The Effectiveness and Rural Water Supply Proje a Thesis Submitted To

The Effectiveness and Sustainability of donor assisted rural water supply projects: Acase studyof Awi zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia

By: BISHAW ANAGAW

A thesis submitted to Arba minch university in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science in Hydraulic and Hydropower Engineering

Advisor: Dr. BOGALE GEBREMARIAM

Arba Minch University May, 2015 School of Graduate Studies

CERTIFICATION

I, the undersigned, certify that I have read and here by recommended for the acceptance by the Arba Minch University a thesis entitled; The Effectiveness and sustainability of donor assisted rural water supply projects: Case study of Awi zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia in partial fulfillment for requirement of degree of Master of Science in Hydraulic and Hydropower Engineering.

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Dr. Bogale Gebremariam

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis work and have not been presented and will not be presented for any degree in any university

Bishaw Anagaw

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APPROVAL PAGE

This thesis entitled “The Effectiveness and Sustainability of donor assisted rural water supply projects: A case study of Awi zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia”has been approved by the following examiner, chairman, and department head for degree of Master Science in Hydraulic and Hydropower Engineering at Arba minch University

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT First of all, I give thanks to the glorified GOD, who has created me and provided HIS good wills in all my activities and St. Mary for HER intercession . Secondly, I send my heartfelt thanks to my Mother Guday Tamir and My father Anagaw Endalew who have contributed the lions share in the success of my life yet.

I am very grateful to my adviser Dr. Bogale GebereMariam and express my heart-felt appreciation for his unreserved support in guiding me through this research from its start to the end with limitless help in giving valuable advice, and constructive comments.

My kind thanks goes to my sister Shashe Anagaw and Her husband Mr. Yeshiwas Alamirew from Canada and my brothers Abiot Anagaw and Messeret Anagaw for their support in every way to complete my study. I would also like to thank my best friends and colleagues Mr. Bekele Melkamu and Mr. Tadsual Wuletaw for encouraging during my office and research work simultaneously.

Special thanks to all staffs in Awi zone water resources development main department, Ankesha and Banja woreda water resources development offices. Lastly, my thankfulness goes to many institutions, individuals and all friends who have helped me in providing required data on the subject matter of the research work and in encouraging my effort in many aspects ofstudy.

ABSTRACT Worldwide, rural populations are far less likely to have access to clean drinking water than are urban ones. In many developing countries like Ethiopia, the current approach to rural water supply used of supply-driven, instead of demand. The main objective of this study is to identify main factors that contributed to problems of effectiveness and sustainability of donor assisted rural water supply projects in Awi zone Amhara region. The study was carriedout in two sample woredas; Ankesha and Banja woredas of the study area. 17sample rural water supply .projects were taken for the study. The three types of water supply technologies studied in the thesis were hand dug wells, developed springs, and shallow wells. The field investigation on site, interview, questionnaire and discussion with officials, water committees and beneficiaries weremethods of primary data collection. The data from questionnaire was analyzed by SPSS 20. From detail field investigation technical existing situations, problems, remedial solutions were examined. Among the numerous factors that contributed to the poor performance of the schemes, the two key reasons are technical and management (social) factors. Poor facilities design, poor construction, and lack of provision for system management, operation and maintenance, limited policy implementation, lack of capacity to keep the system running after project completion, poor cooperation between the water agent and users, lack of involvement of the community in the planning and construction process had also compounded the problems. The recommendation focuses on need for proper construction quality, and routine O&M program, importance of cooperation between water resource, donors, water committees and beneficiaries. Community involvement in maintenance ensures project sustainability.

Key words: effectiveness, sustainability, Awi zone, donor, rural water supply

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ...... IV ABSTRACT ...... V LIST OF FIGURES ...... VIII LIST OF TABLES ...... VIII 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 General ...... 1 1.2 Statement of the problem ...... 3 1.3 Objective of the study ...... 4 1.4 Significance of the Study ...... 4 1.5 Scope of the study ...... 4 2 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA ...... 5 2.1 General ...... 5 2.1.1 Geographical location and Demography ...... 5 2.2 Schemes ...... 6 3 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 8 3.1 Project effectiveness ...... 8 3.2 Project sustainability ...... 8 3.3 Determinants of sustainability ...... 9 3.3.1 Pre Project Factors ...... 10 3.3.2 Post Project Factors ...... 12 3.4 Technical aspects of rural water supply ...... 13 3.4.1 IndicatorsoftechnicalsustainabilityforWaterSupply Schemes ...... 14 3.5 Over view of Rural Water Supply Systems ...... 17 3.6 Standard design parameters of rural water supply Schemes...... 18 3.6.1 Spring ...... 18 3.6.2 Hand dugwell ...... 26 3.7 Previous studies in the study area ...... 33 4. MATERIALS AND METHODS ...... 34 4.1 Data collection ...... 34 4.2 Research design and sampling procedures ...... 35 4.3 Data Analysis ...... 36 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ...... 37

5.1 General ...... 37 5.2 OverviewofschemesinthestudyWoredas ...... 37 5.3 Spring development ...... 39 5.3.1 Chaba ...... 39 5.3.2 Akyta ...... 41 5.3.3 Gashena...... 43 5.3.4 Bida School ...... 44 5.3.5 Dekuna ...... 46 5.3.6 Berie ...... 47 5.3.7 Azemach ...... 49 5.3.8 Yardesta ...... 50 5.4 Hand dug well ...... 52 5.4.1 Tsatsafi ...... 52 5.4.2 Chewssa ...... 55 5.4.3 Erob Gebya ...... 57 5.4.4 Awosa 01 ...... 58 5.4.5 Awosa 02 ...... 59 5.4.6 Yimali ...... 62 5.4.7 Gurji ...... 63 5.5 Shallow wells ...... 65 5.5.1 Zufari ...... 66 5.5.2 Azena town ...... 66 5.6 . Technical effectiveness and sustainability evaluation ...... 69 5.6.1 Schemes physical status ...... 69 5.6.2 Functioning ...... 70 5.7 Common technical problems of schemes in sample Woredas ...... 71 5.7.1 Hand dug wells ...... 71 5.7.2. Developed springs ...... 71 5.7.3 Shallow wells ...... 72 5.8 Socio economic characteristics of the respondents ...... 73 5.8.1 Pre project factors ...... 75 5.8.2 Post project factors ...... 77 6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ...... 80

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6.1 Conclusion ...... 80 6.2 Recommendations ...... 81 REFERENCES ...... 83

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Map of the study area ...... 7 Figure 2 spring box with single pervious side for hillside collection ...... 21 Figure 3 spring box with permeable bottom for collecting spring water flowing from an opening on level ground ...... 22 Figure 4 Dimensional plans of pervious side spring box and pervious bottom spring box ...... 23 Figure 5 Diagram of Hand Dug Well ...... 27 Figure 6 Unprotected sources of water for different domestic uses in the study area. 70 Figure 7 Community share for project initiation, site selection and technology selection for functional schemes ...... 76 Figure 8 Community share for project initiation, site selection and technology selection for nonfunctional schemes ...... 76 Figure 9 Response distribution of respondents on sources of money for O & M of the schemes ...... 78

LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Information on types of pumps (water aids) ...... 31

Table 2 Study sample schemes ...... 35

Table 3 Physical status of schemes ...... 69

Table 4 Respondents demographic characteristics ...... 73

Table 5 Technology types of water points studied ...... 74

Table 6 Response of respondents in percentages to water fee perception and payments

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LIST OF ACRONYMS

AZWRDD Awi Zone Water Resource Development

BoWRD Amhara Region Bureau of Water Resources Development

CMPsCommunity managed projects

CSA Central statistics Authority

DFID Department for international development

FWSPs Functional water supply projects

GTP Growth and Transformation Plan

LPCD Liters per capita per day

MDG Millennium Development Goals

MoWIEMinistry of Water, Irrigation and Energy

MoWR Ministry of Water Resource

NFWSPs Nonfunctional water supply projects

NGO None Governmental Organization

O&M Operation and Maintenance

RWSS Rural water supply and sanitations

SPSSStatistical package for social science

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund

VLOM Village Level Operation and Maintenance

WHO World Health Organization

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 General Water evidently plays a very important role in the development of rural and urban areas. Whatever the living standards may be, supply of safe and adequate water supply dose not only reduce the numerous diseases caused and transmitted by polluted water but is very often the first step towards other development activities.More than 700 million people still lack ready access to improved sources of drinking water nearly half are in sub Saharan Africa. This figure and realities demand that break the silence and expand awareness of what needs to be done. Thechallengeofwaterforallisonethathas takenonrenewedinterestthroughthedeclarationoftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(M DG),whichhas,thespecifictarget,ofreducingbyhalftheproportionofpeoplewithout sustainableaccesstosafedrinkingwaterby2015(WHO/UNICEF, 2014)

About 84% of Ethiopian populations live in rural areas. For sizable proportion of the rural population, the major sources of drinking water are unprotected springs, ponds, rivers, and hand dug wells which are exposed to contamination caused by human beings, livestock, wildlife and uncontrolled flooding. The safety and quality of drinking water is further in jeopardy as the culture of open defecation has been socially accepted and widely practiced in most of the rural settings and partly in urban areas as well. As a result, the prevalence of water borne diseases has increased at alarming rate. Rural safe drinking water supply provision has commenced in Ethiopia during the late 1950s. Since then, efforts have been made to provide safe drinking water for rural areas although there was more focus on urban water supply before two decades. This condition coupled with other factors, has contributed a lot for the low level of safe drinking water supply provisions of the country until quite recently. Access to safe drinking water has been improved from 19% in 1990 to 78.5% by 2013(MoWIE, 2013)

Ethiopian government in collaboration with donors, NGOs, etc. has the target to provide safe potable water for rural communities. Every year billions of dollars is invested for construction of new projects. But the effectiveness and sustainability of the projects have not given due consideration. Many rural water supply projects have been characterized by poor performance.

AmhararegionalstateisfoundinthehighlandofEthiopiaanditisoneofthelargest regions,initsareacoverageandpopulationsize,inthecountry.Theregionhastenzones and140Woredas.About90%ofthepopulationofAmhararegionalstateisestimatedto beruraldwellers.AccordingtothecentralstatisticalAuthority(CSA),2013estimates ruralpopulationoftheregionwas20,925,000.Theruralpopulationaccesstosafewateris verypoor; it is around 52%(MoWIE, 2013)

Intheregion,thereare6231functional,1737non-functionalandtheremaining212under constructionwatersupplyschemesinruralareasoftheregion.Functionalschemes constitute76.2%ofthetotalwatersupplyschemesavailableinruralareasoftheregion.Non- functionalschemesare21.2%ofthetotalnumberofschemes.Andtheremainingis underconstruction.Itcanbeseenthatmorethan21.2%ofthetotalschemesarenon– functionalat any one time (BoWRD, 2011)

Awi zone is one of ten zonal administrative of Amhara national regional state comprising 8 rural woredas and 3 towns administrative. All most all rural water supply projects have been developing with financial aid of donors and their respective rules and regulation. The numbers of nonfunctional projects are significant and required further detail study for remedial solution both pre and post project implementations.(AZWRDD, 2014)

Thisisaseriousissuetobetakenintoconsiderationforincreasingthewatersupply coverageoftheregion.Increasingtheruralwatersupplycoverageisdirectlyrelatedto thefunctionalityandnon- functionalityofthewatersupplyschemes.HalfoftheBoreHolesandHanddugwellsarenotfu nctionalintheregionwhichimpliesthatmuchwork

shouldbedonetoincreasethecapacitiesofeachcommunityonoperationand maintenance.(BoWRD, 2011).Field detail investigation on sites, questionnaires, interviews anddiscussions with beneficiaries, water committees and woreda water resources development officials is the sources of primary data. The data gained from questionnaire were analyzed by SPSS model and secondary data from concerned offices used to analyze the existing situation.

Investigating the effectiveness and sustainability of rural water supply projects can be guide line for further project development both for donors and the government. Over view of previous experiences should also be taken in to account for new projects to avoid repetition of problems. In this context great attention is paid for identifying the factors that contributes for effectiveness and sustainability of project. Then this study is centered on evaluating and identifying the major effectiveness and sustainability problems of donor assisted rural water supply projects to reduce non functionality. This is helpful for undertaking proper measurements before, during and after project implementation.The study mainly focused on effectiveness and sustainability problem identification of donor –assisted rural water supply projects in Awi zone particularly in Ankesha and Banja sample woredas.

1.2 Statement of the problem In Ethiopia national and regional governments, donors, local and international NGOs and other concerned organizations invest large sums every year for the implementation of rural water supply projects. However, construction of water projects does not help if they fail after a short time. In order to make the investment in water supplies more effective, failure rates of these systems should be reduced. Effectiveness and sustainability problem became challenges for project success of design period (Tadesse, 2013). The main issues that lead to initiation of this research are factors such as community participation during planning and design, scheme type selection, project management and donors affect the effectiveness and sustainability of most donor assisted rural water supply projects; these are not studied in-depth in the Awi zone.

1.3 Objective of the study The main objective of the research is to investigate the causes of donor assisted rural water supply service non functionality within specified project life and remark remedial solutions. More specifically, this study addressed the following issues:

1. To evaluate the current overall performance of rural water supply projects 2. To identify the main factors for effectiveness and sustainability problems 3. To propose recommended solution for better effectiveness and sustainability of donor-assisted projects

1.4 Significance of the Study The study is important in identifying and understanding reasons for failure operation of projects below the expectation after donor support. The knowledge could therefore provide important information that can be integrated to project cycle before or towards completion by donors, government, private and non-governmental organizations.

1.5 Scope of the study The focus of this study is on water supply projects constructed in rural part of Awi zone. It has a primary focus on donor assisted rural water supply projects. It doesn’t focus on sanitation aspects.

2 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

2.1 General Ethiopia is the most populous land locked nation in the world located in the horn of Africa covering an area of 1.1 million km2. It is one of the poorest countries in the world with population of 90 million (CSA, 2014) making the second most populous in Africa. The nation’s economy is mainly dependent on rain fed agriculture. The country consists of nine regional states and 2 special city administrations. Amhara national regional state is one of the regions with the population of about 21 million.The region comprises 3 major river basins mainly Abay basin. Amhara region is also divided in to 10 zones of which Awi isone of 10 zones of Amhara regional national state.

2.1.1 Geographical location and Demography

The Awi zone is located in Amhara national regional state bordered by West Gojjam zone in east, North Gonder zone in north, Benishangul Gumuz regional state in west and Oromia regional state in southern. The zonal administrative capital, Injibara is found at about 112 km from regional capital Bahir dar and 452km North West of Addis Ababa. Awi zone is at an elevation range of 800-3100 meters above mean sea level. The area ranges from moist dega to kola agro climatic conditions. The map of study area is indicated in figure 1 below (AZWRDD, 2014)

The population of Awi zone is about 1, 176,657 of which 90% are rural dwellers, and is growing at an estimated annual growth rate of over 1.98% (CSA, 2014) .The scattered settlements and freely expansion are characteristics of the area. This has burdened and already inadequate infrastructure and caused social and economic problems associated with insufficient water supply. Deficiencies in water supply services have resulted in social unrest.

Banaja woreda is one of 8 rural woredas of Awi zone. It was named after significant mountain in the woreda mount Banja and it is bordered on the south by Ankesha

woreda, on the west by Guangua,woreda on the north by Fagita woreda and on the west by the West Gojjam zone. Water bodies including Zengena Crater Lake, Zingini River, Ayu River, Gilgel Abay River are flowing throughout the year. Based on figures published by CSA in 2014 this woreda has an estimated population of 91,318 of whom 46, 304 are women. Awigi (Agaw) and Amharic languages are spoken in the woreda. The majority of inhabitants practiced Ethiopian orthodox Christianity with 99.87%. According to Banja woreda report document of 2014 the actual and access coverage of Banja woreda is 116.2 % and 72% respectively.

Ankesha woreda is one of 8 rural woredas of Awi zone. It is bordered on the south by West gojjam,zone on the west by Guangua woreda, on the north by Banja woreda and on the west by the Guagussa shikudad woreda. Water bodies including Tirba Crater Lake, Kulanti River, Ayu River, Dandini River are flowing throughout the year. Based on figures published by CSA in 2014 this woreda has an estimated population of 93,709 of whom 47, 581 are women. Awigi (Agaw) and Amharic languages are spoken in the woreda. The majority of inhabitants practiced Ethiopian orthodox Christianity with 97.74%. According to Ankesha woreda water resources development office report document of 2014 the actual and access coverage of the woreda is 90 % and 71% respectively.

2.2 Schemes In rural areas of Awi zone water supply is provided with different methods depending on the water available, type of source, etc. Almost all schemes have been developed with financial support of donors, such as government of Finland named as CMP, World Bank, African development bank, millennium development goals support. In the area there are about 2643 hand dug wells, 508 developed springs, 601 rope pumps, 176 shallow wells. Unprotected sources of water are also used commonly for water supply for drinking, animals and other domestic purposes.

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Legend

Ankasha woreda Amhara region Ethio_Region Banja woreda

awi zone 0 75 150 300 450 600 Kilometers

Figure 1 Map of the study area

3 LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 Project effectiveness Effectiveness is, if the water service provides the intended population with the quantity and quality of water specified by their needs and the capability of the management organization is matched to the size and complexity of the system. The specific ways in which project effectiveness may be measured for the case study by comparing time spent hauling water before and after the infrastructure improvements and by the degree reduction in water rationing during the dry season (November – April). Some of variables influencing effectiveness are frequency of breakdowns in the system, time taken to repair the breakdown, seasonal variation in water supply, users’ satisfaction with water pressure and user’s perception on quality of water supplied.

3.2 Project sustainability Sustainability can be defined as meeting the need of present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirown needs (Jonathan Hodgkin, 1994). The concept of sustainability is used in many contexts and with widely different meanings. Some popular applications of concept of sustainability are global sustainability, environmental sustainability, sustainable agriculture, economic sustainability, sustainable development, and sustainable benefits, Sustainability of water supply and sanitation projects Mihelcic et al. (2003) highlighted that sustainable development refers to the design of human and industrial systems to ensure that humankind’s use of natural resources and cycles do not lead to diminished quality of life due either to losses in future economic opportunities or to adverse impacts on social conditions, human health, and the environment.

Here the definition of water supply system sustainability is as follows: In water sector, a sustainable system is one, which is based on affordable, appropriate technology, and continues to deliver a high level of water related benefits after completion of the project(Travis, 2003).The water supply continues to be available for the period for which it was designed in the same quantity and at the same quality as it was designed,

the scheme is said to be sustainable and all of them any elements that are required for sustainability must have been in place(IRC C. , 1991).Projects follow a regular cycle of activities: planning and design, start up, implementation, phase out, and finally, project completion.

