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Diurnal Winds in the Himalayan Kali Gandaki Valley. Part III: Remotely Piloted Aircraft Soundings

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Diurnal Winds in the Himalayan Kali Gandaki Valley. Part III: Remotely Piloted Aircraft Soundings 2042 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW VOLUME 130 Diurnal Winds in the Himalayan Kali Gandaki Valley. Part III: Remotely Piloted Aircraft Soundings JOSEPH EGGER,* SAPTA BAJRACHAYA,1 RICHARD HEINRICH,* PHILIP KOLB,* STEPHAN LAÈ MMLEIN,# MARIO MECH,* JOACHIM REUDER,* WOLFGANG SCHAÈ PER,@ PANCHA SHAKYA,1 JAN SCHWEEN,* AND HILBERT WENDT* *Meteorologisches Institut, UniversitaÈt MuÈnchen, Munich, Germany 1Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, Ministry of Science and Technology, Kathmandu, Nepal #Fachbereich Maschinenbau, Fachhochschule Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany @Astrium, Friedrichshafen, Germany (Manuscript received 26 July 2001, in ®nal form 18 February 2002) ABSTRACT In 1998 a ®eld campaign has been conducted in the north±south-oriented Kali Gandaki valley in Nepal to explore the structure of its extreme valley wind system. Piloted ballon (pibal) observations were made to map the strong upvalley winds as well as the weak nocturnal ¯ows (Part I). The strati®cation of the valley atmosphere was not explored. In Part II of this multipart paper, numerical simulations are presented that successfully simulate most of the wind observations. Moreover, the model results suggest that the vigorous upvalley winds can be seen as supercritical ¯ow induced by contractions of the valley. Here, the results of a further campaign are reported where remotely piloted airplanes were used to obtain vertical pro®les of temperature and humidity up to heights of ;2000 m above the ground. Such pro®les are needed for an understanding of the ¯ow dynamics in the valley and for a validation of the model results. This technique is novel in some respects and turned out to be highly reliable even under extreme conditions. In addition four automatic stations were installed along the valley's axis. Winds were observed via pibal ascents. These data complement the wind data of 1998 so that the diurnal wind system of the Kali Gandaki valley is now documented reasonably well. It is found that the fully developed upvalley ¯ow is con®ned to a turbulent layer that tends to be neutrally strati®ed throughout the domain of observations. The strati®cation above this layer is stable. A capping inversion is encountered occasionally. This ®nding excludes explanations of the strong winds in terms of hydraulic theories that rely on the presence of strong inversions. Pairs of simultaneous ascents separated by 5±10 km along the valley axis reveal a remarkable variability induced by the topography and, perhaps, by an instability of the ¯ow. The analysis of the surface data as well as that of the soundings shows that the ¯ow above the neutral layer affects the surface pressure distribution and, therefore, the acceleration of the extreme upvalley winds. 1. Introduction south. A mountain pass leads to the Tibetan Plateau about 20 km to the northeast of Lo Manthang. The Kali Gandaki valley in Nepal stands out both Before 1998, scattered information was available in- because of its extreme geometry and the intensity of the dicating that the diurnal wind system of the valley ex- diurnal upvalley winds. The Kali Gandaki River orig- hibits rather strong upvalley winds (;20 m s21) between inates near the town Lo Manthang (see Fig. 1) and ¯ows Marpha and Kagbeni (see Egger et al. 2000, hereafter southward through the Mustang basin. It cuts through KG1, for details and relevant literature). This upvalley the Himalayan barrier between the villages of Marpha wind is called Lomar by the locals (``southerly wind''; and Ghasa forming there one of the deepest valleys on we change here the spelling ``Lhomar'' as used in KG1 Earth. Farther south, the river rushes down into a gorge and ZaÈngl et al. (2001, hereafter KG2) to ``Lomar'' to to reach the lower parts of Nepal at an altitude of ;1000 be consistent with the spelling of Lo Manthang where m above MSL. The Mustang basin extends from Marpha lo refers also to the south). Nocturnal downvalley winds to Lo Manthang. It is con®ned by the towering mountain appeared to be weak. chains to the east and west and by the Himalayas in the In fall 1998 the Meteorological Institute of the Uni- versity of Munich and the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology in Kathmandu conducted a joint ®eld Corresponding author address: Joseph Egger, Meteorologisches campaign in order to explore the structure of this wind Institut der UniversitaÈt MuÈnchen, Theresienstr. 