 246 672 81 029 32.8 Zinacantepec Total 82 520 36 241 43.9 Men 40 390 26 861 66.5 Women 42 130 9 380 22.3 MZT Total 872 364 429 913 49.3 Men 417 076 291 374 69.9 Women 455 288 138 539 30.4 Source: IX, XI and XII General Censuses of Population.

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ZIN ACA NTEPE C TOLUCA 2000 1990 SAN MATEO ATEN CO GRAPH 6 C 1970 METEP E LERMA LMOLOYA J . A MASCULINE RATES OF ECONOMIC PARTICIPATION IN MZT 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 Porcentajes Percentage Source: IX, XI and XII General Censuses of Population.

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ZINA CAN TEPEC A TOLUC 2000 1990 GRAPH 7 ATENCO SAN MATEO MATEO SAN 1970 ME TEPEC LE RM A FEMININE RATES OF ECONOMIC PARTICIPATION IN MZT ALMOLOYA J . 0 5 Percentage 10 15 25 20 30 35 40 Source: IX, XI and XII General Censuses of Population.

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It is noticed that the largest proportion of feminine salaried work is to be found in the tertiary sector, save for the municipalities of Lerma and San Mateo, where it is evenly distributed between the secondary and tertiary sectors; self- employment is also relevant in MZT; once again, its growth is remarkable in the tertiary sector, particularly in the case of the feminine employed population. When analyzing the economic participation by ages (graphs 8 and 9) important changes along the life of women are observed. Thirty years ago, the traditional low feminine economic participation in the age group from 20 to 24 years of age was noticed. In the data corresponding to 1970 a significant fall in the group of women from 20 to 24 years of age who opted for maternity and the household definitively and a slight recovery after 35 years of age. The distribution by age of the feminine economic participation totally changes for the year 2000, when it is shown that the diminution in the level of participation has weakened (Almoloya de Juárez, Lerma, San Mateo and Zinacantepec) or disappeared (Toluca and Metepec). The highest rates of activity basically correspond to the stage of the women’s reproductive age; the age groups with the most participation in MZT are from twenty to forty-nine years of age. Likewise, the differences between neighboring municipalities during the period from 1970 to 2000; in the first place, it is relevant that in 1970 the levels of the rates of feminine participation of the municipality of Toluca amply surpassed the levels of participation in all of the other municipalities, when analyzing once the age variable, the difference is noticed in all of the quinquennial groups; besides, the age that registered a higher rate was the quinquennium between 20 and 24 years of age. Then, between 25 and 39 years of age, the economic participation fell to slightly recover in the next stage. This tendency, but with lower rates, was present by 1970 in Metepec and Zinacantepec, while in the rest of the municipalities (Almoloya de Juárez, Lerma and San Mateo Atenco) the greater economic participation occurred between 15 and 19 years and then it started to decrease. The panorama changed in a decisive manner by the year 2000; in all of the municipalities feminine economic activity increased, however the first place was held by Metepec, followed by Toluca. What is more, the exit of women to be mothers was not observed any longer; by and large, in MZT it is verified that in the 1990’s decade women entered the labor market disregarding their marital status or whether they had children.

207 January / March 2008 Papeles de POBLACIÓN No. 55 CIEAP/UAEM 4.67 4.67 5.08 0.94 5.37 0.37 4.67 16.38 73.87 37.38 56.31 15.54 79.42 P.T.O. 100.00 100.00 100.00 Women Total Men 2.71 7.65 3.50 2.57 4.07 21.95 47.47 27.86 54.93 33.92 37.73 55.63 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

4 0 2 6 4 4 8.74 7.3 0.23 0.47 49.3 34.6 21.8 38.8 39.07 10.0 57.38 32.11 100.00 100.00 100.00 Women

0 4 6 0 0 9 Men Men 5.48 3.2 Unspecified 26.93 27.15 21.3 24.58 38.33 27.8 28.33 29.13 43.78 23.8 100.0 100.00 100.0

0 9 9 2 0 7. 33 3. 67 7. 5 5. 50 3. 11 2. 17 39.36 39.36 49.63 13.0 73.8 11.77 82.95 100.0 100. 00 100.0 Women Women