In the case of donor assistance rural water supply project, the cession of donor assistance is the milestone defining pre and post project boundaries.In a WASH Technical Report, the Sustainability of Donor-AssistedRural Water Supply Projects definedsustainability as the ability of a development project to maintain or expand a flow of benefits at a specified level for a long period after project inputs have ceased. (Hodgkin, 1994)

3.3 Determinants of sustainability The determinant factors for the sustainability of rural water supply systems are categorized into two main categories. These are pre implementation factors and post implementation factors. Community participation, technology selection, site selection, demand responsiveness, construction quality, population and training are some of the pre-implementation factors. And post-implementation factors are technical support, community satisfaction, institutional and financial management, training and willingness to sustain the water project.(Travis, 2003)

A number of studies have identified various determinants of sustainability of rural water supply system. However, some of the most common determinant factors are: technical factors including design, performance and maintenance issues, Community andsocial factors including willingness to support projects, Institutional factors, including policy and external follow-up support, Environmental factors, including the sustainabilityof the water source, Financial factors, including the ability to cover recurrent costs, and health factors, including the need to continue the provisionof hygiene, Education to affect long-termbehaviorchanges.

3.3.1 Pre Project Factors

Before a project is going to be decided for implementation, there are some steps to be completedby the planners and project coordinators. The pre-implementation factors are related to project rules that are essential elements of project design. Theyare essentialbecause they provide incentives for communities to express and act on their demand for the services provided. Some of the main elements of pre-implementation factors are described asfollows.

Demand responsive approach Demand responsive approach focuses to a great extent on demand and sustainability.The approach underlines the fact that there must be a balance between the economicvalueof water to users, the cost of providing services and the prices changed for theseservices; and WSSs should be managed by the community themselves forsustainability. Inidentifying safe drinking water supply projects, user groups shouldfeelthe need for safe drinking water supply then logic here is, that if there is realdemand for water supply from the community then that indicates that water,tousers,has an economic value; or if water is a felt need of the community, then this is anindication of willingness to share and recover costs of a system to be developed.

The principles of demand-responsiveness of RWSSs state that water is an economic,as well as a social good and should be managed accordingly, and water should be managed at the lowest appropriate level with users themselves involved in the planning and implementation of projects.DFID(Department for International Development). In fact that there is a real demand for supply of water will facilitate the management of the water supply schemes by the users themselves, which in turn enhances sustainability(IRC C. , 1991)reported that a project is more or less demand- responsive to the degree that users make choices and commit resources in support of their choices. In other words, it requires community members make informed choices whether to participate in the project, technology and service level options based on willingness to pay, when and how their services are delivered, how funds would be

managed and accounted for, and how their services are operated and maintained.

3.3.1.1 Types of Technology In order for rural water supplyto be sustainable, appropriatetechnology must be used. Where the technology deployed is remote from the users’ capacity to maintain, operate or pay for it, prospects of sustainability of services are equally remote. Therefore, it is experience with a number of projects that can ultimately lead to a better choice of technology.

According to the World Bank, Village Level Operation and Maintenance (VLOM) type pumpscan be repaired and maintained easily by village level caretakers requiring minimal skills and few tools. Spare parts are easily available in markets and are cost effective. Skinner in Harold indicated that technology type,operating and maintenance,capacityandacceptance of rural people and spare part accessibility issuesareof importance for sustainability of the services given.

3.3.1.2 Water resource and baseline survey Accordingto the External Support Agency, conducting a baseline water resource survey is of paramount importance. Inputsofexperienced personnel in hydrogeology, geophysics, engineering, development planning and sociology are vital in the course ofwater resource potential assessment for domestic use, well site selection, and depth to groundwater establishment and choice of the right hand pump option. If assessments such as groundwater resource potential and depth to groundwater are not well identified, the result would most likely be dry wells and, therefore, unsustainable schemes(Alemneh, 2002).

3.3.1.3 Raising Awareness and Training to Community and ManagementBodies Raising awareness and providing training to water management bodies (water committee) could be important to equip users with the right knowledge in managing their scheme and responds to system failure. Moreover,by creating awareness and training the potential benefits of clean water could be promoted to the community.The community will then be willing to take responsibility for handling operation and maintenance issues which will create a sustainable system. Therefore,education

aboutthe linkages between unsafe water, inadequate excreta disposal, and disease shouldbeintegrated to water supply schemes of rural communities(Teka, 1977)

3.3.2 Post Project Factors

Post implementation factors are those factors that affect the functionality of RWSSafter the system is developed. In this regard, we can identify two broad sets ofissues,which can lead to problems for community-managed after projects have been implemented. The first sets of issues are within the community including community dynamics, political or social conflict, and lack of cohesion, lack of capacity (technical, managerial,etc.) and lack of financial resources. The second setsare thoseconstraints that are external to the community like lack of spare parts supply,lack ofsupportive policiesand legislation, and lack of long-term support to help communities through major repairs. Ofcourse, in some instances there is a direct relationship between factors that are within the control of the community and those that are external. Some of the critical factors that affect RWSS identified by different literatures were presentedbelow.

3.3.2.1 CostSharingandCostRecovery The issues of cost sharing and cost recovery are crucial in the process of enabling the community to manage their systems after completion. It must, however, be clear that doesnot imply total financial responsibility of the community. It does mean that some contribution from users is needed to establish commitment, which through time should increasetoreach the intended levelof making the developed systems sustainable(Alemneh, 2002).The provision of an improved water supply is neither cost free nor sustainable unless the costs are recovered. These costs comprise operation costs, repair and maintenance costs and replacement and/or rehabilitation costs.WorldBank evaluation report states that sustainability can only be ensured if tariffs generateenoughresources to operate the system, finance the expansion of the service tonewcustomers and ultimately replace the infrastructure after its useful life (IRC P. , 1999).

Thesuccess of cost recovery efforts, as a key post-project determinant of sustainability, will be influenced by the extent to which individuals and committees are supported, re-trained, and guided in relation to tariff structures and broader

financial management. If such (external) guidance is absent, then it is likely that the success of cost recovery efforts will slowly diminish over time (Misgina, 2006).

3.3.2.2 Availability of Spare Parts The availability of spare parts is a critical factor to keep the system infrastructure working properly.An adequate supply of spare parts and maintenance tools isobviouslyof primary importance to long-term sustainability. Supply chains are now recognized as one of the key determinants of sustainabilityespecially where the technology provided is imported, which has often been the casewithlarge-scale hand pump programs in Africa, for example. The majority of recentWorldBank proposal documents focus attention on the creation and support of sparepart outlet chains, normally based on private sector providers, precisely to fill thisperceived weakness. Linked to the issue of spare parts, is thequestion of sectorstandardization,which is part of the broader policy environment. In general, understanding and measuring sustainability is difficult. How differentresearchershavetried to develop a conceptual framework to capture the inter linkageof different factors that affect sustainability of RWSS. Onespecific conceptualframework developed(Carter, 1999).

3.4 Technical aspects of rural water supply Thetechnicalaspectsarethoserelatedtotheplanning,design,construction,operation, andmaintenanceofruralwatersupplysystem.Thisisthemostdeterminantofwater supply sustainability.

Technical sustainability Aspects

Technicalissuesrelatingtothedesignandconstructionofruralwatersystemarethe mostobviousdeterminantsofwatersystemsustainability.Poorconstructionqualityor useoflow-gradematerialsmayleadtothefailureofthewatersystembeforetheend ofthedesignlife. Similarly,designmistakeof schemes,andoverestimatesofthewater sources may cause a system to fail from the outset.

Technical sustainability evaluation

Ingeneral,thetechnicalissuesrelatingtothedesign,construction,operation,and maintenanceofruralwatersupplysystemarethemostdeterminantofwatersupply sustainability.Becausewatersystemsustainabilitydependsonanumberoffactors, which vary between community and type of scheme, there for measuring sustainabilityisadifficulttask.Thisstudybasesitsanalysisonindicatorsthat

measuresthetechnicalaspect.Themainaimoftechnicalevaluationistoinvestigate theextentandcauseof breakdown of the village water supply and to look for remedial measures.Thecausemightbeduetopoordesign,construction,operationand maintenanceorallofthem.

Sustainabilityisthecapacityofprojecttocontinueto deliver its intended benefits overthe design period (Issayas, 1998).

3.4.1IndicatorsoftechnicalsustainabilityforWaterSupply Schemes

The status of the schemes has been designated based on their current working condition, the type and extent of failure/damage & the possibility of reinstatement repair and maintenance requirement for future utilization. Accordingly, the following terms were used to designate the status of the schemes.

I. Functional schemes (F): are schemes, which are in good working condition, and all their components are functional.

II. Partially functional schemes (PF): are schemes, which are in working condition, but some of its components are defective that require repair and maintenance. Schemes included in this group are; a. Springs with defective faucets or water that leak partially through the base of the intake or collection chamber; water that leaks through the pipe line or fittings; etc. b. Some hand dug wells or springs that are reported to be seasonal. c. Cracked manhole covers or cover slab that allows dirt into the well; Hand pumps with broken base plate or wearing parts. Thefunctionofawatersupplysystemistoprovidewaterfromasource,treatthe watertomakeitsuitableforitsintendeduse,anddeliverthewatertotheuseratthe timeandinthequantitydesired.Sincesuchfactorsastheyieldandqualityofraw watersources;topography,geology,andpopulationdensityofserviceareas;and intendedusesofwatermayvary,itisobviousthatnotallwatersystemswillbealike((Selam, 2007)

Nevertheless,therearecertaingeneralconsiderationsthatdesignersofvirtuallyall watersystemsmusttakeintoaccount.Withtheaboveunderstanding,theoverall technicalsustainabilityoftheProjectcanbequalitativelymeasuredbyfunctioning,

utilizationandoverallperformanceofsystems. Functioning and utilizationofschemes are most critical in assessing the scheme conditions(Issayas, 1998).

3.4.1.1 Functioning Functioningimpliesthesystemsupplyenoughwatertomeetatleastthebasicneedsof allhouseholdsinthedefinedprojectareas,andthatthiswaterisconsistently acceptable.Italsomeansthatthesystemareexpandedintimetocopewithpopulation growth.Inaddition,increasedwateruse,andthatenoughfundcontinuetobeavailable tomaintaintheagreedstandardofoperation.Therearefourindicatorsofthe functioning of the water supply facilities (Issayas, 1998).

•WaterQuantity

•Reliability of water supply

•Convenience

Water Quantity

Areasonablyaccurateestimateoftheamountofwaterthatmustbesuppliedisneeded earlyintheplanningstageofprojectdevelopment.Theaveragedailydemandis especiallyimportantsinceitmaybeusedtoassesstheabilityofavailablesourcesto meetcontinuingdemandsandtosizerawwaterstoragefacilitiesthatmayberequired tomeetsustaineddemandsduringdryperiods.Later,duringtheactualdesignprocess, thepeakdemandmustbeknowntoproperlysizepumpsandpipelines,estimate pressurelosses,anddeterminefinishedwaterstoragerequirementssothatsufficient watercanbesuppliedduringpeakdemandperiods.Forsmallcommunitywatersupply quantityofwaterreferstothevolumeofwaterrequiredonindividualbasesforthe variousdailyhouseholdpurposes.Thequantityofwatertobeprovidedinruralwater supply schemes expressedin terms of liters per capita per day (LPCD).

Reliability of water supply

Reliablesystemistheone,whichfunctionthroughouttheyearwithcontinues operatingtimeandonlywithinfrequentbreakdowns,whicharequicklyrepaired(IRC C. , 1991).Incommunitywatersuppliesoneofthemostimportantinfluencesonsystem reliability is the length oftimeforwhichschemesstayidealwhenitis brokendown. In consideringtheserviceleveltobeprovidedbyaparticulartechnology,reliabilityis important parameters. Itisalsoconsiderednottobeacceptableifthebreakdownscauseinterruptionslonger

thanaweek.Further,itisnotacceptableifwaterisnotavailableatthesourcefor longer period.

Convenience

Itisdifficulttojudgetheattitudeofpeopletowardsthissituationasithasbecomea regularpartoftheirlife.However,itisobviousthatareductionoftimespentonwater collectionwouldyieldsparetimethatcouldbeusedforotheractivity.Itisconsidered anunacceptableifthewalkingdistancetowatersupplyismorethan2km.Thisis correspondingtoaminimumof3to4hoursdailyspentonwatercollectionfora normalfamily.Itisalsoconsideredadisadvantageifpeopleregularlyhavetoqueue more than 1 hour at the watersupply (World bank, 1990).

3.4.1.2 Utilization Whenitisassuredthattheschemeisfunctioningproperly,thenextfundamentalstep willbeassuringwhetherusersuseitornot.Evenatechnicallyperfectschemeisnot consideredsuccessfulifitisnotutilized.Fourindicatorsofutilizationofruralwater supply facilities are:

•House hold using water

•Volume of waterused

•Priceacceptability/Affordability

•Participation

Householdusingwater

Itisimportanttoknowwhousesthefacilities,howmuchnumberofpeopleusesit, andwhythenon-userprefersothersources.Ithelpswhetherthewaterpointservingas designedornotandthe allowable number of users.

Watersupplyfacilitiesarenormallydesignedtoprovidefordomesticneedssuchas drinking,cooking,washingclothesandlaunder;alsowaterfordomesticanimalsis allowed.Themainobjectiveoftheruralwatersupplyisprovisionofadequatewater fortheselectedusers,toimprovelivingandhealthconditionsofselectedrural communities.Forimprovedhealthandlivingcondition,onepersonshouldget15-20liter per day.

Price acceptability/Affordability

Beneficiarycontributions,whetherincashorin-kind,areimportantdeterminantof financialsustainability.Peopleshouldbecapableandwillingtopayforservicesthat provideimmediateandeasilyobservablebenefits.Thefixingofthechargesforwater consumptionsistosomeextent,apoliticaldecision.However,itcanofcoursealsobe aneconomic decisionbased onknowledgeofvarying abilityand willingnesstopayfor theconsumptionsindifferentareas.Anaffordabilityanalysisofwaterratesinrelation tohouseholdincomewasconductedtoensurethattheproposedwaterchargesdidnot go beyond the prescribed limit of 5% of monthly household income (WHO, 2011).

Participation

Itisbelievedadvantageous,fromtheutilizationpointofview,thatthepeoplefeelthat theyaresharingthewatersupply.Thisisalsostrengthenedif theyhaveactually participatedintheimplementationwithlabororcashorideasbutalsoagood organizationofoperationandmaintenancewithlocalresponsibilitiesaredeemed good.Thesubjectivecriteriaarethataschemeisjudgednon-successfulifnon-participation oftheusers,inabroadsense,iscausingnon-utilization,acceptableorsuccessfulif participation exists to a certain degree.

3.5 Over view of Rural Water Supply Systems Ruralwatersupplysystem(RWSS)providespotablewatertoruralcommunitiesfordomestic uses(forexample,drinking,cooking,bathing,andhygiene),andrequiresthesupplyofhigh- qualitywateronacontinuousbasis.Intheruralarea,familiesespeciallywomenspendaconsid erableamountoftimetryingtoprovidesufficientwaterfortheseuses.Thepotablewatersyste msusuallyreplacetraditionalsourcesofwater,suchasrivers,unprotectedspringandopenwel ls,whichareoftencontaminatedanddistantfromthehousehold.Improvedruralwatersolutio nsincludearangeoftechnologiesfromprotectedspringandwellsequippedwithmanuallyop eratedhandpumpstomorecomplexgravity- floworpumpedpipedwatersystemsconnectedtohousesorpublicstandposts.Thetechnicals olutionislocationspecificandwilldependonarangeofcharacteristicssuchascommunityde mand,affordability,andwillingnesstopay,communitysizeandhouseholddensity,waterres ourcesandelectricity availability,andtopographicalissues.

Variousfactorsaffectruralwatersupplysystems.Thefirstoneisthetechnicalfactor.Technic

alfactorofruralwatersupplysystemsincludedesignandconstruction.To meettheobjectivesofthesystem,properdesignandconstructionisrequired.Forthis,standar ddesignandconstructionthatcanbeslightlymodifiedtomeetlocalconditionshouldbedevel oped.Itwillhelptoensurethattheservicestobeprovidedareappropriatetotheneedanddesire ofthevillagers.Thesecondoneisthemanagementfactorthatincludesoperation,maintenanc e,costrecovery,communityparticipation,andgender.Thesearethemostimportantandvital partstoensuresustainabilityofsystem.Allthesefactorsshouldbegivenmuchemphasisbywa teragencystartingfromtheplanningstageofproject.Well- designedandconstructedsystemscannotachievethedesiredobjectives,unlessallthemanag erialfactorsarefulfilled.Inthischapter, more important and common concerns are identified and briefly discussed.

3.6 Standard design parameters of rural water supply Schemes 3.6.1 Spring

Aspringisaplacewheregroundwaternaturallyisreleasedfromtheearth'ssurface.Thereare manydifferent types of springs falling under two categories, according to the conditionunderwhichwaterflowstothem:gravityspringsandartesiansprings(Jo and christian, 2009).Gravityspringsincludedepressionsprings,contactsprings,andfractureortubular springs.Depressionspringsoccurwhentheland'ssurfacedipsbelowthelevelofthe watertable. Yield from depressionspringsishighlyvariable,dependingonthelevelof thewatertable.Inareasthatexperienceapronounceddryseason,depressionsprings maynotbeasuitablesourceofdrinkingwaterifthewatertabledropsbelowthelevel ofthedepression,causingthespringtobecomeseasonallydry. Gravitycontactsprings occurwhenanimperviouslayerbeneaththeearth'ssurfacerestrictssurfacewater infiltration.Waterischanneledalongtheimperviouslayeruntiliteventuallycomesin contactwiththeearth'ssurface.Thistypeofspringtypicallyhasaveryhighyieldand makesagoodsourceofdrinkingwater.Fractureandtubularspringsareformedwhen waterisforcedupwardsthroughcracksandfissuresinrocks.Thedischargeisoften concentratedatonepoint,therebyfacilitatingtheprocessofprotectingthesource(Jo and christian, 2009).

Artesianspringsoccurwhenwaterunderpressureistrappedbetweentwoimperviouslayers.

