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A Quest for Equity in Language: Educating Maya-American Children by Adela Berry Holder

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A Quest for Equity in Language: Educating Maya-American Children by Adela Berry Holder A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Approved November 2017 by the Graduate Supervisory Committee: Elly Van Gelderen, Chair Sandra Rodríguez Manuel de Jesús Hernández-G. ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY December 2017 ABSTRACT This research is a study of the relationship between language acquisition and the status of equity. The history of the Maya people in Guatemala gives strong evidence that their failure to acquire competence in Spanish, which is the national language of their nation, has resulted in their failure to compete in the social, economic, and political components of their society. It also shows that they have failed to maintain their competence in Mayan, their own language, as a result of mistreatment from their conquerors who have shown a determination to eliminate their use of Mayan. Many Maya have left Guatemala and entered the United States in hope of finding the status of equity which has evaded them for hundreds of years. The key to overcoming their poverty and loss of civil rights can be found in the US through compensatory programs offering them the opportunity of competency in English along with the opportunity to maintain their Mayan language. The US legal system guarantees equal rights for a quality educations for students who are learning English. This study offers some suggestions for integrating the Guatemalan Maya into mainstream activities of the economy and social life of this country. It offers the idea of sustaining and increasing their competency in Mayan as a long-range possibility. The status of equity is available for the children of the Guatemalan refugees who enter the United States as they exercise their rights to a quality education. i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I will always have a feeling of gratitude for those who have assisted me along the way toward completion of this dissertation. My committee chairman, Elly van Gelderen was always there to keep me moving and providing me with instant feedback as I submitted my work. Sandra Rodríquez has always been an inspiration to me and encouraged me to be myself as I wrote. Lastly, Manuel de Jesús Hernández-G gave me ideas for material for the project including leading me to a community leader who is Maya and who assisted me in making contact with the Guatemalan Consulate. When I started the program, I was fortunate to have excellent professors who were always willing to assist me as I gained confidence. These professors are Matthew Prior, Karen Adams, and Doris Warriner. I also wish to thank Nimmo Bonanni, and the employees at the ASU libraries. They were always courteous and went out of their way to assist me as I conducted research. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………….………………...x CHAPTER INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................1 1 THE HISTORY OF THE MAYA LANGUAGE..................................................14 1.1 Early Mayan Language Development.............................................................15 1.2 Dissection of the Mayan Language..................................................................17 1.3 Mayan Language Families...............................................................................19 1.4 Characteristics of the Language.......................................................................21 1.5 Evolution of the Mayan Language...................................................................23 1.6 Maya Historical Periods...................................................................................27 1.6.1 Proto Mayan Period..........................................................................27 1.6.2 Pre-classic Period..............................................................................28 1.6.3 The Classic Period............................................................................31 1.6.4 Post Classic Period............................................................................35 1.6.5 The Colonial Period..........................................................................35 1.6.6 Modern Age......................................................................................37 iii CHAPTER Page 1.6.7 The Future.........................................................................................38 1.7 Maya Social Class Pyramid.............................................................................39 2 GUATEMALAN BILINGUAL EDUCATION AND MIGRATION...................42 2.1 Guatemala Becomes a Nation..........................................................................43 2.2 Guatemalan Leadership and Policy.................................................................44 2.2.1 Guatemalan Leadership (1823-1892)...............................................44 2.2.2 Guatemalan Leadership (1892-1950)...............................................45 2.2.3 Guatemalan Leadership (1950-1995)...............................................48 2.2.4 Guatemalan Leadership (1996- present).........................................52 2.3 Spanish/Mayan Bilingual Language Development in Guatemala...................55 2.3.1 Early Efforts to Establish Bilingual Education.................................55 2.3.2 First Bilingual Program Established.................................................58 2.3.3 Bilingualism Recognized..................................................................63 2.4 Evaluation of the Guatemalan Education Efforts............................................64 2.4.1 Comparison of Guatemalan Standards to US Standards...................65 2.4.2 Avivara Report-Status of Guatemalan Education.............................67 2.4.3 Study of Parent Support of Education in Guatemala........................73 iv CHAPTER Page 2.5 Migration..........................................................................................................77 2.5.1 Migration to the United States Begins..............................................78 2.5.2 Recent Migration Patterns to US......................................................79 2.5.3 Characteristics of Guatemalan Immigrants Entering the US............81 2.5.4 Earnings and Spending.....................................................................81 2.5.5 Individual and Family Characteristics..............................................82 2.5.6 Value of Guatemalan Immigrants.....................................................89 2.5.7 Conclusion........................................................................................90 3 LEGAL RIGHT TO EQUITY...............................................................................92 3.1 The United States Constitution and Equity......................................................92 3.1.1 The Separate but Equal Doctrine......................................................96 3.1.2 Civil Rights of Mexican-Americans denied.....................................99 3.1.3 Equal Means Equal.........................................................................101 3.1.4 Segregation is not Equality.............................................................104 3.2 Resistance to Brown vs. Board of Education.................................................108 3.3 Quality of US Schools Questioned................................................................114 3.4 Civil Rights Legislation.................................................................................115 3.5 Mexican Americans Seek Equity in Education.............................................119 3.5.1 Texas Reacts to Needs of Hispanic Students..................................121 v CHAPTER Page 3.5.2 The US Department of Justice reacts to Hispanic Education Needs............................................................................................122 3.6 English Language Learning required.............................................................125 3.7 The Revolt against Bilingual Education........................................................130 3.8 Bilingual Education is here to Stay................................................................138 4 IDENTIFICATION OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS TO SERVE MAYA STUDENTS.........................................................................................................140 4.1 Language as a Problem, Right or Resource...................................................141 4.2 Need for Bilingual Education and its Benefits..............................................143 4.3 Building Programs for Bilingual Students.....................................................146 4.4 Elements of Successful Programs..................................................................147 4.5 Why Bilingual Programs Fail........................................................................150 4.6 Bilingual Education Works............................................................................151 4.6.1 Thomas and Collier Research.........................................................152 4.6.2 Summary of Thomas and Collier Results.......................................157 4.7 Bilingual Program Models.............................................................................158 4.8 Program Design.............................................................................................160 4.9 Four Types of Bilingual Programs.................................................................163 vi CHAPTER
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