0 0 3.74 7.12 0.42 1.36 3.09 Men Men 88.72 88.72 60.09 14.01 24.55 17.59 27.52 51.79 100.0 100.00 100.0 Unpaid Workers Workers Unpaid TABLE 5 9.04 1.40 1.25 0.63 0.49 0.92 15.50 74.06 14.72 83.41 11.36 87.23 100.00 100.00 100.00 Women 0. 64 0. 99 4. 65 1. 62 Men 43. 40 26. 46 29. 50 10. 94 38. 82 49. 25 27. 18 66. 55 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Self-employed** 0.73 0.73 4.18 0.52 4.28 0.23 4.44 17.83 77.27 45.53 49.68 16.84 78.48 100.00 100.00 100.00 Women Salaried* Men 8.09 2.29 4.61 3.11 1.64 4.18 59.61 30.01 62.48 29.80 41.40 52.77 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 EMPLOYED POPULATION BY ACTIVITY AND EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS, MZT, 2000

z etepec etepec uáre *Includes employees, workers and day-laborers pawns. **Inlcudes self-employed and employers. Source: XI General Census of Population and Housing. Municipality Municipality and activity de Almoloya J Primary Secondary Tertiary Unspecified Lerma Primary Secondary Tertiary Unspecified M Primary Secondary Tertiary Unspecified

208 Industrialization, demographic change and economic participation... /V. Sollova 0.25 0.25 4.08 0.61 4.96 2.00 5.68 35.45 60.22 18.74 75.69 18.12 74.20 100.00 100.00 100.00 Women Total Men 2.28 2.72 2.99 3.36 3.06 58.45 36.56 39.84 53.81 11.22 46.97 38.75 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

0 2 2 2 4 0 9 2 0.34 0.8 1.6 16.7 53.9 29.01 11.61 52.8 34.73 10.15 49.44 38.7 100.0 100.00 100.0 Women

0 0 Men Men 4.06 3.53 Unspecified 40.36 32.23 23.35 28.99 41.75 25.74 13.04 31.07 27.21 28.68 100.0 100.00 100.0 1. 08 1. 08 5. 67 2. 38 8. 45 1. 06 20.94 20.94 76.90 10.92 81.03 23.94 66.55 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 Women Women 2.99 2.02 4.75 0.17 Men Men 16.92 16.92 32.84 47.26 25.42 14.49 58.07 78.31 16.78 100.00 100.00 100.00 Unpaid workers workers Unpaid TABLE 5 0.65 0.93 0.75 0.90 3.69 0.74 12.95 85.46 11.25 87.10 12.81 82.76 (CONTINUATION) 100.00 100.00 100.00 Women 3. 08 0. 85 5. 06 1. 13 0. 51 Men 38. 88 57. 19 26. 38 67. 43 23. 26 27. 41 48. 82 100.00 100.00 100.00 Self-employed** 0.09 3.37 0.36 4.54 0.77 4.40 43.26 53.29 21.05 74.04 20.26 74.57 100.00 100.00 100.00 Women Salaried* Men 1.64 2.58 1.95 3.23 6.00 2.65 66.50 29.28 44.85 49.97 54.03 37.32 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 EMPLOYED POPULATION BY ACTIVITY AND EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS, MZT, 2000

y y y y inacantepec inacantepec Municipality Municipality activity and Mateo San Atenco Primary Secondary Tertiar Unspecifie Toluca Primar Secondary Tertiar Unspecified Z Primar Secondary Tertiary Unspecified *Includes employees, workers and day-laborers pawns. **Inlcudes self-employed and employers. Source: XI General Census of Population and Housing.

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Almoloya de J. de Almoloya Lerma Metepec San Mateo A. Toluca Zinacantepec 54 50 - 50 49 45 - 45 44 40 - GRAPH 8 39 35 - 35 34 30 - 29 25 - 25 24 20 - 20 19 15 - 15 FEMININE RATES OF ECONOMIC PARTICIPATION, MZT, 1970 0.00 5.00 Porcentajes 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 Percentage Source: IX General Census of Population.