Becausethewaterinthesespringsisunderpressure,flowisgenerallygreaterthanthatofgravit ysprings.Artesianfissurespringsaresimilartofractureandtubularsprings,inthatwaterreach esthesurfacethroughcracksandfissuresinrocks.Thesespringsmakeexcellentcommunity watersourcesbecauseoftheirrelativelyhighflowratesandsingledischargepoints. Anothertypeofartesianspringthatcanbedevelopedasahighqualitywatersourceistheartesia nflowspring.Theseoccurwhenwaterconfinedbetweentwoimperviouslayersemergesatalo werelevation.Artesianflowspringsoftenoccuronhillsides,makingprotectionaneasyproce ss(Jo and christian, 2009). Locationofspring Itiseasyforspringstobecomecontaminatediftheyarelocateddownstreamfroma sourceofcontamination.Forthisreason,allsewagesystems,livestockpastures,fuel tanks,andothersourcesofpollutionmustbelocatedatleast30mawayfromsprings. However,dependingonthesoils,geology,andslopeoftheland,anevengreater distancemaybeneeded.Alsoavoidextremelywetareaswhenlocatinganewspring, because saturated soil can’t filter outbacteria (Morgan, 2005). Itisalsonecessarytodeterminethereliability,quality,andtheaverage/minimumflow ofthespring.Askthelocalresidentsofthehistoryofthespring.Determineifthe spring is seasonal or if it is constant year round(Hart, 2003).

3.6.1.1 Springwaterquantity Thequantityofwateraspringproducesisknownasitsyield.Informationaboutthe yieldiscrucialinthedecisionmakingprocessforthetappingofaspring.Ayieldis expressedintermsofflowrateandconsistency.Reasonablyminimumflowof0.11liter/secsp ringyieldisacceptableastheWHOstandarddailyconsumptionof15lit/day /cap for 200 rural people.

The most important criterion to determine whether the spring is a suitable source is

Springyieldintherainyseason =3to5foragoodspring Springyieldinthedryseason

Ingeneral,ifthisratio is below 20, the spring has an acceptable consistency and can beregardedasareliablesourceinbothwetanddryseasons.Thespringsintendedtofeedawater supplyshouldbegaugedbeforeconstructionstarts,foratleastoneyearandiftested overa longerperiod. Perennial springs flowthroughouttheyear,oftenwithlittleornodecreaseinyield.Theyieldofspringvariesfrom verysmallamountofaround0.11lit/sec up to very large flow of over 10 lit/sec(IRC C. , 1991).

SpringWaterProtection

Themainobjectiveofspringdevelopmentandprotectionistoprovideimproved waterquantityandqualityforhumanconsumption.Beforereachingthesurface,spring waterisgenerallyconsideredhighquality,dependingonthecompositionofthe surroundingsoilsandbedrock.However,groundwatercanbecomecontaminatedasit exitstheground'ssurface.Contaminationsourcesincludelivestock,wildlife,crop fields,forestryactivities,septicsystemsandfueltankslocatedupslopefromthespring outlet. Therefore, spring water sources need to be protected at the source or eye. Justas therearemanytypesofsprings,therearealsomanydifferentkindsofprotective structures,suchasspringboxes,seepagespringdevelopmentstructures,andhorizontal wells.However,springboxesaretypicallycheaper,requiretheleastskill,andcanbe madewithlocallyavailablematerials.Incontrasttothegenerallyheldbeliefthat dischargesdeclineifthespringsaretouched,thedevelopmentofnaturalspringsoften leads to improved yields(Hart, 2003).

3.6.1.2 BasicDesignFeatures Althoughtherearemanydifferentdesignsforspringboxes,theyallsharecommon features.Primarily,aspringboxisawatertightcollectionboxconstructedofconcrete, clay,orbrickwithonepermeableside.Theideabehindthespringboxistoisolate springwaterfromsurfacecontaminantssuchasrainwaterorsurfacerunoff.Allspring boxesshould be designed with (Morgan, 2005).

 Aheavyremovablecover,inordertopreventcontaminationfromrainwater

whileproviding access for disinfection and maintenance.  Anoverflowpipethatisscreenedformosquitoandsmallanimalcontrol.Itis alsoimportanttoprovidesomemeasureoferosionpreventionattheoverflow pipe.  Approximately8metersupslopefromthespringbox,toprovideadiversion ditch capable of diverting surface runoff away from the spring box, and  Ananimalfencewitharadiusofatleast8metersaroundthespringbox.This protectsthewatersourcefromlivestockandwildlifecontamination,aswellasfrom soil compaction that could lead to reduced yields.

Therearetwobasicspringboxdesignsthatcouldbemodifiedtomeetlocalconditions andrequirements.Thefirstisaspringboxwithasinglepermeablesideforhillside collection,andtheseconddesignhasaperviousbottomforcollectingwaterflowing fromasingleopeningonlevelground(SeeFigures3.1and3.2).Thespringboxwith anopenbottomistypicallysimplerandcheapertoconstructbecauselessdiggingand fewer materials are required

Figure 2 spring box with single pervious side for hillside collection

(Courtesy of US AID, 1982, available on line at www.lifewater.org)

Figure 3spring box with permeable bottom for collecting spring water flowing from an opening on level ground

(Courtesy of US AID, 1982, available online at WWW.lifewater.org).

Ifconcreteisunavailableorifitsuseisprohibitiveduetocost,thespringboxcouldbe constructedusinglocallyavailablematerials,suchasbrick.Thisalternativeis especiallyusefulwhenprotectingasingle-sourcespringonlevelground.Iflocation andtransportationarenotprohibitive,largeprefabricatedconcretetubescanbeused muchlikebrick and cement spring boxes (Hart, 2003).

3.6.1.3 DesigningtheStructure Becauseeachspringsiteisuniqueandeverycommunityhasindividualwatersupplyneeds,th ereisnotaparticularspringboxdesignthatwillfitallcircumstances.Itisuptotheprojectmana gerandthecommunitytodecidewhatwillworkbestdependingonlocalconditions.Forinstan ce,ifthespringislocatedatahigherelevationthanthedistributionareaandthedistanceisnotto ogreat,itmaybepreferabletodesignaspringboxthatislargeenoughtoalsoactasastoragestru cturelargeenoughtosupplytheentirecommunity,therebyeliminatingtheneedtoconstructa dditionalwaterstoragetanks.Itisalsopossibletodesignaspringboxwithabuiltinsedimentati ontank if the source has highsediment loads.

Thedesignchosenforanyparticularprojectwilldependonlocalconditions,springyield,avai

lablematerialsandcommunityknowledgeandrequirements. Thegoalofthedesign process is to generate a dimensional plan of the spring box.(Hart, 2003).

Figure 4 Dimensional plans of pervious side spring box and pervious bottom spring box (Courtesy of US AID,1982,available on line at www.lifewater.org)

3.6.1.4 PreparingtheSite Thesiteshouldbefencedofftoprotectthesitefromanimals,andadiversionditch needstobedugapproximatelyeightmetersupslopefromthesitetodivertsurface waterrunoffawayfromthespring.Next,digoutthespringuntiltheflowis concentratedfromasinglesource.Ifthespringislocatedinahillside,itmaybe necessarytodigintothehillsidefarenoughtolocatetheeyeofthespring.Looktosee ifflowfrommajoropeningsincreases,orifflowfromminoropeningsdecreaseor

stop.Thesearesignsthattheflowisbecomingconcentratedfromasingleeye. Rememberthattheobjectiveistocollectasmuchwateraspossiblefromthespring andthatitisgenerallyeasiertocollectfromasingleopeningthanfrommany.Ifa singleflowsourcecannotbelocatedbecauseofnumerous,separatedopenings,itwill probablybenecessarytoconstructaseepcollectionsystemratherthanaspringbox. Dependingontheterrainofthesite,itmaybenecessarytodigatemporarydiversion ditchto drain spring water from the excavation site (Hart, 2003).

Onceasingleeyeislocated,digdownuntilyoureachanimpervioussoillayer.Thiswillmakea good,waterprooffoundationforthespringbox.Beforeinstallingthespringbox,pilestonesan dgravelagainstthespring.Thiswillprovidesomecapacityforsedimentationandwillprevent erosionfromaroundthespringeye.Thiswillalsosupporttheimpervioussectionofthebackw allofapervious- sidespringbox(seeFigure2).Ifthespringisflowingfromasingleopeningonlevelground(per viousbottomspringbox),digabasinaroundthespringeyeuntilanimperviouslayerisreached. Linethisbasinwithrocksandgravel,makingsuretocoverthespringeyesothatwaterflowsthr oughthegravelbeforeenteringthespringbox(seeFigure3)(Hart, 2003).

3.6.1.5 Constructingthe Spring Box Concreteconstructionrequiresthattheconcreteremainmoistforatleastsevendays. Springboxconstructionshouldbedoneatthepeakofthedryseason,therebyensuring thatonlythemostreliablespringsisprotected.However,itisoftennecessaryto excavatethespringbeforeconstructionismadeinordertodeterminethetypeof spring to be protected and the proper design to implement. Tominimizethepossibilityofcontamination,itisimportantthatthespringboxbe installedonasolid,impermeablebase,andthatasealiscreatedbetweentheground andthespringboxsothatoutsidewaterisunabletoinfiltratethebox.Placetheboxso thatthepermeablesectionofthespringboxcollectstheflowofthespring.

When installingahillsidecollectionbox,makesurethatgravelandstonesarepiledatthe backoftheboxtoprovidesupportforthestructurewhileallowingwatertoenterthe box(seeFigure2). Next, createasealwithconcreteorpuddleclay,amixtureofclay andwater,wherethespringboxcomesintocontactwiththeground.Thiswillensure thatwaterdoesnotseepinunderthebox.Forhillsidespringboxes,backfillthearea

wherethespringenterstheboxwithgraveltotheheightwherethepermeablewall endsandtheconcretewallbegins.Placelayersofpeddleclayorconcreteoverthe gravelbackfillandslopingawayfromthespringboxtodivertsurfacewateraway fromthewatersource(seeFigure 2),andthenbackfillwithfirmlytampedsoil.If peddleclayorconcreteisunavailable,soilalonemaybeused,althoughitshouldbeat least2metersdeeptopreventcontaminatedsurfacewaterfromreachingthewater source.Foralevel-groundspringbox,puddleclayorcementshouldbeplacedaround thespringbox,slopingawayfromthewatersourcetopreventinfiltration(Hart, 2003).

Installtheoutflow,andoverflowpipes.Sealaroundthepipesonbothsidesofthewall topreventleaks,andsecurescreeningoverthepipeopenings.Makesurethescreen sizeissmallenoughtopreventmosquitoinfestation,yetstrongenoughtoprevent smallanimals,andofamaterialdurableenoughtolastalongtime.Copperorplastic screeningworks best.Beforecompletelybackfillingthespringbox,disinfecttheinsideoftheboxandthe coverwithachlorinesolutionandclosethebox.Rememberthatallbackfillshould slopeawayfromthespringboxtomaximizerunoffawayfromthebox(Hart, 2003) .

3.6.1.6 Maintenance Ifproperlyinstalled,springboxesrequireverylittlemaintenance,however,itis recommendedthatthewaterquality be checked before being put into use, as well as on ayearlybasisorasneeded.Itisalsoagoodideatocheckthattheuphilldiversion ditchisadequatelydivertingsurfacerunoffawayfromthespringboxandisnot eroding.Onemaintenanceitemthatisfrequentlyoverlookedistoensurethatthe animalfenceisingoodrepair.Althoughsomegrazingareamaybelost,thelossin grazingareaispreferabletoacontaminatedwatersourceorcompactedsoilthatcould leadtodecreasedflowrates.Forhillsidecollectionboxes,itisimportanttocheckthat theuphillwallisnoterodingandismaintainingstructuralintegrity.Thecovershould becheckedfrequentlytoensurethatitisinplaceandappearstobewatertight.Make surethatwaterisn'tseepingoutfromthesidesorfromunderneaththespringbox,and checkthatthescreeningisinplaceontheoverflowpipe.Onceayear,disinfectthe systemandremovesedimentfromthespringbox.Todoso,openthevalveonthe outletpipe,allowingthespringboxtodrain.Removeanyaccumulatedsedimentfrom theboxandwashtheinteriorwallswithachlorinesolution.Thesolutionforwashing

thespringboxshouldbemixedinaratioof10Lwaterwith0.2Lchlorinebleach (Hart, 2003).

3.6.2 Hand dugwell

Diggingawellbyhandisthemostwidelyusedmethodofwellconstructioninmanyruralareas oftheworld.Usingsimpleconstructiontechniquesandsuitablematerial,hand-dug wells can provide reliable amount ofwater(IRC C. , 1991).Ahanddugwellcanbedividedintothreeparts:intake,shaft,andwellhead(SeeFigure5 ).

Theintakeisthebottomsectionofthewellthattapsintotheaquifer,supportstheexposedsectio noftheaquifer,andpermitswatertoflowinwhilepreventingsolidsfromenteringintothewell. Instablegeologicalformations(e.g. in sandstone orfissuredrock),itispossibleto eliminate this component,butin conditionswheretheaquiferismadeofsandorgravelitisnecessaryforthefunctioningofthew ell.Theshaftisthemiddlesectionofthewell.Theliningoftheshaftservestoretainthewellwall sinplace,preventsinflowofpotentiallycontaminatedwaternearthesurface,andprovidesafo undationforthewellhead.Evenifawellissunkintoself- supportingrock,thetopfewmetersshouldbelinedandmadewatertighttoavoidtheriskofcoll apseatthetopofthewell.Theintakeissometimesbuilttelescopedand“floating”insidethesha ftlininginordertopreventcrackingorcollapseoftheshaftliningiftheintakesettles.Thewellh eadisthetopsectionofthewell,whichsealsthewellandpreventsforeignobjectsfromentering thewell(Watt, 2001).

Figure 5 Diagram of Hand Dug Well

3.6.2.1 Designofhanddugwell Properdesignofhand-dugwellsisimportanttoassureayearroundsupplyofwater andefficientuse.Designinginvolvesdeterminingthesize,andtheshapeofthewell; themethodofliningand;thetypeoftheintake;andthenecessarypersonnel,material andequipment,andtools.Thereareseveralgoodmethodsofdesigningand constructing hand dug wells (Watt, 2001).

Size and shape

Thesizeofthewellreferstoitsdepthanddiameter.Althoughitisimpossibletoknow thedepthofthewellbeforeitisdug,anattemptshouldbemadetoestimateit.This willallowyoutoroughlycalculatethequantitiesofmaterialsneededforconstruction.Useinf ormationfromthetasteholesorexistingwellsintheareatoestimatethedepth ofthe water table(Watt, 2001).

Shape

Althoughwellscanbeduginanyshape,almostallwellsarecircularinshapes.The reasonforthisisthataroundwellproducesthegreatestamountofwaterfortheleastamountof work.Inaddition,aroundliningisthestrongestthatcanbebuiltforthesmallest quantity of material(Watt, 2001).

Diameter

Forpracticalandeconomicreasons,welldiametersarebetweenl.0mand1.5m.The smallerdiameterresultsinasavingsinmaterialscosts,anditrequireslesssoiltobeexcavatedt

helargerdiametermeansahighermaterialscostbutamoreefficientworkoutput,sincetwome nratherthanOnecandigtheshaft.Alargerdiameterprovidesagreaterstoragecapacityandall owsmorewatertoenterthewell.Alltheseargumentsfavor 1.3 meters as the finished diameters (Watt, 2001).

Depth

Thedepthstowhichthewellcanbeduglargelydependonthetypeofgroundandthe fluctuationsofthegroundwatertable.Importantfactorarethestabilityoftheground andthecostofdigging.Dugwellforcommunalusearefrequentlymuchdeeper,20-30m is usual and depths of 50m and more have been achieved (IRC, 1987).

Lining

Withtheexceptionofwellssunkinconsolidatedrock,aliningofpermanentmaterialisalways necessary.Thisliningservesseveralpurposes.Itisprotectionduring constructionagainstcavingandcollapse,itretainsthewallaftercompletion,andit actsasasealtopreventpollutedsurfacewaterfromenteringtothewell.Thereare manymaterialssuitableforliningsmasonry,brickwork,andsteel.Allbeinginvarious partoftheworld,accordingtocircumstances;butforwidespreadusetherearegreat advantagesinplainorinreinforcedconcrete.Atleasttheupper3mshouldbemade waterproofbyliningtopreventseepagefromthesurfacelayers,whichmostlikely carrydangerouscontaminantandthelining,shouldbebuiltup0.5metersabove groundlevel.Aconcreteapronshouldthenbeconstructedonthegroundsurface extendingabout2metersallaroundthewell.Thespacebetweenthewallsofthedug holeandtheliningshouldbesealedwithpebbleclayorbetterwithcementgrout.The bottomofthewellisstabilizedwithalayerofabout200mmofcoarsegravel(Watt, 2001).

Althoughvariousmaterialshavebeenusedtolinewellshafts,concreteisthebestand mostcommonlining. Itisstrong,longlasting,andwidelyknown. Theliningisusually 75mmthickandthecaissonringsare125-150mmthick.Theoutsidediameterofthe ringsis50-100mmlessthantheinsidediameterofthewelltoallowtheringstofreely move downward.Thecaissonringsaresunkintotheaquiferasfaraspossible;thatis,untilthewater becomestoodeeptocontinuetheexcavation.Groundwatermaythenenterthewell eitherthroughtheopeningunderthelowestcaissonring,orthroughtherings

themselves.Inthefirstcase,theringsaremadeofstandardconcrete,whichdoesnot allowentryofwater. In thesecondcase,the ringsareusuallymadeofporousconcrete, whichallowswatertopassthrough.Anotherwaytoallowwatertoenterthroughthe caissonringsistobuildtheringsfromstandardconcreteandperforatethemwith seepageholes.Foralltypesofintakes,thebottomoftheshaftshouldbecoveredwith aporousbaseplugmadefromporousconcreteorlayersofsandandgravel.Theplug preventsaquifermaterialfromrisingintothewell.Thetypeofcaissonringused dependsonthenatureoftheaquifer.Normally,ringsaremadeofporousconcrete. However,iftheaquiferiscomposedoffinesand,whichwouldclogtheporesorflow throughtheseepageho1es,theringsshouldbemadeofstandardconcretewitho ut perforations (Watt, 2001).

3.6.2.2 Constructionofhanddugwell Properconstructionofhanddugwellisimportanttoensureayearroundsupplyof waterandtoprotectthewaterfromcontamination.Constructioninvolvesassembling allnecessarypersonnel,materials,andtool;preparingthesite;excavatingthewell shaft; and lining the shaft.

Outlinedbelowarethemajorstepsinvolvedinconstructingawell.Theappropriate communityleaders,healthcommittee,publicworkscommittee,andotherswhoare interested should be involved in all the planning decisions(Watt, 2001).Digandlinethebottomsectionasfaraspossibleintotheaquifer.The methodusedtodigandlinethebottomsectionwilloftenbedifferentfromthediggingandlinin gmethodusedinthemiddlesection.Thismaybenecessarybecauseyouarenotonlyconcerned withdigging,lining,andpossibleholecollapse(asinthemiddlesection),butalsowithremovi ngenoughwater from the well to permit work to continue.