37, 80333 MuÈnchen, Germany. system in detail (KG1). The following conclusions of E-mail: [email protected] KG1 are based on about 100 double-pilot ascents per- q 2002 American Meteorological Society Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/28/21 10:45 PM UTC AUGUST 2002 EGGER ET AL. 2043 FIG. 2. Isentropes (contour interval, 1 K; solid) and wind (vectors) in a section along the Kali Gandaki valley as obtained in the reference run REF of KG2 in the afternoon (t 5 15 h). Shading: light, wind speeds 10±15 m s21; medium, 15±20 m s21; dark, .20 m s21. See also Fig. 7a of KG2. The bold letters mark the locations of Tukuche, Marpha, Jomsom, and Kagbeni. Height is above MSL. The narrowest point of the valley is located near Marpha. simulations included the Tibetan Plateau as the domi- nant topographic feature of the region. Five nests were FIG. 1. Map of the Kali Gandaki valley: airplane ascents, dots; needed to resolve the core region reasonably well with permanent surface stations, crosses with circles; villages and sites a grid size of 800 m. There are 38 levels in the vertical mentioned in the text, crosses. Pibal ascents were made in Jomsom, Dhumpha, Chuksang, Tangye, and Lo Manthang. LK is Langpoghyun with a maximum resolution of 100 m near the ground. Kola. Height contours, solid (m); contour interval is 500 m. Hori- The initial state is in thermal wind balance with the zontal distances as indicated at the axes (km). The map is based on meridional temperature gradient. The level of no winds topographic data with a resolution of 3003300. These data have is chosen such that the atmosphere is almost at rest in been interpolated toa1km3 1 km grid. See also Fig. 1 of KG1. the Kali Gandaki valley. The model calculations were Dashed, Kali Gandaki and LK. quite successful in that nearly all the observed features of the wind ®eld were reproduced in a reference run. formed at eight locations covering the distance from Sensitivity experiments were carried out in order to elu- Lete to Lo Manthang. cidate the mechanisms driving the valley wind system including precipitation [see also Barros et al. (2000) for 1) The upvalley winds start near the surface before a recent precipitation analysis of the area]. noon. The layer of strong winds with typical veloc- It is a key result of KG2 that a rather stable layer ities of ;15 m s21 grows over about1htoadepth with strong upvalley winds forms during the day in the of ;1000±1500 m. entrance and, in particular, in the core region (see Fig. 2) The breakdown of the upvalley wind regime after 2). This layer of 1000±1500-m thickness is found up- sunset begins close to the ground. The upvalley ¯ow stream of the widening of the valley near Marpha. The ceases before midnight. isentropes descend between Marpha and Jomsom. The 3) Nocturnal downvalley ¯ows are quite weak. ¯ow accelerates in the descending branch to attain a 4) Upvalley winds are less powerful both in the so- maximum speed of 23 m s21 near Jomsom. The layer called exit region between Chuksang and Lo Man- of rapid ¯ows stays close to the ground farther to the thang and in the entrance region (Ghasa±Tukuche) north and ascends toward Tibet with slightly reduced than in the core region (Marpha±Kagbeni). ¯ow speeds. Note, however, that in¯ow of moderate Stimulated by these results, ZaÈngl et al. (2001) per- speed occurs above this layer up to a height of ;5000 formed numerical simulations of the Kali Gandaki wind m. The stability of the Lomar layer increases from Tuk- system using the Pennsylvania State University±Na- uche to Jomsom. The Brunt±VaÈisaÈlaÈ frequency is N ; tional Center for Atmospheric Research ®fth-generation 1.2 3 1022 s21 in Marpha and 1.6 3 1022 in Jomsom Mesoscale Model (MM5). The total ¯ow domain of the where the isentrope u 5 315 K and the ground are Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/28/21 10:45 PM UTC 2044 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW VOLUME 130 chosen as reference surfaces (u equals potential tem- perature). The ¯ow pattern in Fig. 2 is reminiscent of the results of laboratory and hydraulic model studies of ¯ows through lateral contractions. For example Arakawa [(1969); see also Baines (1995) for an updated outline of the theory] analyzed single-layer ¯ow through a val- ley of variable width where the Froude number F 5 U(g9H)21/2 is the key parameter (U, ¯ow speed; g9, re- duced gravity; H, depth of the ¯ow). There exists a class of solutions where F 5 1 at the narrowest point and where F . 1 downstream. This type of ¯ow is similar to that in Fig. 2 where event indications of a hydraulic jump are seen downstream of the maximum contraction FIG. 3. Monthly mean values of the hourly mean wind speed U (m near Marpha. Such models have been invoked by Pettre s21) as observed in Kagbeni in Feb±Mar 1990 at a height of 9 m. (1982), Jackson and Steyn (1994a, b), Pan and Smith (1999), and others to explain strong wind storms in valleys and gaps, Structures as displayed in Fig. 2 can on the strati®cation of the upvalley ¯ow both in the also be found in two-layer models (Armi 1986; Baines narrow part of the valley and in the Mustang basin and 1995) and in continuously strati®ed ¯ows underneath a to verify in this way the model results of KG2 as dis- free surface representing an inversion (Armi and Wil- played in Fig.
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