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Al mol oya de J. Le rma Metepec San M A. ateo Toluca Zinacan tepec - 54 50 49 45 - 45 44 40 - 40 GRAPH 9 39 35 - 34 30 - - 29 25 24 20 - 19 15 - 15 FEMININE RATES OF ECONOMIC PARTICPATION, MZT, 2000 Percentage 5. 00 0.00 10 .00 20. 00 15.00 25.00 35. 00 30.00 40 .00 45.00 50.00 Porcentajes Source: XII General Census of Population.

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TABLE 6 EMPLOYED POPULATION BY ACTIVITY, MZT, 1990-2000 (PORCENTAGE)

Total Men Women

1990 Primary 8.27 10.75 1.06 Secondary 36.98 43.05 19.28 Tertiary 51.14 43.29 74.01 Unspecified 3.61 2.91 5.66 2000 Primary 4.00 5.50 0.86 Secondary 35.45 42.92 21.14 Tertiary 56.66 48.19 73.21 Unspecified 3.89 3.38 4.77 Source: XI and XII General Censuses of Population and Housing.

Petty differences might also be seen between the different municipalities which eventually express the combination of the socioeconomic changes in the first place altogether with the original productive specialization; for instance, the municipality of Almoloya de Juárez, with its agricultural vocation, poses characteristics utterly different form the other municipalities. In graphs 8 and 9, it is observed that whilst in 1970 the quinquennium from 20 to 24 years of age presented a slight diminution in the feminine activity; in 2000 it was the age group with the most participation. The comparison of the lines in the graph suggests that women now are devoted later in their lives to maternity, between 20 and 29 years of age. Moreover, in the 1970’s decade, when the primary sector was representative in the economy of the place, feminine participation in extradomestic activities was low yet similar in the different age groups and was lengthier; however for the year 2000 a noticeable exit after 40 years of age is observed. The municipality of San Mateo Atenco presents other relevant aspects, which are characterized by the industrial vocation of the municipality; in this place, women were traditionally devoted to commerce and with the advancement of the progress of industrialization also to the secondary. Whereas in 1970 there was an important fall in the feminine economic participation between 25 and 29

212 Industrialization, demographic change and economic participation... /V. Sollova years of age; in 2000, the group with the highest participation is that from 20 to 24 years of age and the diminution is registered after 30 years of age. Nonetheless, at the age of 40 a significant recovery can be observed, which suggested participation in self-employment. Finally, feminine participation grew in MZT during the 30-year lapse from 1970 to 2000, yet the upturn in the municipality of Metepec is humungous and reflects the size of the socioeconomic transformations experienced by the population of the municipality. Between the most important turns the sectorial change of the economy of the place may be mentioned, when the agricultural and artisanal production was largely replaced by tertiary activities (1970-1980). The effects of the economic evolution are observable in the changes of the occupational structure, taking into account the significant differences of the employment by age and gender, and distinguishing the increment of the feminine participation which was concentrated in the services branch.

Conclusions

This document attempted to outline the sectorial transformations of the workforce, particularly the feminine one, whose characteristics present a faithful testimonial of the changes that have occurred during the last thirty years in the Metropolitan Zone of Toluca. It was observed that the process of industrialization leaped towards the salarization of the employed population, which at the time was hindered in the 1990’s decade, because of the application of policies of economic restructuration. In reality, all of the changes were very fast; the population was not accustomed to the new urban-industrial regime yet and it already had to deal with the harsh consequences of the economic crises and the new labor conditions, result from the restructuration. On the one side, work became ever scarcer and of bad quality, and on the other, the generations that compete for a job are the most numerous because of the changes in the population structure in the region that reflects the aging process. On their own, economic and demographic have produced new conditions for the participation of women in the labor market; work for the market is now for women an activity necessary for the wellbeing and education of their descendants and for the support of the household in general. Thereby young women do not leave their extradomestic jobs while they bring up their children, as they traditionally did; on the contrary, they try to remain in the workforce as long as possible.

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