• Installasimplesandandgravelfilterorporousconcreteplugacros sthe bottom of hole. • Extend the lining up 0.5 meters above ground to form the head wall. • Buildand install the well cover. • Provideamanholethatcanbetightlyandsecurelylockedtoallow disinfections. • Install the pump in the cover on the well.

• Disinfect the well. • Buildtheapron(platform)aroundtheheadwalltochanneltherun -offtoone particularplace. • Buildadrainage pit or other device for removal of standing water. • Build an animal trough. * • Build a washbasin platform. * • Handdugwellshouldbedugduringthedryseason.Groundwatert able fluctuateseasonallyandmaydropconsiderablyattheendoflong dryseason.

Thisiswhyitispreferabletosinkadugwellsattheendofthedryseason when the ground water table is low (Watt, 2001).

* These items are not always necessary but should be considered.

3.6.2.3 Typesofpump Awiderangeofpumptypeisavailableonthemarket.Prevailinglocalconditionsandmanage mentcapacitiesdeterminethetypethatismostsuitableandsustainable. Pumpscommonlyusedindomesticwatersystemscanbeclassifiedascentrifugal,positivedis placement(piston)andimpulse(ram)thetypeofpumpchosendependsonthe volumeofwaterrequired,pumpinghead,andtypeofpoweravailable.Pumpscanbe divided in to two categories basedontheir power sources (Getenet, 2001).

Category 1

Pumps,whichcanbepoweredbyanimal,human,windorwater,thesepumpsusually, producedlowvolumeofwateratornearthesource.Theyincludebucket,positive displacement, and impulse pumps.

Category 2

Pumps,whichareusually,poweredbyelectricmotororexternalcompunctionmotor.

Thesepumpsincludesinglestagesuction,jet,submersibleandlineshaftturbines.

Theyproducesmediumtohighquantityofwatercomparedtocategory1pumps.Thepositive displacementpumpmentionedincategory1couldbepowerdriventoproduce high quantity of water.

Thesimplestpumpsofallarethoseoperatedbyhumanpower.Inthiscategorycomea rangeofhandpumpsandfootpumps.Theyarecapableofliftingrelativelysmall amountofwater.Usinghumanpowerforpumpingwaterhasimportantbenefitsfor smallcommunity in developing countries(Getenet, 2001):

•The power requirements can be met with in the users group.

•The capital cost is generally low

•Thedischargecapacityofoneormoremanual-pumpingdeviceisusually adequate to meet the domestic water requirements of small community.

3.6.2.4 Handpump Handoperatedpumpcanbeusedinwellsofanydepth.MosthandpumpsinstallationPracticall imitofdepthrangingupto45meteres.Whileveryfewofthemcanbeused upto100metersandalsohandpumpscanbeinstalledinlargediameterhanddugwell ortubewell. Volumeofwaterthatcanbepumpedfromawellvariesdependingonthepump model, depth of pump setting andstrength ofusers (Getenet, 2001).Handpumpsgenerallycategorizedassuctionpumpanddeepwellliftpump.Inbothtyp es the piston valve are connected to the handle with pump rod.

1. Suction pump

Suctionpumpisawaterpumpwhosecylinderassemblyisinstalledontheconcreteslabcovero fthewell.Thispumpshouldalwaysbeprimedbyfillingthepumpcylinderwithwater.Priming helptowetthepiston(plunger)andthevalveuntilwatercomesthroughcolumnpipe.Thispum pisverycheapandnormallysuitablefor shallow well of up to 7m in depth only.

Table 1Information on types of pumps (water aids)

No. Description Pump type Pump setting Suitability for depth various depths 1 Indian mark II VLOM Type With minor Suitable but reciprocating design modification, up with to 90 meters. modification in

large diameters 2 Indian mark III VLOM Type Up to 45 meters Suitable but with reciprocating design modification in large diameters 3 Afradev VLOM Type Up to 45 Suitable but with reciprocating design meters modification in large diameters 4 Aquadev VLOM Type Up to 45 Suitable but with reciprocating design meters modification in large diameters

3.6.2.5 Handpumpselection Waterpumparedesignedandprovidedbymanymanufacturesusingdifferent specificationsfordifferentpurposes.Toselectsuitabletypeofhandpumpspecific watersourcesdugwellordeepwelldatashouldbeknown.Thisspecificdataofthe wellobtainedaftercompletionofwellconstruction.Thewellspecificdatamainly consistsofwelldiameter,typeofcasinginstalled,welldepth,staticwaterlevel, operationalwaterlevel,maximumwateryieldingcapacity,positionofwellscreen quality of water etc.

In all cases, Afridev hand pumps are recommended for the following depth:

•Less than 15 m:Afridev Kabul

•15 - 45 m:AfridevIndus

•45 m - 60 m:Afridev Pamir

3.6.2.6 Operatingandmaintainingpump Properoperationandmaintenanceofpumpingequipmentisanessentialpartof managingawatersystemfailuretoprovidetimelymaintenance,includingmaking minorrepairsbeforetheybecomemajor,whichisaprimarilycauseofsystemfailure.

Operationandmaintenancenormallyincludesthefollowingactivitiesforalltypesof pumping systems (WorldBank, 1990):

• Keepequipmentandpumphousecleanandpaintedtopreventr ustorweathering. • Keep equipment lubricated. • Tightening nuts and bolt. • Recognizepotentialmechanicalproblemsandmakeadjustme ntsbefore failure occurs. • Replace failing or filed parts of equipment. • Keep buildings, including doors and windows in good operating condition.

3.7 Previous studies in the study area Previously there is no study found on the rural water supply inthe study area but there are studies at vicinity woredas such as determinants of household participation in water sourceManagement: achefer, amhara region, Ethiopia by Aschalew, Demeke a thesis paper submitted to Bahir Dar University in 2006. He examined socio economic, institutional and exogenous factors which affect household’s participation in management of water projects.

4. MATERIALS AND METHODS This part of the work included both desk and field investigation for the gathering of important data in order to achieve paper objectives. The desk work was carrying out the essential literature review on technical effectiveness and sustainability problems of rural watersupplyprojects. The data collection includedtopographic maps, water resource potential, planning, site identification, detail study, design, construction materials, construction supervision and maintenance data of selected project.

The field investigation included measuring the discharge of the scheme, observing the structure, confirmation of secondary data collected at the desk work, data from questionnaires, discussion.The data sources were Amhara region water resource bureau, Awi zone water resources development department and woreda water development offices, CSA,World vision Ethiopia Banja area development program, committees of the water points,discussion and interviews with beneficiary households.

4.1 Data collection This study used the combination of both quantitative and qualitative research methods a pre tested structured questionnaire was used to gather after it translated to local languages (Amharic). The questionnaire had covered information on socio economic characteristics of the respondents, demand responsiveness and sustainability factors of theservices, type of participation of beneficiaries, issues of cost sharing and recovery, community trainingand awareness creation, for the service provided, physical condition of the water supply points under study, willingness of the beneficiariesto sustain the system, and repair and maintenance issues for the water supply services. A field observation using a structured checklist was done in 17 sample waterpointsfocusingon physical condition of the scheme, level of protection, construction quality and protection mechanisms. Afocusgroup discussion was conducted with water committee members, woreda waterstaff, community leaders and cultural association leaders to collect qualitative data using a structured questionnaire guide and note taking (Appendix I). For rural piping system analysis surveying data was taken using total station.

Secondary data also collected from concerning water resources development offices focusing on planning, water resource potential or discharge of the source, site identification criteria, detail study, design, construction supervision documents as well as maintenance aspects .Additional data was taken from reports.

4.2 Research design and sampling procedures Differentmethodsof data collection like structured questionnaires, interviews, discussions and personal observations were employed to produce primary data. Moreover, secondary data have been collected from existing documents, books, journals, reports, and others sources from sector offices and concerned offices insideandoutside the sample woredas.

Sample woredas were selected purposively based on the following criteria 1) population size 2) accessibility 3) donor participation 4) water resources availability 5) data availability. Depending on the above criteria Ankesha and Banja woredas were selected among 8 rural woredas of Awi zone and the research was carried out. The sample schemes were selected taking the functionality and failure aspects of the sample projects. Seven hand dug wells, eight developed springs, and two shallows wereselected from the above twoworedas. (Appendix II table 1 and Figure 1) and see table 2 below.Some sample schemes were nonfunctional due to various reasons and others were functional schemes included in this study.

Table 2Study sample schemes

Sample scheme types Woreda Banja Ankesha Total

Shallow well 1 1 2 Hand dug well 3 4 7 Developed spring 4 4 8 Total 17

4.3 Data Analysis

Technical field investigation was carried out in the field and the problem identification for remedial solution of sample scheme in the sites. Qualitativeand quantitative data collected from beneficiaries, technical staff members, and water committees using structured questionnaire interviews and discussions was entered and analyzed in Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) to determinedescriptive statistics for the study

5 RESULTSAND DISCUSSIONS

Part A: Technical field investigation result analysis

5.1 General The main objective of the research was to investigate the causes of donor assisted rural water supply service non functionality within specified project life and remark remedial solutions.Thischapterpresentstheresultsofthewatersupplystudythatwasconductedin Awizone.First,itdescribedtheoverviewofthesampleschemespresentsituationindetail,pro vidingbackgroundinformationontheschemeslocation,populationserved,andlevelofservi ces.Basedonfindingsofthesurvey,remedialmeasurestoimprovethewatersupplyarepropos edfromthereferencedliteraturepresentedinchapterthree.Finally,therewasabriefdiscussio nonqualitativedataanalysis,andsuggestionsfor future work are presented.

5.2 OverviewofschemesinthestudyWoredas Duringthelast, three or four decade’s considerable effort has been devoted to improvethewatersupplyconditionsofAwizone.Theschemesconstructedbydifferentdono rs,nonegovernmentalorganization(NGO'S)andhavebeenhandedovertotheworedawaterr esources development offices, there by the woreda water offices of direct responsibility for operation and maintenance.

Theruralwatersupplyisoftenseenasoneofthemostimportant sectorofdevelopmentprogram; oneofthemillenniumdevelopmentGoal(MDGs) and Growth and Transformation Plan I(GTP I). Manyofthenational,regionalandzonalwaterbureaushavesetambitiousgoalsof supplyingwater and arranging proper sanitation to their people duringthis internationalwatersupplyandsanitationdecades.Inthecontextofthepresent institutionalsetup,thewatersectorcould notachievedthedesirablegoalof developmentactivity.Supplyingclearwaterforpeopleshouldnotbetheresponsibility of one single section. Thetraditionalapproachofruralwatersupplyhasfrequentlyresultedinservicesthat

havenotbeensustainedinthezone.Projectsarehighlysupplydriven.Government, donor,andNGOs tend to pay more attention to build new facilities than to ensuring the useofexistingones.

Rolesforprojectplanning,implementation,costrecovery, operation, and maintenance were poorly definedprojects did not properly establish.Theruraldrinkingwatersupplyschemeswereimplementedbygovernmental,(NG Os) anddonor'sagencies.However,donorssuch as CMPs &World Bank werethedominantimplementingagencyinthe selectedworedas.Theimplementingagencieshavenotconstitutedtheworeda CoordinationCommittees to work together.

Inadequatedeliveryofruralwatersupplyservices,duetoaginginfrastructure, institutionalconstraints,andfiscaldifficultieswasinhibitingtheaccessofcommunities tobasicwatersupplyinfrastructureservices.Existingfacilitieswerepoorly designedandinsufficientlymaintained,anddidnotadequatelyprovideurgentlyneeded basicservices.Thecapacityofconcernedbodiesmustbedevelopedtoenablethemto implementsubsectorsandtoundertakeoperationandmaintenance(O&M)ofthe constructedsystems.InlinewiththeGovernment’spolicytouseadecentralized communitymanagementapproach,theProjectwillenhancethecoverageofbasic watersupplyfacilities;contributetoimprovinglivingandhealthconditionsand improvetheinstitutional,organizational,andmanagerialcapabilitiesofthesector agencies.

InAwi zone,thelevelofservicesrangesfromahanddugwellwithhandpumpandsimpleprotectedspr ingtoaspringdevelopmentandshallowwellwithlittleelaboratedistributionsystem.Thesch emeswithdistributionsystemservefewconsumers through private house connections.

5.3 Spring development There are 148 communal used springs in the study Woredas. During the field survey, 8 springs were visited to give a field inventory of the existing springs and their general conditions. In Awi zone the service level of protected spring, vary greatly in size ranging from spot spring, serving many consumers to elaborating distribution system with house connections and public water point. Springs are used as gravity supply system for people living downstream of the spring due to the good topography with public fountain and small house connection. In the rest of the cases, taps are fitted on masonry tap stand or on the wall spring boxes and discharging with galvanized iron pipe without faucet. In the eight sample schemes, questionnaires were discussed with community. The existing situation, major problem encountered and the remedial measure that should be taken to improve the service of the eight schemes were discussed below.

5.3.1 Chaba

Existing situation Spring development in Chaba is found in Chabanagissa Keble located about2509 m elevation. The scheme has cattle trough constructed interlinked with the tapstand .The tap stand has 1” galvanized steel open flow out let pipes installed on thewall of the spring box. The yield of the spring was estimated on average 2.5 liter persecond with seasonal variation. The spring served 120-house hold. Water from thespring was used for all domestic purpose and cattle watering.

Major problems As the community claimed and I observed, the spring tapping was not done exactly onthe eye of the spring. This poor tapping of spring caused large amount of water looseand result insufficiency of the water source. On the dry season the spring dry upleaving the community with acute water shortage. The spring box had much leakageat its base. Regular blocking of the out let pipe by rubbish and frog. Water from thescheme became more turbid and silt delivery increases time to time.

Location of cattle trough was next to the out let pipe. Cattle drink water and stand onthe tap stand while people filling jerry can. Allowing animal near water area causedfaucal and parasitic larvae being carried in to the water source.Because washing slab was not provided people wash their clothes on the wall of tapstand and on the top cover of spring box. The surrounding of water point was coveredwith rubbish, cattle drops, algae growth, and standing water that creates morecomfortable conditions for fly and mosquito breeding. There was no physicalprotection work done like provision drainage for the surface runoff and spillagewater. Therefore, Surface run off directly flooded to the spring source and spring boxwith its impurities. There was no fence to keep away animal and unauthorized entry.Poor collaboration between users and water office. There was no mechanism forregular clearing and application of disinfections in spring box. Maintenance wascarried out at emergency break down there is no preventive maintenance. At presentthe responsibility to carry out minor maintenance is entirely left to the community,even if they are not capable to do it.

High frequency of break down, like blocking of out let pipe, total change of springcourse and silt buildup of box, difficulty to obtain spare parts and material, lack oftrained man power, and length of time required for repair all these drive the users touse unprotected source like river with its health hazards. People, especially childrenless than five cited to diarrhea consistently.There was a water committee created at the time of construction phase but they arenot play the role given to them. This was because they have not yet get any training tocarry their intended work. There was no revenue collection mechanism to meet the costof Operating, maintaining, repairing, and upgrading the scheme.

Remedial measures This poor functioning of spring was often caused by poor construction andmaintenance. The area around the spring has to be dug out in order to capture allavailable flow. Then loss stone and gravel should pill against the eye. This serves tofilter suspended soil and prevent the spring water from washing soil away from thearea. The spring tapping structure should be located exactly on the spring eye and itshould be cleaned and inspected regularly. Caution must be taken not to disturbground formations when digging out around the spring. The area must, however, bedug out enough so that the spring box fits in to impermeable material. In

the caseswhere the box dose not reaches impermeable material, puddle clay should be used toseal the area around the sides of the spring box.

Drawing of silt shows silting of spring box or presence of erosion in the springtapping. Then regular clearing of spring box and filling of the source surroundingwith gravel and sand is required.The cattle trough should be relocated at least 8 m away from tap stand and provisionof washing basin near the source result health benefit of improved personal hygiene.Spring contamination may result from poor spring development construction or fromdirect flow of surface water into the shallow groundwater feeding the spring. Springwater should be tested before and after heavy rains each year and on regular base forbacteria, pH, turbidity, and conductivity.

Physical protection of the spring and the spring surrounding is required. Likeprovision of fence, removing deep-rooted trees, regular cleaning the area and keepanimal away from it. Surpluses and spillage water from tap stand has to be avoidedsafely to cattle trough or vegetable garden .To keep surface run off away and toavoid erosion of the source area provision of proper drainage required. Draining thestanding water and back filling it with gravel and pebble stone requires reducingbreeding of fly and mosquitoes.The spring box and spring tapping structure has to be watertight in order to avoidingress of spillage water and surface run off pollution.Discouraging people from spilling water off on the concrete structure and itssurroundings and washing clothes on the structure.

5.3.2 Akyta

Existing situations Spring development in Akayta is found in Banja woreda Akyta Keble located about2490m elevations. The scheme consists of tap stand, washing basin, shower, andfishpond made of concert and masonry wall. The spring serves approximately 80families. The water from the spring used for all domestic purposes.

Major problems Improper tapping of spring, which lead change of spring flow course. The amount ofwater supplied by the tap stand is much less than the expected yield afterdevelopment. Water office had started to rehabilitate the scheme but not yet

finishedthe work within three years. This was due to financial constraint and conflict betweenthe users. Dwellers near the spring sources would like to use leakage water for theirvegetation garden. They were relieved about the occurrence of leakage from thetapping and considered it as their natural right. Because of water shortage, theshower and the fishpond are not functional. The water in the fishpond is covered byalgae growth that cause animal death and create comfortable conditions for fly andmosquito breeding.There was no physical protection work done for the spring source like provision ofdrainage, fence, and removal of deep-rooted trees. Due to excessive leakage and lackof drains the surplus water pounded on the area and cause high health risk, likemalaria.

Remedial measures

It should be dug back in to the hillside to the water-bearing layer where the water isflowing from the “eye” of the spring. Then loss stone and gravel should be pilledagainst the eye. Gravel and stone will serve as filter media that reduces intrusion ofsilt to spring box and reducer erosion of the surrounding. To increase the amount ofwater reach the spring box ensures that all the water tapped from the source ischanneled to the spring box.

Conflict between the communities should be resolved. Dweller should be convincedto use the surplus and spillage water for their farm.The surrounding area has to be cleaned adequately .It can be disinfect at least once ina year and sediment has to be cleaned out the spring box. Sediment removal willprevent clogging and build up which cause the box to fill up more quickly.

It is noticed that runoff from the catchments area directly flooded to the sourcecarrying with its impurities and polluted soil. Construction of diversion ditch abovethe spring source at least 8m above the source to divert surface water from the area.Fence has to be provided to keep effectively animals away from the surrounding.Animal grazing in water catchments area should be avoided because it causes faucaland parasitic larvae being carried in to water source.

5.3.3 Gashena

Existing situation Spring development in Gashena is found in Banja woreda, Gashena Keble locatedabout 2144m elevations. The scheme has 11/2” galvanized steel out let pipe installedon the wall of spring box and washing basin made of concrete. The yield of the springis estimated around 0.24 liters per second with seasonal fluctuation. The spring servesapproximately 310-house hold. The water from the spring is used for all domesticpurposes.

Major problems As user claimed and I observed the spring, tapping was not done exactly on the eye ofthe spring. Therefore after development the yield decreased and so many small springsstarted to flow out of the spring tapping.Water shortage occurred throughout the year, especially on months April, May and June. Women and children spent much time each day queuing for water because ofmuch number of users and spring dose not delivered enough water quickly. The waterbecame more turbid, silt delivers increase after rain, and worms occasionally presentin water. People especially children became sick of diarrhea consistently.

There was no cattle trough provided there for people allowed their cattle to drink and stand on the tap while filling jerry can. In addition, the location of washing slab was at distance less than 1meter from the tap stand that was more dangerous from the sanitary point of view.Spring box and spring tapping structure were covered with debris, bushes and algaegrowth. The wall of the spring box has cracks that lead much leakage, easy entry offrog, insect and debris in to the box. This result much amount of water lost throughcrack. At the time of break down (i.e. blocking of out let pipes) traditional leadersopen the manhole and clear the box. After clearing the manhole was not properlysealed using concrete because of lack of cement due to this cover of the inspectionhole was not sealed properly.

There was no physical protection work done in the area like, provision of drainage forsurface runoff, surpluses water, and wastewater, fence to prevent entry of animal andunauthorized entry.Water was provided free. There was no revenue collection mechanism. There was no anymechanism for the preventive maintenance, application

of disinfections and regularclearing of the scheme and its surrounding.Lack of tools, materials, trained manpower, and lack of collaboration between users and water development offices.

Remedial measures Improper tapping of spring leads to insufficiency of the spring therefore, propertapping has to be done and channeling all the water to the spring box is required. Siltdelivery, either arise from improper tapping which leads erosion of the area aroundthe spring eye or there is a place where surface run off join the spring box.Therefore, the tapping should be done exactly on the eye and back fill the area withgravel and pebbles. The wall of the spring box needs to be plastered with watertightmaterial. The inspection manhole has to be completely sealed.

Spring water should be tested before and after heavy rain and on regular base forbacteria, pH, turbidity, and conductivity.A drain has to be dug around the spring source to take surface runoff away from itand to prevent pollution of the spring water. Regular clearing of spring box and thesurrounding area, regular application of disinfection, provision of drain for thespillage water, cattle trough and fence is required.

The water bureau/offices must recognize and fulfill its commitment to provide continuoustechnical and non-technical support and ensure the availability of necessarymaterials, tools and manpower. Duties and responsibility of the water bureau andusers need to be clearly defined.Villagers should raise sufficient fund at least enough to cover minor repair andmaintenance.

5.3.4 Bida School Existing situation Spring development in Bida School is found in Banja woreda Bida Keble located about 2487m elevation. The scheme has a concrete tap stand, cattle trough and washing basin. The tap stand has four out let pipes with faucets the yield of the spring-estimatedaround 0.4866 liter per second with seasonal fluctuations. The spring servesapproximately 120 house hold. The water from the spring used for all domesticpurposes.

Major problems Spacing of different components of the scheme has not taken in to account therecommended standard spacing. Cattle trough was located at a distance less that 4mwhich is not recommended from the sanitary point of view. Also the dimensions ofcattle trough not allowed more cattle at the same time.Spring box and spring tapping structure are totally covered by bushes and trees.There was no access for clearing and disinfections application. There was no sanitaryprotection to prevent contamination of the spring water. No drainage facilitiesavailable to divert surface runoff away from the spring box and spring tapping.

The community hired system operator. He was simply appointed by the communitywithout considering his ability to operate the system and perform minor repair andmaintenance. He has not yet received any training from any organization, even he donot know where to get help for major repair. He has no access to tools, spare parts,and manual.There was a water committee created at the time of project implementation. But themember of the committee have not yet received any training on operation,maintenance, and other topics to manage the system therefore they are not capable toperform their intended work.There was no system to carry out preventive maintenance. Maintenance and repair arecarried out only when the scheme breakdown. Whenever breakdown occur there wasno an immediate measures taken. It takes on average 10-15 days.

Remedial measures Physical protection of recharge area of spring by removing deep-rooted trees andproviding proper drainage facilities for runoff and water split. Clearing all the bushesand trees around the spring tapping and spring box and fencing the recharge area.Manhole of the spring box should be inspected and cleaned regularly .Any algaegrowth or polluted materials should be completely removed. I. Relocation of cattle trough is required. II. Preventive maintenance and repair program should be arranged. III. Personnel who do not have training should be given the relevant training.

5.3.5 Dekuna

Existing situation Spring development in Dekuna is found in Ankesha woreda Dekuna dereb Keble located about 1808m elevation. The scheme has a masonry spring box with 1inch diameter galvanized steelopen flow out let pipes installed in its wall and washing slab. The yield of the spring isestimated around 0.5liters per second with seasonal fluctuation. The spring servesapproximately 160 families. The water from the spring used forcooking, drinking and washing.

Major problems The spring box, which was made of masonry not completely sealed. It has crack on itswall, open space on the cover slab and half of which was covered with vegetation,which leads easy enter of frogs, insects and rubbish. The wall of the spring box was notproperly anchored to the sidewall therefore large amount of water leaks through it.There was no regular application of disinfections and clearing of spring box. People,especially children cited to diarrhea regularly.

Inconveniency of the water point and Water shortage was serious problem. Women andchildren have to walk long distance and wait long queue for water each day to collectminimum quantities of water. This was due to much number of users and out of fourout let pipes two are nonfunctional. In addition, the diameter of the out let pipe wasvery small to deliver enough water as needed.Clear distance between the out let pipes and bucket stand is around 400mm. which isnot allowed jerry can and large containers to draw water. Users draw water withsmall bucket and transfer it to their Jerry can or larger container that causes longqueue and increase the spillage water.

The washing slab is constructed at distance less than 1m from the out let pipe, at thesame level as the surrounding ground floor. This was not comfortable to wash clothesand to dispose wastewater properly. The washing basins had four slabcompartments of 800mm: 800mm dimension. Of which two were nonfunctional,filled with stagnant water, and rubbished. In addition, the ridge in between the slabswas around 50 mm that leads the flow of water from one-slab compartment to the othereasily at the time of washing. Most of the Users travel extra distance to

nearest riverto get water for their cattle but still few of them allow their cattle to drink in thespring. Therefore users washing pollute water, laundry and allowing their cattle tostand in the water while filling Jerry cans.

There was no protection work done like provision of drainage for surface runoff, andsurplus water. Runoff from the catchments area carrying with its impurities andpolluted soil flooded to the spring box directly, No fence was provided and in the area,there were deep-rooted trees and bushes.Lack of responsibility both from users and water offices, lack of preventivemaintenance, lack trained man power, lack of coordination, relatively low income ofvillagers and limited contribution, lack of local capacity, lack of tools and materials,all this were the problem noticed in the scheme.

Remedial measures Spring box wall has to be sealed with clay or concrete, the cover slab of spring boxhas to be water tight and completely sealed to reduce the chance of surface pollution,and anchorage of the wall of the box firmly to the side is required. Regularapplication of disinfections and clearing required.Repair the nonfunctional pipes and increase the diameter of the out let pipes.Increase the clear distance between the out let pipe and bucket stand. Repair drainagefacilities for the surplus water and provide drain ditches for surface run off.The washing slab has been constructed by raising it from the surrounding and awayfrom the tap stand. The dimensions of washing slab, the height, and the width of theridge have to be increased. Proper drain has to be provided to dispose safely thewastewater. Cattle trough has to be constructed to reduce the extra time and energyfor cattle drinking. Fence has to be constructed to keep cattle away from it and toprevent unauthorized entry.

5.3.6 Berie

Existing situation Spring development in Berieis found in Ankesha woreda Tirba keble,located about 2244m elevations. The scheme has 1" diameter galvanized steel out letpipe installed on the wall of spring box and washing basin made of concrete. The yieldof the spring is estimated 0.6 liter per second with seasonal fluctuations. The springserves approximately 110-house hold. The water from the spring used for all domesticpurposes.

Major problems Poor construction of spring tapping and spring box leaded to leakage of much amountof water. As the users claimed and I observed, the spring tapping was not done exactly onthe” eye” of the spring. In addition, it was noticed that the spring box have cracked on itswall and it was not anchored with the ground on which it was build up. Due to this largeamount of water lost and the source became insufficient.

The inspection manhole ofthe spring box was not properly sealed and has openings, children play on it, animalstand on it. Insect, Frog, Snake, Mosquito, and garbage easily entered to the box &blocked the out let pipe.There was no drainage facility provided to divert surface runoff, spillage and surpluswater from the surrounding. The vicinity of the spring was muddy, full of rubbish,algae growth, and animal drop with bad smell. The upstream of the spring source is agrazing land. The spring area was not fenced cattle drink and stand in the outlet pipewhile filling Jerry can. Also the washing slab located next to the out let pipe was notprovided with drainage. Thus all the water from it stands on all around it.

There was no means for regular application of disinfections. As users claimed people,especially children were cited to diarrhea consistently and worms occasionally presentedin water.Long walking distance (i.e. more than 2km) and Long queue (i.e. more than1.5houre) was the biggest problem of the system. Women and children spent a lot oftime each day for water because the well dose not delivers enough water quickly (i.e.too small diameter out let pipes). There was no protection work done around the spring like removing of deep-rootedtrees.

Remedial measures

It should be dug back in to the hillside to the water-bearing layer where the water isflowing from the “eye” of the spring. Then loss stone and gravel should be pilledagainst the eye of the spring. Gravel and stone serve to filter intrusion of silt tospring box and reduce erosion of the surrounding. To increase the amount of waterreach the spring box ensures that all the water tapped from the source is channeled tothe spring box.

To set the spring box firmly the area must be dug out enough so that the spring boxfits in to impermeable material. In the cases where the box dose not reachesimpermeable material, puddle clay should be used to seal the area around the sides ofthe spring box.The spring box has to be made of watertight material and should be anchored tightlywith the ground and the inspection manhole has to be completely sealed. Providescreen on the over flow pipe to prevent entry of mosquitoes and frogs. In addition,discourage children playing on the box.

Standing water around source will result in mosquito breeding; attract flies andanimals, which are potential health hazard, to some extent negating many of thebenefits of improved water supply. Clear the area and the spring box thensurrounding swampy area has to be drained, cleaned and back filled with stone orgravel and provided with proper drainage. Provide drainage facilities around thespring catchments to divert the entire surface run off away from it. Also, channel thesurplus and spillage water with proper drain to cattle watering pond or vegetablegarden.

Animal grazing in water catchments areas are also a cause of fecal and parasiticlarvae being carried in to the water source. Fencing the water catchments isimportant to keep animal away from the source. That reduces compaction of thesource and possible contamination.Arrange a regular clearing and application of disinfections in spring box.

5.3.7 Azemach

Existing situation Spring development in Azmach is found in Ankesha woreda Tulta Keble,located 2333m elevation. The scheme consists of cattle trough, washing basin and tapstand with 2”galvanized steel out let pipes pipe. The yield of the spring is estimated0.506 liter per second with seasonal variation. It serves 675 people .The scheme waterused for multiply purposes including drinking, bathing, laundry, and animal watering.In this scheme there is no significant problem noticed. The spring intake consists ofcovered collection box built to reduce the chance of surface pollution. Tap standconsists of galvanized steel pipe supported on masonry back wall. The floor is

made ofconcrete and stone slab. Surpluses water is drained safely to the downstreamcultivatedfield.

There is some indication that the villagers do care for their scheme. It is noticed that,they use guard, lock the fence for certain period of the day. The implementing agentarranges a six-month visit for preventive maintenance and application of disinfections.This positive trained of users and water agency to care for their scheme could beturned in to full-scale village level maintenance with proper training and back upservices in spare parts, tools, and occasional major repairs.

5.3.8 Yardesta

Existing situation Spring development in Yardesta is found in Ankesha woreda Tulta Keble, located at 2356melevations. The spring is used as gravity piped supply system for people living downstream of the spring. This is due to the good topography of the source with 3000-litrestorage tank made of masonry. Water distribution is through four stand post and eighthouse connections. It serves 270 families. The water from the spring is used for alldomestic purposes.

Major problem Pipe lying was not properly done. Pipe trenches were shallowly or poorly dug. As thetop cover was very little in many place it has been washed away and rain leaving manypipes unprotected. Inconveniency of public stand post, much number of users per stand post, longqueue, long walking distance, limited working time of guards were major problemsnoticed.

There were no other facilities like washing slab and cattle trough. Due to this, peopletravel extra distance to wash their cloth and watering their cattle.Insufficient physical protection of spring catchments i.e. provision of drainage ditchto divert surface runoff away from the spring box removal of deep-rooted trees andfence to prevent animals entry to the area.There was no metering of consumption. For the stand post and the house connectioncharged at a flat rate. The flat rate is 1Birr per house holed. The revenue was far fromcovering the operation costs let alone the recovery of capital cost.

Remedial measure Pipe lying has to be done properly. Trench should be deep enough to protect pipelinefrom damage of large truck, falling trees, and animals. Piped supply keep functioningonly when pipes, valves, taps are regularly maintained, leaks are promptly repairedand on suitable drainage facilities being provided and maintained to dispose of extrawastewater.

It is needed to assign local people for such tasks checking and repairing taps, tracingand repairing leakage pipes. Guidance will be needed on appropriate managementand finance system to ensure that spare parts and tools are available.Proper drainage has to be provided at the spring source and storage tank to divertsurface runoff away from it, to avoid erosion of surrounding area and to preventingress of floodwater with its impurities and polluted soil to the water point andvicinity. Also drainage has to be provided for the stand post to dispose safely spillageand surpluses water to a cattle watering pond, village garden or cultivated land.Supplies of tools, spare parts will have to be organized, as well as bureau assistancefor the more major repairs. Cost recovery mechanisms have to be arranged.

The storage tank and the water point have to be fenced to prevent entry of animalsand unauthorized entry. Well distributed additional stand posts are required atconvenient place and for the maximum number of users to be served. That alsominimizes the frequency of breakdown of pipe joint, faucet. In addition, reduce thepressure.

Additional feature like bathing, laundry and cattle watering facilities have to beprovided near to the stand post, but separate.Schemes are better maintained; less abused and has higher level of financialperformance when the number of users is small.Responsibilities of users and water bureau have to be clearly defined. Villagersshould be encouraged to nominate a person or committee to be responsible forlooking after the village scheme, metering water, collecting charges and performsimilar tasks.

Discussion Majority of people living in hillside of the study area were dependent on the water supply from springs. In the sample woredas the developed springs were not fully functional according to definition in literature review. This was because of simple causes such as minor repairs, including fixing leakage of spring boxes, tapping and spring boxes could not be done because of the community lacked one of the following spare parts, tools, skill or funds.

5.4 Hand dug well Estimated315communalusehand-dugwellsexistinthestudyWoredas.Outof315hand- dugwells,8werevisitedasthefieldinventoryoftheexistingwellsandtheirgeneralconditions .Allhand- dugwellsarefittedwithAfridevhandpumpandlinedwithconcretering.Thedepthandthedia meterofeachspecificwellarenotknown.ThedepthofhanddugwellinAwizone,ingeneral,ra ngesfrom6mto18m.Thediameterofwellsalsorangesfrom90cmto120cm,whichisthemini mumdiameterfortwopeopleworktogether.Inthezone,thenumbersofunusedandnon- operativehanddugwellsaresignificant.Intheeightsampleschemes,questionnairesweredis cussedwithcommunityfromtheresultofthefindingtheexistingsituation,majorproblemenc ounteredandtheremedialmeasurethathastobetakentoimprovetheservice for each of the eight schemes are discussed below.

5.4.1 Tsatsafi

Existing situation

This Handdugwellisfoundin BanjaWoreda, Bata kebele locatedabout2525melevation. Itwasserving100-household.It i s notutilizedforany purposes due to high turbidity, silt intrusion, and bad smell.

Major problems

Inthearea,therewasproblemoflandslide.Theplatformofthehandpumpwasdistorted andburiedinthesoil.Themanholeofthewellwasnotproperlysealed,crackedandits outcroplevelwasexactlyequaltothesurroundinggroundlevel.Itislocatedonthe downstreamoffarmland;therewerenoanydrainagefacilitiestodivertsurfacerunoff

awayfromthewell. Inaddition, therewas noapronprotecterosionoftheheadwalland nodraintokeepspillagewaterawayfromtheshaft. The scheme wasnot fenced,which is susceptible for pollutions, damage, and unauthorized entry

Thefindingfromthesurveyindicatedthatthecommunitywerenotwellorganizedtooperatea ndmaintenancetheirwatersystem.Noclearresponsibilitywassetforoperationandmaintena nce,manpowerdevelopment,trainingsandfordistributingandpurchaseofspareparts.Itwas foundthat,watercommitteewascreatedandhadnotyetreceivedanytrainingfromanyorgani zationtomanageandcontrolthesystem;eventheydidnotknowwheretogethelpformajorrep air.Theyhavenoaccess to tools, and spare parts.Duetoalltheseproblemspeopleusealternativeunprotectedsourcewithitspotentialhea lth hazard. People especially children are regularly cited to diarrheas.

Remedial measures

Theinitialtaskhastobetoclearallrubbishandsiltfromthebottomofthewellandto plug it with concrete orgravel.Becausetheareaispronetolandslidethestabilityoftheshaftmaynotbeachievedunl essandotherwiseaspecialtreatmentisdone.Thereforeitisdesirabletoreinstalllining.Thelin ingbeingbuiltuponaconcert- cuttingring(i.e.concreteringwithreinforcement).Theoldexcavationmayhavecertainlyirre gularshape.Thereislikelyaconsiderablegapbetweenthecaissonandpartsoftheshaftwall.T hisspacehastobefilledwithgravel,exceptforthetop3metersthatshouldbepluggedwithpud dle clay before the wellhead is constructed.

Erosionatthetopofthewellcanoccurduetoeitherthelackofawellheadorthe lackofawatertightsealatthetopofthewellandapron.Thereforeasdescribed earlier,improvedwellshavetobeprovidedwithawellheadstructureconsistingofa headwallbuilt up with rocks and compacted clay that is plastered with mortar.

Thesimplest,butmostimportant,singleimprovementtoanexistingwellisthe constructionofawellheadconsistingofheadwallanddrainageapron.Thissingle measurecaneradicatingcauseofwaterbornediseasesandconsiderablyreduceother healthrisks.Concreteapronshouldbeconstructedonthegroundsurfaceallaround thewell.TheConcreteapronalsosealsanyfissuresbetweenthewellliningandthe walloftheexcavatedholeandpreventspollutedsurfacewaterfromseepingintothe well.Identifyingsourcesofcontamination,regularwaterqualitychecking,andapplication ofdisinfectionsisrequired.Thisshouldberepeatedatregularintervals.Rainwater andspillinghastobedrainawayfromtheshaft.Afterwhichheadwallanddrainage apronare constructed in permanent material.

Anothermethodofimprovinganexistingdangerousorunsanitarywellistoconvertitintowha tisknownasa’sealed‘well.Oneinwhichtheonly accessestotheintakeisthroughasmalldiameterpipeleadingtothesurface.The narrowpiperisingtothesurfacecanbemadeofanymaterial.Itmustbestrong enoughtostanduptothesoilpressure,bedurable,andlargeenoughtotakethe risingmainpipeforthehandpumpandmustbesealedtopreventpollutedsurface waterfromsoakingin.Thejointbetweenthepipesareusuallymortaredsolidclay.Thisevenha veadisadvantageofoncesealeditisnotpossibletodeepenthewell,or toextractanysandthatmayhaveenteredwiththewater.Insomeways,thisis cheaperthanrehabilitatingthewellintheconventionalmannerlikeexpensivelining of shaft.

Thegroundaroundthewelltophastobegradedtoensurethatrainwater andspillage drainsawayfromtheshaft.Theschemeshouldbefencedtoprotectunauthorized entryofchildrenandanimals.Schemeattendantandwatercommitteeshouldbe selectfromthecommunityandshouldreceiverelevanttrainings.Usercommunity especialwomenshouldinvolveinmanagementandcontrolofscheme.Thereisa needtoexplorewaystoinvolvethemmoreeffectivelyinprotectingorimproving their drinking water.

Villagersshouldraisesufficientfundsforoperationandminorrepair.Thewater bureaushouldarrangeregularvisitorsfortheschemeoperationandmaintenance untilvillagersattaincapabilitytoruntheschemes.Suppliesoftools,sparepartswill have to be organized, as well as bureau assistance for the more major repairs.

5.4.2 Chewssa

Existing situation

HanddugwellinChewsaisfoundinKessa ChewsaKeble,locatedabout2515melevation.Theyieldofthewellonaverageisestimated0. 21literpersecondwith seasonalvariation.Thenumberofusersisnotexactlyknownbutitisexpectedmore than 240 households.

Major problems

Insufficientquantityofwater toolimitedworkinghouroftheoperatorandthewelldid n o t deliverenough water quickly.Womenandchildrenspentmuchtimeeachdayonfetchingwaterbecauseoflong walkingdistanceandlongqueuing.AlsoatmonthsApril,MayandJunethe communityfaceseverewatershortage.Becauseofthis,thewaterfromthehanddug wellwasonlyusedforcookinganddrinking.Forpersonalhygiene,laundryandcattle theyusedthenearest ZinginiRiver. Useofthissafewaterfordrinkingandcookingreduce waterbornediseases.However,therewasinsufficientsupplyforproperpersonal hygiene,sothat"waterwashdiseases,”(like,Trachomaandskindiseases)cannot effectivelycontrolled.Qualityofwaterwasnotsatisfactory,childrenwereconsistentlycitedf ordiarrhea,and thetaste of the water is salty.

Insufficientphysicalprotectionsofwelllikeprovisionofproperdrainagefacilitiesto divertsurfacerunoffandtokeepspillagewaterawayfromthewellshaft.The spillagewaterfromthepumpstandsaroundtheschemeandthevicinityofthepump becamemuddythatresultdiseasesspreadbyinsects,whicheitherbreedinwateror bitenearwater.LikeMalaria.Eventheinspectionmanholeofthehanddugwellwas not

properly sealed.

Theinstalledpumpwasnotmaintainedandrepaired.Ithasunusualnoiseand vibration.Failuretocollectadequatechargesfromtheusers,themonthlyrevenuewas onebirrperfamilypermonth,whichwasnotenoughtomeetoperatingexpensesand thecostofminorrepair. Poormaintenanceroutinesandfrequentsystemfailuremade users unwilling to pay for the service they received users.Collaboration difficulties between community and water offices, lack of responsibilityonthepartoftheusers,non- participationoftheusersandshortageoftrained personnel were the major problem.

Remedial measures

Theproblemofinadequateyieldiseitherunsuitabilityofsiteordecreasedinpower ofthepumpingunitsorduetolongageservicesandpooroperationandmaintenance ofsystem.Cleaningandprovidingstorageatthebottomcouldimprovethis.Alsoby changingoldpumpunites.Arrangingproperoperationandmaintenanceareessential for efficient use of existing water supply.

Aregularcheckingofthewaterqualityisessentialinordertoensuresafetyofthe waterandregularwellcleaningandapplicationofdisinfectionsrequires.Preventive maintenanceprogramshouldbearrangedinordertoimprovefunctioningofthe pump.Ifsimplebreakdownsarereportearly,bymonitoringteamandsubsequent repair done disastrous,failure will not be occur.

Thewellshouldbecompletelysealedwithawatertightslabonwhichapumpis mountedtodrawwater.Amanholeshouldbetightlyandsecurelylockedtoallow disinfections.Thegroundaroundthewelltopisgradedtoensuresaferemovalof rainwaterandspillagewaterawayfromtheshaft,afterwhichaheadwalland drainageapronareconstructedinpermanentmaterial.Theschemeshouldbefenced toprotectunauthorizedentryofchildrenandanimals.Schemeattendantandwater

committeeshouldbeselectfromthecommunityandshouldreceiverelevanttraining. Usercommunityespecialwomenshouldinvolveinmanagementandcontrolof scheme.Thereisaneedtoexplorewaystoinvolvethemmoreeffectivelyin protectingorimproving their drinking water.

Villagersshouldraisesufficientfundsatleastenoughtocoveroperationandminor maintenancecosts.Thispracticehasbeenfoundtocreatethesenseofownership andresponsibilitywithinthevillagesforproperoperationandmaintenance.As financeisoneofthebigproblemsthenthecommunityshouldbeconvincedtopay forthe services they get to increase the level of services.

5.4.3 Erob Gebya

HanddugwellinErob GebayafoundinBanja woreda locatedabout2273melevation.This schemewasnon- functional.Ithadinstalledhandpumpoutsidethevillage,whichwerenotworkingverywell.T hesealshadbrokenonthehandpumpanditwasveryinefficient,needingalotofhardworktopu mpthewater,nosparepartshadbeenleft.Inthe instanceusershadnotbeenmotivatedtorepairthepump,therewasafaultinthe designofthewhole.Usersduetoinsufficiencyofthewatersourcedamagedthewell.

The installed handpumpswerebrokenanddisplacedfromtheirpositionbyusers. Users get directaccessofwaterclosetothesourcewitharopeandbucket.Nowadayusers restoredtounsafe traditional point from Fetam River with its obvious health hazard.Vandalismaffectssourcesindirectlythroughthemalfunctioningofthesystems.Also directly,asitconcernsthesourceandthecatchmentsarea,thisexposestheground watertopossiblecontaminations.Poorplanning,constructionandinadequate operationandmaintenanceoftencausepoorfunctioning.Itisclearthatattentionneeds tobegiventotheseaspectsinordertomadeefficientuseofavailablesources.Proper sourceandsitselectioncontributetothereliabilityofthewatersupplysystem.

Locatingareawithhighyieldingsiteandlowriskofcontaminationbyseepagefrom thesurface will result sustainable supply. HanddugwellsupplySystemmustbedesignedforsimple,troublefreeoperation equipmentmustbeabletowithstandhardusage,andreplacementpartmustbe available. In addition, capable of beingoperated and maintained by local technician’s

5.4.4 Awosa 01

Existing situation

HanddugwellinAwosa 01 isfoundin Ankesha woredaBuyaKeble,located about2231melevations. The welldepthis around12m. Thewellbecomesnon-reliable duetoitsverylowyield.Itsyieldperdayis150literapproximately.Thenumberof users is notexactly known but it is expected around 150house hold.

Major problems

Watershortageoccurred throughouttheyear.Theyieldofthewellbecamesverysmall.Onefamilyallowedcarryingonl y20- 25literperweek.Theyusedthewateronlyfordrinking.Theschemewasfallenintodisrepairfo rmorethantwoyear.Womenandchildrentravelmorethan5- 8kmtogetsafewaterandspendalotoftimeeachdayqueuingforwater.Thelongwalkingdistan ceandthetimewastedonqueuingallcontributetomakethecommunityuseunprotectedsourc elike,river,pond, and unprotected spring.

Otherproblemencounteredwerelackofresponsibilityonthepartoftheusersandthewaterbur eau,institutionalweaknessofthewaterbureau,insufficientrevenue,and lackof tools, spare parts, material locallyand lack of trained manpower.Itrepresentsawasteofmoneyandeffortandhasastrongdiscouragingeffectonthe community.

Remedial measures

Yieldofperfectlyfunctioningwellmaybecomeinsufficientbecauseofthereductionincapac ityofthepumpduetoexcessivewornparts.Ontheotherhand,theexcessivewearingofpumpm

ayduetopumpingofsandenteringthewell.Mostcommonly,adecreaseinthecapacityofawel lresultfromthecloggingofthewellintakebydeposits thisincrustingdepositsoilmaterialsuchassiltandclay.Theinitialtaskhastobeclearallrubbis handlosssiltfromthebottomandchangetheworn part of the pump.

Toimprovetheyieldofthewell,therearetwoprincipalinwhichtheamountofwaterenteringa wellmaybeincreasedbydeepeningit,thusproducingagreatdifferenceofwaterlevelbetwee ntheinsideandoutsideoftheintakeandbyincreasingthearea of intake in contact with the aquifer.Theschemeshouldbefencedtoprotectunauthorizedentryofchildrenandanimals.S chemeattendantandwatercommitteeshouldbeselectfromthecommunity.

5.4.5 Awosa 02

Existing situation

HanddugwellinAwosa 02isfoundinAnkesha woreda BuyaKeble,locatedabout2217m elevation. Theyieldofthewellonaverageisestimated0.15literpersecondwithseasonalvariation.Then umberofusersisnotexactlyknownbutitisexpectedaround150 households. The water from the pump used only for drinking and cooking.

Major problems

Watershortageoccurred allmostthroughouttheyear,especiallyinmonthsApril,May andJunethecommunityfacesevereshortage.Onefamilyallowedtocarryonly20 - 25litersperday.Theyusethewateronlyfordrinking.Forcooking,laundry, personalhygiene,andcattle'stheyusethenearestriverandunprotectedspringwith its health hazards. People especially children arecitedregularly to diarrhea.

Longqueuewasthebiggestproblemofthesystem.Womenandchildrenspentalotof timeeachdayqueuingforwaterbecauseoflimitingworkinghouroftheoperator andthewelldidnotdeliverenoughwaterquickly.Thequalityofthewaterwasnot good. It has turbidityand salty taste. TheschemeinAwosaislocatedinthecenteroffarmland.The use of

fertilizer and pesticide caused contamination of ground water.

Therewerenodrainagefacilitiestodivertproperlyrunofffromthesurrounding farmlandandwaterspiltfromthepump.Aprondistortionsandcrackingdueto landslide was noticed.Ithasinstalledahandpumpoutsidethevillage,whichwasnotworkingverywell,and peoplewerestillusingthetraditionalwaterpoints.Thesealoftheheadwallwasbroken onthehandpumpanditwasveryinefficient,needingalotofhardworktopumpthe water,no spare parts have been left. There wasno apronprovided.

Thecommunityhiredsystemoperator.He w a s simplyappointedbythecommunitywithoutconsideringhisabilitytooperatethesystem andperformminorrepairsandmaintenances.Hehasnotyetreceivedanytrainingfromanyorg anization,evenhedidnotknowwheretogethelpformajorrepair.Hehadnoaccesstotools,spar eparts, and manuals. Therewasawatercommitteecreatedatthetimeofprojectimplementation.Butthememberoft hecommitteehavenotyetreceivedanytrainingonoperation,maintenance,andothertopicsto managethesystemthereforetheyarenotcapabletoperform their intended work.

Therewasnosystemtocarryoutpreventivemaintenanceandregularapplicationof disinfections. Maintenanceandrepairswerecarriedoutonlywhentheschemebreaks down. Wheneverbreakdownoccurstherewasnoanimmediatemeasuretaken.Ittakesin average 10-15 days. Therewasarevenuecollectionsystem(i.e.0.70birrperfamilypermonth)mainlyforthesalary ofoperatorandpurchaseofmaterialforminorrepairsbecauseoffrequentscheme failure and poverty most of the villagers were unwilling to pay more.

Remedial measures

Protectionofgroundwatersourcedeservesurgentattention.Alocationsafedistanceawayfro mapollutionsourcesrequired.Incaseoflackofalternativesite,thesituationcouldbeimprove dbyProvisionofwatertightliningandbackfill,atleastontheupperfewmeterstopreventsurfa cewaterfromseepintothewell.Physicalprotectionofwellbyprovidingapronanddrainagefa cilitiestoleadawaysurfacerunoffandsplitwaterisrequired.Manholeofthewellshouldbeins pectedandcleanedregularlyandanyalgaegrowthorpollutantsmaterials should be completely removed

Inadditionprovisionofdrainageaprontodivertwaterawayfromthewellheadarea,preventw aterfrompoolingatthesurfacenearthewellopening,andprovidesastructurallysoundandmo rehygienicsurfaceforwelluserstowalkonandresttheirwatercollectionvessels.Usershould beinstructedtonotstandontheheadwallandmanholewhiledrawingwaterinordertoreduceth echanceofcontaminatedspiltwater from entering the well.

Yieldofperfectlyfunctioningwellmaybecomeinsufficientbecauseofreductionincapacity ofthepumpduetoexcessivewornparts.Ontheotherhand,theexcessivewearingofpumppart smayduetothepumpingofsandenteringthewellorduetolong age services and poor operation and maintenance of system. Mostcommonly,adecreaseinthecapacityofawellresultfromeitherunsuitabilityofsiteorclo ggingofthewellintakebyincursiondeposit.Theseincrustingdepositssoilmaterialsuchassil tandclay.Theinitialtaskhastobeclearallrubbishandlosssiltfirmfromthebottom.Thiscould beimprovedbycleaningandprovidingstorageatthebottomandbychangingoldpumpunites. Arrangingproperoperationandmaintenance are essential for efficient use of existing water supply.

Thespacebetweenthewallsofthedugwellandtheliningshouldbesealedwithpuddleclay,orb etterwithcementgrout.Theupperpartsoftheliningshouldbewatertightpreferablytoadepths everalmetersbelowthelowestdrawdownlevel.Anapronshouldbeconstructedaroundtherai sedtopoftheliningandthegroundaroundthewelltopisgradedtoensuresaferemovalofspilla gewaterawayfromtheshaft.

Aregularcheckingofthewaterqualityisessentialinordertoensuresafetyofthewater and

regular well cleaning and application of disinfections requires.Schemeattendantandwatercommitteeshouldbeselectfromcommunityandshoul dreceiverelevanttraining.Regularmonitoringandpreventivemaintenanceprogramshould bearrangedinordertoimprovefunctioningofthepumps. If simple.Breakdownsarereportearly,bymonitoringteamandsubsequentrepairdone disastrous, failure will not be occur.

5.4.6 Yimali

Existing situation

HanddugwellinYimali isfoundinAnkesha woredaTirba Keble,locatedabout 2233melevations.Theyieldofthewellisestimated0.101literpersecondwith Seasonal variation. The numbers ofusers are estimated around 90-house hold.

Major problems

Quantityofwaterwasnotsufficientforalldomesticpurposes.Waterfromtheschemewasonl yfordrinkingandcooking.For,personalhygiene,launderandcattletheyusefromnearestrive r.InparticularonmonthsApril,MayandJuneonefamilyallowedtocarry20- 25litterperday.Qualityofwaterwasnotsatisfactory,childrenwereconsistentlycitedfordiarr heaandthetasteofwaterwassalty.Therewasnoanysystemarrangedforregularapplicationof disinfectionandcleaningofwellandits surrounding.

Manholeofthedugwellwasnotcompletelysealedandtherewasnoanydrainagefacilitiespro videdtodivertproperlysurfacerunoffandsplitwater.Itslocationalsonotsafethatiscenteroff armland.Thesealbrokenonthehandpumpandthepumpisinefficient, needing lots of hard work to pump the water.No spare parts left in this instance the villages are not motivated to repair thepump.

Theaveragewalkingdistancewomenandchildrentraveltofetchwaterisaround4km and regularly they have to queue more than 1.5 hours at the scheme. Thereisarevenuecollectionsystemmainlyforsalaryofoperatorandpurchaseofmaterial for minor repairs i.e.0.650 Birr per family per month. Therewasnosystemtocarrypreventivemaintenance.Maintenanceandrepairswerecarriedo

utonlywhentheschemebreaksdown. Wheneverbreakdownoccurred therewasno an immediate measures taken. It takes in average 18 days.

Remedial measures

Itisessentialthatwellshouldbelocatedandconstructedinsuchawaythatitprotectstheground watersourcefromcontamination.Inaddition,itmustbeoperatedandmaintainedinhygienic manner.Provisionsealedmanhole,drainagefacilities and headwall is required to develop the scheme in its design performance. Theproblemofinadequateyieldiseitherunsuitabilityofsiteordecreasedincapacityofpumpi ngunitorduetolongageserviceandpooroperationandmaintenance.Cleaningandproviding storageatthebottomcouldimprovethis.Also bychangingoldpumpunites.Arrangingproperoperationandmaintenanceare essentialforefficient use of existing water supply.

Thegroundaroundthewelltophastobegradedtoensurethatrunoffandspillage drainsawayfromtheshaft,afterwhichaheadwallanddrainageapronare constructedinpermanent material. Provisionofdrainageapronkeepwastewaterawayfromthewellheadarea,prevent poolingofwateronthesurrounding,andprovideastructurallysoundandmore hygienic surface for well users to walk on and rest their water collection vessel.

Wells,whichrundryordonotgiveenoughwater,canberehabilitatedbysinkinga tubewellintothebottomofthewellandthenbackfillingtheoriginalwellwith puddleclay. Bythismethod,itispossibleto reachmuchfurtherdownintothewater bearinglayers and thus improved thewell yield. Schemeattendantshouldbeselectedandtrainedproperly.Theprojectshouldsupply basicmaterials, tools and spare parts for the scheme attendant. Usersshouldraisesufficientfundsatleastenoughtocoverlocaloperationand maintenancecost.Thispracticehasbeenfoundtocreatethesenseofownershipand responsibility among users.

5.4.7 Gurji

Existing situation

HanddugwellinGurjiisfoundinAnkeshaworeda Sostu Segno kebele,locatedabout 2067m elevations.Theyieldofthewellonaverageisestimated0.278literpersecond.The numbersofusersarenotexactlyknownbutitisexpected200-household.The number ofusersincreasedbecauseofusersofGurjihanddugwellandspringare sharing the scheme.

Thereissomeindicationatleastinthisschemethatvillagersdocarefortheirpump.It wasnoticedthattheyuseguard,lockthepumpandfenceforcertainperiodoftheday.Thispositi vetrainedofuserstryingtocarefortheirschemecouldbeturnedintofull- scalevillagelevelmaintenancewithpropertraining,organizationandbackupservicein spare parts, tools, and occasional major repairs.ThisschemewasimplementedbyOrthodox Church.Itisnoticedthatthechurch,crewalways,visitstheschemewithin6- 8monthintervalanddopreventivemaintenanceofthesupperstructureofschemelikegreasin g,tighteningofbolts,regularclearingofwellsurroundingandrepairoffencetokeepoutunaut horizedentryfromtheimmediatesurroundings of the well; also disinfection is applied regularly.

Major problems

Therewasnodrainagefacilityprovidedtodivertproperlysurfacerunoffandspillage water from the pump.Fluctuationofyieldwithseasons,atdryseasontheyieldofthewelldecreasewhich caused unnecessary queuing problem and other inconvenient to the consumer. Childrenandwomenspent3-4hourseachdayqueuing(i.e.toomanyusers)for wateraftertravelinglongwalkingdistancearound3kmandalsoduetolimiting workinghoursof the operator.

Therewasawatercommitteecreatedatthetimeofprojectimplementation. Nevertheless,theyhavenotyetreceivedanytrainingonoperation,maintenance,and othertopicstomanagethesystem.Theirdutyisonlyinformingtheimplementing agency whenever breakdown occurs and collecting revenue for guard salary.Theimplementingagencytakeallresponsiblyoftheschemesuchaspreventive

maintenance.Thereisnoanyefforttoparticipateusers.

Remedial measures

Theschemeshouldbeoperatedforsufficienttimeduringthedaysothattherewillbe little queuing and the maximum of convenience for water users.Theadditionofdrainagepreventwaterfrompoolingatthesurfacenearthewellopening, andprovidesastructurallysoundandmorehygienicsurfaceforwelluserstowalk on and rest their water collection vessels.

Discussions

A well fitted with a pump is generally capable of providing as much water as people can pump. Pumps discussed above actually deliver water to ground level but the vicinity soon become muddy, unhealthy and unpleasant place. Ponding water around the scheme resulted for favorable condition for mosquito breeding, insects, and flies can result in potential health hazards. For cracked pump plinth, pollution of water source is enhanced. So drainage has to be provided to keep pooled water away from the pump pedestal to avoid health hazard potentials, entry of polluted water in to the well. The draining structures could be included in design. Simple drainage precast structures with 8-10 meters long could be constructed and lead to spill water way from the base of the pump.

In most visited hand dug wells pumps are not operating for design capacity due to minor technical problems that occurred after a few years of use. In most cases minor repairs including fixing loosen bolts, greasing the pump, could not be done because of water committee lack of one of the following factors; knowledge and tools to repair as well as funds to buy spare parts. On average, the existing pumps mostly fitted with Afraidive hand pumps requires preventive maintenance once in every 6-12 months

5.5 Shallow wells Inthezone,23arenotfunctionaloutof104shallowwells(zone inventoryreport,2013). Considerationhasbeenmadeonthewellheadstatusandliftingdevisesindescribing

thephysicalstatusofshallowwells.Becausethereisnoanydesign,construction,or otherdocumentreportstodealwithallthecomponentofschemes.Outof104shallow well,twowerevisitedtogiveafieldinventoryoftheexistingwellsandtheirgeneral conditions.Allshallowwellsarefittedwithdifferenttypesofpump.Thedepthandthe diameter of each specific well is not known. Inthetwosampleschemes,questionnaireswerediscussedwithcommunityfromthe resultofthefindingtheexistingsituation,majorproblemencounteredandthe remedialmeasurethatshouldbetakentoimprovetheserviceforeachofthetwo schemes are discussed below.

5.5.1 Zufari

Existing situation

ShallowwellinZufariisfoundinBanja woreda Zufarikeblelocatedaboutat 2338melevation.Itwasfittedwithdieselpump;waterdistributionwasdonethrough twopublicfountains.Waterfromthewellwasusedforalldomesticpurposes.Itwasserving15 0household.Itwasconstructedbyworld vision Ethiopia Banja area development program.Nowadaytheschemeis failedduetolandslide.Asitisknown,theareaispronetolandslide;itisobvious stabilityofshaftmaynotachieveunlessespecialtreatmentisdone.Thereweremany causesofwellfailurelikecasingandscreenfailure,collapseofwellwall,and excessivefluidvelocity.Ifthewrongmaterialsareinstalled,ifthescreensare incorrectlylocated,orif the grout is bad,all these problems are the problem of the well itself.TheprobleminZufari shallowwellcanbeespeciallydifficulttotreatsincetheycan occurmanyfeetfarfromthewellwithinalltheareaoftheaquifer.Buttherewasno alternativeswatersourcesandsite,andthevillagehavebeenusingtheunprotected Buchksi River.Itshouldbetreatedwith provisionstrongliningcasing,grouting,andscreenwithproperscreensizeandplaced onproperplace.PhysicalprotectionoftheareaalsoreducessuchproblemslikeAvoid heavytrucks,animalsandhumanactivitiesoverthesurroundingof waterbearinglayer to prevent compaction.

5.5.2 Azena town

Existingsituation

ShallowwellAzena townisfoundinAnkeshaworedaSostu Segno Keble,locatedabout2063melevation.Thewellisusedasgravitypipedsupplysystem.Waterl iftingdone with electric driven pump and 15,000 m3 volume storage tanker. Water distribution was through three stand post and 236 house connections. It served 16000 families. The water from the well wasused for all domestic purposes.

Majorproblems

Allofthewaterpointshadproblemslike,theplatformandthewallofstandpost hascrack,blockingofditchesandsurroundedbystandingwaterandrubbish,andthe faucets were removed and the out let pipes were plugged with wood. Thewaterutilityusedelectricityasitssolesourceofpower.Theelectricitysupplied byEthiopiaelectricpowercorporationwasreliablealthoughsometimesthereare power cuts.

Thepresenceofonlyonepumpattendant,leadedtofrequentbreakdown. Managementoftheoperationwasnotefficient.Itwascommontotakeuptothreehours togetreadyforwork.Sparepartswerebarelykeptinstock.Oftenfreshpurchasehas tobemadewhenabreakdownoccurs.Asthepurchasingprocesswaslongespecially whentheitemisexpensive,repairworkdelayedevenforaweekwiththefore goingsituation,itwasimpossibleforthesystemtooperatesatisfactorily.Preventive maintenance appears to be almost unknown.

Operationandmaintenanceactivitiesarefilledwithbreakdownsespeciallythe machinery.Itwascommontohaveapumpormotorbreakdownwithinthreedays. Thisisaresultofequipmentbeingveryold,fewpersonnelandunsystematic operationandmaintenancepractice.Apumpormotorbreakdowncausesanacute shortage of water. It is common for repair to take a few days.

Theexpansioninthewatersystemhadnotconsideredthetown'srapidpopulation growth. Thedistributionsystemisinadequatewithgreaterpartveryoldandmaythe conveyancecapacityreducedduetodepositsandmuchleakage.Pipelayingalsonot properlydone.Pipetrenchesshallowlyandpoorlydug.Asthetopcoverisvery

little,inmanyplacesrainsleavingmanypipesunprotectedhavewasheditaway. PoorWaterquality,asaresult,theincidenceofwaterbornediseaseslikediarrhea andtyphoidwasfoundamongtowndwellers.Alsointhewellsites,thereweretwo toilettes at a distance less than 8 m. Fewoftheconsumersgotthesupplyfor24hourofadayandmostlywithhigh pressureduetotheirgeographicallocation.Moreoftheconsumersgotwaterforthe partofthedayornowateratallforlongday.Atcertaintime,aspecificareawas suppliedwithwaterwhilethesupplywasshutforotherareasandviceversa.Thiswasso manyhouseholdsgetwaterforonlypartoftheday.Frequentlyreducedwater productionduetobreakdownsofmachineryandpumps,Ingeneral,theshortagewas feltinalmostallareasandtherewas almostnoareainthe townwherethesupplywasnot reliable.

Remedialmeasure

Properlyfencedpublicfountain,regulartighteningoffittingswouldhelptoreduce damageoffaucet.Structuralfailureofstandposthastobemaintainedbyplastering thecrack.Thestandingwaterhastobedrainedandprovisionofproperdrainageis required. Tominimizetheproblemofwatershortageatthetimeofpowerfailureincreasing thestorage capacity or diesel pump alternatives is required.

Formingcommunitylevelwaterusersassociationandbuildingcapacityfor improvingtheassociationskillsshouldcomefirstfromactualconstructionofthe facility.CommunityorganizationsresponsiblefortheO&Mofthewellshouldfirst belegallyconstitutedandregistered.Thetariffcollectionshouldberegular,and tarifflevelsshouldbesetaccordingtothelevelofserviceandcoverexpensesfor regularandperiodicmaintenance.Thisisaprerequisiteforthesustainabilityofthe facilities.

Preventivemaintenanceusedfortheidentificationoffrequencyandlocationoftasks tobeperformedandtheallocationoftheresponsibilitytoundert akethesetasks. Preventivemaintenanceaimsatprolongingthelifeoftheequipment,reducing operationalandmaintenancecostsandimprovingthereliabilityofawatersupply system.Anorganizationthatdoesnotpracticepreventivemaintenancelosesmoney andprobably gives unreliable services.

Corrodedpipeswouldleadtoleakageandsubsequentlycontaminationofthewater. Hence,whereseverecorrosionisobservedinthepipeline,newpipesshouldreplace corrodedsection.Incaseofleakageduetolooseconnection,thejointshouldbe retightened with the help ofappropriate jointing material. Thepressureinthewatersystemisgenerallylowinmostoftheplaces.The topographyofthetownisveryhilly.Atpresentthereisalmostnopressureboosting inthedistributionnetwork.Withsuchtopographypressure,boostingwouldbe requiredinthedistributionsnetworktoproduceadequatepressuresinallareas. Replacingoldpipesandequipmentisrequiredtoreduceleakage,pollution, frequency of break down, andrepair cost.

5.6 . Technical effectiveness and sustainability evaluation 5.6.1 Schemes physical status

Scheme physical status expressed working condition of each components of the scheme.The status of the schemes has been designated based on their current working condition, the type and extent of failure/damage & the possibility of reinstatement repair and maintenance requirement for future utilization. Table 3 Physical status of schemes

Functional Partially Non Abandoned Functional Scheme Schemes functional Schemes Schemes (%) type (%) Schemes (%) (%) One out of Three out of two out of One out of Hand dug seven seven (42.9%) sevenschemes seven well schemes(14.3) (28.6) schemes (14.29) Two out of Five out of One out of ---- Developed eight schemes eight scheme spring (25%) scheme(62.5%) (12.5%) One out of two One out of ------Shallow (50%) two schemes well (50%)

5.6.2 Functioning

5.6.2.1 Water quantity Major problems associated with quantity of drinking water were too many users, seasonality and the scheme did not deliver enough water quickly. In most of the cases, the real number of users per pump orspring development was not known. In addition, the number of users at rainy seasons and dry season were different.Only domestic uses of water were considered in this survey. Domestic uses of water included drinking, cooking, bathing, clothes washing, and dish washing. Water that was suitable for drinking also used for cooking. In all the hand dug wells and piped supply spring users reported obtaining their drinking water from a well and public fountain, and for bathing, clothes washing and animal watering used different water un protected source like, rivers, ponds and unimproved spring source (figure 6).

Figure 6 Unprotected sources of water for different domestic uses in the study area

(Photo by the researcher)

5.6.2.2 Convenience

The average distance that a household travels to a water source was 2 km, the closest was 500meters, and the farthest 5 km. In most areas, 71 % hand dug well and 55 % springs, seasonal variation of yield exist. This in itself could be viewed as a seasonal inconvenience, since a large number of households were using public sources due to

inconvenient location and longer waiting time. Only about 31 per cent of rural households reported having their source of water within their Premises, the rest had to go out to fetch their drinking water. About 16 per cent of the schemes were located in distance less than 1 kilometer, 40 % in distance between1 and 2 km, and 44 % in distance greater than 2 km. Seasonal disruption of supply was common, especially in months April, May, and June Households still depended on supplementary sources, especially where hand pumps were the main source.

5.7 Common technical problems of schemes in sample Woredas 5.7.1 Hand dug wells

1. Site selection problems  Near mountain ridges, hydro geologically poor sites  Near high potential source of pollution 2. Poor design and construction  Commonly design for all sites set by regional water bureau which is not site specific  No bill of quantity is pre estimated for all sites specifically  Community didn’t participated on design scenario  Hard rock intrusion  Seasonal variation of supply source  Low yield  The number of stocks became very much  Un usual vibration and noise of pump  Protection source absence  Absence of apron and drainage facilities

5.7.2. Developed springs

 Poor construction leading to leakage of spring boxes, pipes, and reservoirs.  The spring flow direction change, decrease of yield and delivery and so money small springs starts flow around the tapping structure.  There is no protection work around the spring

 The over flow pipes are completely covered by soil, vegetation and water which leads easy enter of frogs and insects to spring boxes.  Location of standpipe, cattle trough, and washing basin are very close to each other.  Lack of drainage facilities.  In most of the spring point washing basins and cattle, troughs are nonfunctional.  In most of the places water is polluted by users washing, laundry and allowing their cattle to stand in the water while filling jerry cans.  There are many leakages in the spring tapping and boxes structures.  In springs having house connections, pipe lying is not properly done. Pipe trenches were shallowly or poorly dug. As the top covers is very little in many place it has been washed away and rains leaving many pipes unprotect. Inaddition, intermittent supply due to low pressure.

5.7.3 Shallow wells  Unsecured fuel supply  Poor site selection  Inadequate pump selection  Inadequate reservoir capacity  For electric driven, pump shortage of water at the time of power failure  Poor maintenance

Part B: Management factors Analysis

In this part qualitative data collected from beneficiaries, technical staff members, and water committees using structured questionnaire interviews and discussions was entered and analyzed in Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) to determine descriptive statistics for the study.

5.8 Socio economic characteristics of the respondents

The study was carried out in Awi zone sampling two woredas; Ankesha and Banja woredas. Consequently 94% of the respondentswere farmers involved in crop cultivation (both in rain fed and irrigation) and cattle, sheep, goat and poultry production. 200 respondents wereresponded the questionnaires and interviews (table 4). The type of technologies fitted with water supply schemes included in this study were indicated below in table 5.

Table 4 Respondents demographic characteristics

Characteristics Category No of respondents Percentage FWSPs* NFWSPs** FWSPs NFWSPs Under 19 5 2 5 2 20-40 52 59 53 58 Age 41-60 41 32 40 37 Above 60 2 7 2 3 Total 100 100 100 100 Female 24 33 27 29 Sex Male 76 67 73 71 Married 97 85 99 93 Unmarried 0 10 1 1 Marital status Divorced 3 3 0 4 Widow 0 1 0 2 Total 100 100 100 100

Husband 72 81 69 79 Head Wife 28 19 31 21 Total 100 100 100 100 1-4 40 42 33 41 Size 4-8 58 53 65 55 9 and above 2 5 2 4 Total 100 100 100 100 Not educated 74 61 39 74 Grade 1 to 21 20 23 40 Education 12 5 6 14 12 Religious Total 100 100 100 100

* Functional water points ** Nonfunctional water points

Table 5 Technology types of water points studied

No Name Kebele Technology type 1 Chaba Chabanagissa spring 2 Akyta Akytanygissy spring 3 Gashena Gashena spring 4 Bida school Bida spring 5 Dekuna Dekuna dereb spring 6 Berie Sostu Tirba spring 7 Azmach Tulta spring 8 Yardesta Tulta spring 9 Awosa 01 Buya hand well 10 Awosa 02 Buya hand well 11 yamali yimali hand well 12 Gurji Tirba hand well 13 Erob gebya Erob gebaya hand well

14 chewassa Kessa chewsa hand well 15 Tsatsafi Bata hand well 16 Zufari Zufari kebele Shallow well 17 Azena town Sostu segno Shallow well

5.8.1 Pre project factors These were the steps before project implementation such as project initiation and base line survey, community participation in selections of site and technology.

5.8.1.1 Project initiation, site and technology selections The current method in the study area was done mostly woreda water resources development offices. Community leaders such as the chairman and manager of the Kebele agents conveyed message from offices to communities and the woreda offices implement the projects in collaboration with donors and NGOs. Experts from the woreda water resources development office visit and installed a system regardless of its feasibility, community interest, technology options, etc.

There was a high demand for improved water supply systems by the community in the study area. The survey result showed that 52% and 80% respondents initiated the idea of improved water supply project development in FWSPs and NFWSPs respectively. This was important pre condition for donors to create awareness of community. Site selection was made by local community leaders such as kebele chairman in 51% of FWSPs and 60 NFWSPs. 61% and 78% of technology selections were made by donors and woreda water resources development offices respectively in FWSPs and NFWSPs respectively (figure 6 and 7).This indicated that the community had relatively small part in selecting the project sites and technologies installed based on their interest.Full participation of the beneficiaries and local leaders during project initiation was important in order to consider the demand of beneficiaries rather than implementing supply side. Here the donor named as Community managed project approach (CMPs) had good experiences in involving the rural communities in project pre and post implementation activities. The more community and their local leaders involved in decision making the greater the potential for sustainability.

90 80 80 70 60 52 50 50 43 40 30 30 16 20 20 5 10 4 0

Functional Project idea site selection technology

Figure 7 Community share for project initiation, site selection and technology selection for functional schemes

90 80 80 70 60 60 60 50 40 33 27 30 20 13 15 7 10 5 0 community local leaders implementers (donors)

project Idea site selection technology selection Non functional

Figure 8 Community share for project initiation, site selection and technology selection for nonfunctional schemes

5.8.2 Post project factors

5.8.2.1 Cost sharing, cost recovery, and financial management The concept of cost sharing and cost recovery were key concepts of sustainability of water supply systems. When a water development project was designed the donors such as CMP (donated by Government of Finland) and world bank, etc.transferred the budget through the woreda planning and finance offices in collaboration with woreda water resources development offices for technical aspects. Community was expected to cover 15% of the total project cost. Beneficiaries also contributed materials for fencing of the schemes.

The water committee was responsible to mobilize resources for construction, operation, and management of schemes collecting and managing water fees.No structure was used to determine service fees but the common understanding of the community was that those individuals whowant to usewater should pay. In general, there was a very poor cost sharing, cost recovery,and financial management in both FWSPs and NFWSPs in the study area.

Thefield survey result (Table 6) shows that 80% and 72% of the respondents support the idea of water fee payment in FWSPs and NFWSPs, respectively. The rest of /the respondentsdidnot support water payment for the service provided because they believedthatwaterisafreegood. Inthis case, respondents should be made aware of the benefits of improved water supply in the area. We can see that the percentage of beneficiaries supporting water fees, paying water fees and who pay water fees on time decreases in both systems. Theseshowsthere were people who fully support the idea of paying service charge but were unable to pay.

Table 6 Response of respondents in percentages to water fee perception and payments

Do you support water Do you pay water Do you pay water Amount of water fees? fees? fees on time? fee paid/month? FWSPs NFWSPs FWSPs NFWSPs FWSPs NFWSPs FWSPs NFWS Ps % % % % % % % % Yes 80 72 46 21 47 30 56 19 No 20 28 54 79 53 70 44 81 Tot 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 al

From the focus group discussion, it was understood that households were not paying the monthly water fee due to one of the following reasons: sickness and old age (low income), landless people without income (no water provided), payment collection has notbegun, and the belief that water was gift from God and should not be paid for.Respondent’s perception regarding the source of operation and maintenance cost was assessed and their views were summarizedinFigure 9.

90 78.9 80

50 43.3 40 36.7

30 18.9 20 15.6

10 3.3 2.2 1.1 0 tarrif and additional local govt NGOs do not know contribution

Functional Non functional

Figure 9 Response distribution of respondents on sources of money for O & M of the schemes

Nearly four fifths (FWSPs) and two fifths (NFWSPs) of the respondents said that

operation and maintenance costs should come from tariff and additional contribution. A significant percentage of the community from NFWSPs,43% of respondents, revealed that woreda level water management (government) should finance O&M costs while 19% said project implementers (government) should (Figure 9). This indicated that beneficiaries lost ownership of the asset and didn’t want tocontribute money for O&M especiallyin NFWSPs.This was one reason why water supply points became unsustainable.

6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 6.1 Conclusion This study elicited the main reasons why donor assisted rural water supply systems failed and became nonfunctional within a short period of time after implemented in Awi zone. Secondary data from concerned offices, technical field investigation and observation, personal interviews, focused group discussion were done to collect relevant information. The study was carried out within two main parts; technical and management factor analysis.Technical issues relating to the design and construction of a rural water system was the most obvious determinants of water system sustainability.Poor construction quality or the use of low-grade materials was lead to the failure of the water system before the end of its design life. Similarly, design flaws including shallow well or spring developments, and overestimates of the water sources may cause a system to fail from the outset.

The technical problems noticed in the sample woredas were very significant. That includes O&M, construction, and design respectively put in the order of causing considerable failure. Summing up, O&M take the first rank as a technical failure. All water supply infrastructures needed sort of preventive, routine and emergency maintenance and repair like any other engineering structures. Lake of capacity on both sides of users and implementing bodies. Poor construction reflected in the form of absence of apron, drainage facilities, insufficient spring protection and use poor quality construction materials also significantly contribute to failure. Design took almost a small proportion of technical problems. Avoiding over estimation of yield and inconveniency could solve this problem.

The sustainability of rural water supply system depends on the willingness of users to provide the necessary time, money and labor to keep the system functioning. This willingness may be affected by socioeconomic factors such as income level, or willingness of villagers to work together. More commonly, however, the willingness depends on consumer satisfaction withthe service, usually compared to the previous water sources in a community. When communities perceive a significant

improvement in water services, they are usually more willing to pay for O&M willingness-to-pay is also affected by community perceptions of ownership or sense of entitlement to free services from the government

6.2 Recommendations Project design should recognize the need for community involvement in planning, design and construction to guarantee sustainability. Effective O&M, including costrecovery, will take place only when the community accepts full ownership of the facility. Project formulation itself should be treated purely as a technical exercise and the communities have to be involved in the process. To increase the level of ownership of future project, appropriate measures should be incorporated in the project design, such as capacity-building program for sector agencies and communities, and clear delineation of responsibilities among central, local agencies and communities. Appropriate organizations need to be built up and strengthened before, or alongside, project implementation

There is no effort made to train and capacitate the community to take responsibilities of their schemes. Provision of adequate training for rural water personnel and villagers should be included in village water program. Carrying out a training program will ensure proper and continuing O&M of water supply components. From the survey it is noticed that O&M is by far the weakest aspect of most of the sample projects. Poor administrative and technical support and lack of operating fund are cited as the most frequent cause of failure. Improvement would not be achieved unless the improved source is properly maintained and used. Proper operation and maintenance should therefore be central to the remedial measures to be taken.

Failure of Projects to involve the community and to successfully complete the institutional capacity-building component has a key impact on the success of the Projects. Water bureau is responsible for community mobilization but was insufficiently involved, and have insufficient fund and manpower for full interventions. Institutional weakness is the most significant problem in the study woredas. Stated objectives are no set for the utilities. The water offices are not also supporting the utilities efficiently. NGOs and donors are the primary implementing

bodies of rural water supply projects but they are reluctant to do O&M. They allocatefunds for construction of new schemes without any assessment of the cost and manpower requirement for running completed projects. Therefore all governmental and non-governmental bodies should share certain responsibilities to reduce maintenance problem and to ensure more reliable functioning of facilities. To undertake such a responsibility integration of efforts under the woreda water supply, sanitation hygiene team composed of all stakeholders is required. The villagers should be motivated to take over routine O&M activities and contribute funds for repair and maintenance, as it is not possible for the Government agencies to handle routine O&M responsibilities.

Although technical sustainability depends largely on design and construction, it also depends on economic, social, political, cultural, financial, technological, and management aspects. Addressing these aspects calls for a well-designed, long-term, water supply monitoring and evaluation program complemented by all stakeholders. There are insufficient data on the magnitude and nature of drinking water system problems. Lack of information and documentation are possibly one of the main reasons why so far sustainability is not assured. Since a large number of households were found no to regularly use the public taps, due to inconvenient location, longer waiting time and seasonality of flow, it would be advisable to make adjustments on the number of beneficiaries per scheme

REFERENCES Alemneh, S. (2002). Guidelines on sustainable Community management andfinancing of rural water Supply and sanitation. Addis Ababa.

Aschalew, Z. (2009). Determinants Of Household Participation In Water Source Management. Bahir dar.

AZWRDD. (2014). Annual report. Injibara.

BoWRD. (2011). National WaSH inventory. Bahir dar: Tana printing press.

Carter, R. T. (1999). Impact and sustainability ofcommunity water supply and sanitation programmes in developing countries. Journal of the Chartered Institute of Water and Environmental Management, 13, 292_296.

CSA. (2014). Central Statistics Authority yearly population projection 2014. Addis Ababa.

DFID. (1997). Guidance Manual on Water Supply and Sanitation Programmes. London.

Getenet, K. (2001). Hand pumps installation, operation and maintenance Manual; Water aid Ethiopia. Adis Ababa.

Hart, W. (2003). Protective structures for springs: Spring Box Design, Construction.

Hodgkin, J. (1994). The Sustainabilioty of Donor Assisted Rural Water Supply Projects technical report 94. DC: free press.ltd.

IRC. (1987). An Approach to Sustainable Piped Water Supplies (Technical paper series No. 28.). IRC international water and sanitation center.

IRC, C. (1991). Small Community Water Supply. Hague: IRC center.

IRC, P. (1999). Community Water Management. The Hague.

Issayas, T. (1998). Evaluation of Rural water supply projects with Reference to the organizational aspects in Ethiopia. Tampere, Finland.

JICA. (2006). Rope pump operation manual. Tokyo.

Jo and christian, W. (2009). small community water supplies, Technical paper series 40. IRC international water and sanitation center.

Lookwood, H. (2002). Institutional Support Mechanisms for Community managed Rural Water Supply & Sanitation Systems in Latin America. Washington DC.

Misgina. (2006). An Assessment of Challenges of Sustainable Rural Water Supply: The Case of Ofla Woreda in Tigray Region. Addis Ababa.

Morgan. (2005). Rural Water Supplies and Sanitation. London: Macmillan Education Ltd.

MoWIE. (2013). Ethiopian Water Sector Strategy. Addis Ababa.

Selam, A. (2007). Evaluation of technical sustainability of rural water supply projects in Amahra region, case study of South Wollo. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa university press.

Tadesse, A. (2013). Rural Water Supply Managemnt and Sustainability. Awassa: Awasssa printing press.

Teka, G. A. (1977). Water Supply-Ethiopia; an Introduction to Environmental Health Practice. Addis Ababa: AAU Press.

Travis, J. a. (2003). Making Rural Water Sustainable. Newyork.

Watt, S. a. (2001). Hand Dug Wells and Their Construction. London : ITDG Publishing.

WHO. (2011). Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2014 Report. DC: UNICEF.

WHO/UNICEF. (2014). Millennium Development Targets.

WorldBank. (1990). Community Water Supply, the hand pump option, the World Bank paper. Washington DC, USA.

Appendixes AppendixesI

Questionnaires

ForThecommunity

Thefollowingquestionnaireispartofaresearchwork,whichisbeingconductedto knowthe“The effectiveness andsustainabilityof donor assisted ruralwatersupplyprojectcasestudy of Awi zone”.Answertothequestionswillbeusedasapartofthe effortstofindasolutionto effectiveness andtechnical sustainabilityproblemsofscheme.Youarekindlyrequestedtofillthequestionnaireastruly asyoucanandyouranswerwillbetakeninconfident. Choose the answer and encircle and explain where it needs.

Name

Woreda------Keble------Got------Date------1. Sourceofwaterforhousehold------. Handdug well . Spring . Bore hole . Shallowwell . Other(specify) 2. Sourceofprojectinitiative------. Inside community . Local government . Project . Other(specify) 3. Whatdoyouthinkaboutthetaste,odor,andcolor?------. Verygood . Good

. Fair . Notgood . No 4. Estimatedwalkingdistance.------. Less than 100m . 200m . 500m . 1km . Morethan1km 5. Areyousatisfiedwiththedistancefrom previoussource?------. Yes . No 6. Doyougetwaterforall24houroftheday?------. Yes . No 7. Householdmembersmainlytransportwater------. Mother . Children . Other(specify) 8. .Watercontainers------. Jerry can . Bucket . Metal barrel . "Insera" . Other(specify) 9. Istherefrequentqueues?------. Yes . No

-Ifyes,forhowlong?------

------

10. Doyouhaveotheroptiontomeetyourwaterrequirements?------. Yes . No

-Ifyes,whatwatersourceisthat?------

11. Listallofthecurrentwateruse------12. Sourceofwaterotherthandrinkingandcooking------13. Doyoupayforthewater?------. Yes . No

-Ifyes,howmuchisit?------

-Areyouwillingtopaymorethanwhatyou paynow to improve the service? ------

14. Isthereawatersystemoperator?------.Yes.No - Ifyes,aretheseemployeespaid?------15. Doyouthinkthattheoperatorsaresufficientlytrainedtheirjob.---- . Yes . No 16. Aretherepeopleappointedformaintenance?(Caretaker)------. Yes . No 17. Arethecaretakerssufficientlytrained?------ Yes  No 18. Docaretakershaveaccesstotools,spare parts?------ Yes  No 19. Dosethecaretakerhasadequateaccesstospareparts?------ Yes  No 20. Doesthecaretakerhaveoperationand maintenancemanual? ------ Yes  No

-Ifyes,howoftentheyareupdated?------

21. Isthereanyactivityforpreventivemaintenance?------ Yes  No 22. Whatstepdoyoufollowatemergencybreakdown?------23. Whenthesystembreakdownhowmanydaysdoesittakeonaverageto repair? ------24. Whatpartoftheschemeregularlybreakdown?------25. Howmanytimeshasthe systemfailedinthelastyear? ------26. Howistheannualoperationandmaintenancecostcovered?------27. Areyousatisfiedwiththeexistingoperationandmaintenancestatuesofthewater supplyfacilities?------ Yes  No- IfNo,inwhatrespectareyounotsatisfied?------. Waterqualityisnotgood . Waterisnotavailablemostof the time . Facilitiesaredeteriorating . AmountofWaterisnotenough . Waterpriceisexpensive . Others(specify) 28. Istherearegisteredwatercommittee? ------ Yes  No

-Ifyes,howmanypeople?------

-Whatistheroleofthewatercommittee? ------

29. Arethesewatercommitteememberspaid?------ Yes

 No

-Ifyes,incash or in kind ------

30. HowmuchexpensedoesWatercommitteehave?  Forthecaretaker------ Operation------ Maintenance------31. Arewomenchosenasamember ofthewatercommittee?------ Yes  No 32. Whatwasthecommunityroleatthetimeofplanning,designandconstructionofthe waterSystem?------33. Canyousuggestsomewaystoimprovethescheme?------34. Whatadditionalresourcedoyouneedtokeepthesystemrunningandlookinglikeit should?------35. Iswateravailableyearround?------ Yes  No 36. Arethereproblemswiththewatersource(s)?------ Yes  No 37. Whatisthewaterusedfor?

------

Fortheofficial

Thefollowingquestionnaireispartofaresearchwork,whichisbeingconductedto knowthe“The effectiveness andsustainabilityof donor assisted ruralwatersupplyprojectcasestudy of Awi zone”.Answertothequestionswillbeusedasapartofthe effortstofindasolutionto effectiveness andtechnical sustainabilityproblemsofscheme.Youarekindlyrequestedto fillthequestionnaireastrulyasyoucanandyouranswerwillbetakeninconfident. Choose the answer and encircle and explain where it needs.

Woreda------

Keble------

Place------

Date------

1. Sourceofprojectinitiative------ Inside community?  Local government?  Project  Other(specify) 2. Sourceofwaterforhousehold------ Handdug well  Spring  Bore hole  Shallowwell  Other(specify)------3. Didthecommunityparticipateonthechoiceofsource,locationofwaterpointand technology? 4. Whatlimitationdidyoufacetoimplementothertypesofscheme?------5. Didyouconductdetailhydrogeologicalinvestigationstudy?Andwhat wasthat------

6. Didyouproperlycollectandanalyzetheobtaineddataandinformation?------7. Didyouapplyappropriatedrillingtechnique?------8. Didyouutilizelocalmaterials?------9. Howmanypeopleservedbyyourwatersystem?------10. Howmuchistheestimatedwaterconsumption?(Lt/day/capita)------

Outofthishowmuchwater(Lit/day/capita)isusedfor?------

. Cookinganddrinking------

.Personalwashingandbathing------.washingclothes------

11. What typeofproblemdidyoufaceatthetimeofdesign&construction?------12. Whatwasthecontributionofthecommunityatallstage/orprojectcycle?---- 13. Areanyprogramscurrentlyinplacetogivesupportonoperationandmaintenance?-

.Yes

.No

-IfNo,whoisresponsibletocarryit?------

14. Aretherearegisteredwatercommittee? ------

.Yes

.No

-Ifyes,how many people?

-Whatistherolethewatercommittee?------

15. Howdoyoucommunicatewiththeconsumer?------

.Inanemergence------

.Whenmaintenanceisperformed------

------

.Whenimprovementareplanned------

16. Doyouhavescheduleoftrainingforthewatercommitteeandusers? ------

17. Doyouprovideoperationandmaintenancetrainingforthewatercommittee?----

.Yes

.No

18. Whatstepsarebeingtakenatthetimeofemergence?------19. Howmanytimeshasthesystemfailedwithinayear? ------

.Handdugwell

.Spring

.Bore hole

.Shallowwell

20. Whenthe systembreakdownhowmanydays doesittakeonaveragetorepair?--- 21. Dooperatorshaveaccesstotools,sparepartsandmanual?------22. Doesthecommunityhaveoperationandmaintenancemanual? ------

.Yes.No

-Ifyeshowoftentheyareupdated? ------

23. Inwhatkindthebeneficiariesareexpectedtocontributetowardstheoperationand maintenanceoftheirwatersupply

.Labor(percentage)

.Cash(Birr)

.Material(kind)

24. Howistheannualoperationandmaintenancecostcovered?------25. Doyouhaveadequateaccesstospareparts?------

.Yes

.No

26. Whatpartoftheschemeregularlybreakdown?------27. Whatadditionalresourcedoyouneedtokeepthesystemrunningandlookinglikeit should? 28. Pleasesuggestanyimprovementtobedonefortechnicalsustainability------29. Whatisyourcareerobjectiveasaworedawateroffice?------

Thankyouverymuchforyouranswers!!!!!

Appendix II

Table 1 sample study schemes

Name kebele technology Easting Northing Elevation type Chaba chabanagissa spring 272627 1209170 2455 Akyta Akytanygissy spring 274563 12110229 2552 Gashena Gashena spring 279675 1215212 2572 Bida school Bida spring 262713 1210719 2490 Dekuna Dekuna spring 260409 1180235 1808 dereb Berie Sostu Tirba spring 264559 1199692 2244 Azmach tulta spring 261594 1205787 2333 Yardesta tulta spring 260883 1206174 2356 Awosa 01 Buya hand wells 275140 1192276 2231 Awosa 02 Buya hand wells 274904 1192485 2217 yamali yimali hand wells 264671 1199290 2233 Gurji Tirba hand wells 262712 1191208 2067 Erob gebya erob gebaya hand wells 286908 1210136 2021 chewassa Kessa hand wells 277004 1207396 2203 chewsa Tsatsafi Bata hand wells 271721 1211519 2570 zufari zufari shallow wells 246920 1217017 2018 azena town sostu segno shallow wells 260907 1190364 2063

36°20'0"E 36°30'0"E 36°40'0"E 36°50'0"E 37°0'0"E 37°10'0"E ±

zufari 11°0'0"N Gashena 11°0'0"N

Tsatsafi Bida school Erob gebya Chaba chewassa YardestaAzmach

yamaliBerie

Awosa 01Awosa 02 Gurji azena town

Dekuna

Legend

sample scheme awi zone

10 5 0 10 Kilometers

36°20'0"E 36°30'0"E 36°40'0"E 36°50'0"E 37°0'0"E 37°10'0"E

Figure 1 Map of study sample schemes