DOCSLIB.ORG

Study of Structure and Visual Features of the Parthian and Sassanid Coins

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text

Load more

International Journal of Arts and Commerce ISSN 1929-7106 www.ijac.org.uk Study of Structure and Visual Features of the Parthian and Sassanid Coins Rasoul Parvari-moghadam Faculty of Art and Architecture University of Guilan, Iran Email: [email protected] Abstract Coins have been identified as key indicators of Iranian art due to their aesthetic and symbolic concepts. Symbolism is considered as one of tools for visual expression and transmission of the concepts in coins. It is impressive to examine symbolic elements according to the symbol position and how to apply them in different periods. Therefore, this article was an attempt to introduce the main structure and characteristics of the coins in the Parthian and Sassanid periods and to achieve the similarities and notable points on coins of the two eras with an emphasis on the visual values and also to evaluate and analyze coins of each period through saying visual elements with some examples. By the way the study of the evolution of coins makes it possible to achieve visual differences and similarities, as well. Keywords: Coin, Parthian, Sassanid, Visual elements, Symbolic motifs. Introduction Coins are as the most reliable visual sources of culture and ancient civilization and have had an important role in art history and are considered as a part of fine art of Iran. These works are valid documents on the events of different periods in Iran. Signs and symbols on the coins are concerned as the most important guide and researchers’ helper in recognition of culture and civilization and political and religious beliefs of different historical periods. In addition, signs and symbols can reflect the artistic value of each era and period. Designs and elements used in coins contain valuable information about the customs and culture, political and social conditions and religions, as well. One of the important features of archaeology is numismatic knowledge that has particular importance. It will be made obvious all dark and obscure things and corners about coins with this knowledge. An important part of the cultural characteristics of a community can be received by examining the features and visual characteristics employed. Sometimes, the study and knowledge of engraved images on coins can assist to appoint a coin to the specific king or special period. Coins reveal many facts about the life of kings and the people of their time. Analysis and study of visual motifs and structures of these periods represents the value of the art employed in them. These motifs are very innovative in their kinds and have made by craftsmen and master artists of those days and are a key source of historical knowledge about the Parthian and Sassanid dynasties. 140 International Journal of Arts and Commerce Vol. 4 No. 9 December, 2015 According to what has said, the issue of this study was how the original structure and arrangement of elements is in coins of the Parthian and Sassanid eras. Another was that the motifs and images used on the front and back of the coins include what elements and also, have what concepts. Also, it was a try to find an answer to the question of what are the similarities and differences between these coins. The purpose of this article was in fact to study and identify the elements, meanings and concepts that the artist has represented in designing the coins, because these particular images are the best documents to study and understand the ideas of the kings and people in bygone era. Therefore, it has been discussed the emersion and minting of coin and introduction of coin in the Parthian and Sassanid eras in brief. Then, comparative and visual study was taken place by examining the similarities and differences. Finally, the aspects and notable points of some coins have been discussed. Regarding the large number of the Parthian and Sassanid kings and the fact that it has been found several coins from each king, and also in the sense that some coins have many similarities with each other in terms of visual structure and it is not possible to deal with each one of them, so, the author also has refused to note the repeated images that were inconsistent with the object and purposes of this paper and has attempted to present a relatively clear picture from the mentioned cases regarding the limitation for providing the possibility of recognizing the coins’ structure in the future. Research history So far, many studies have been done about coins and numismatic and this subject has been of interest of many researchers for the study. Including Pop (2008) has introduced and investigated the coins of those periods in the book of "a survey of Persian art". It can be noted to other books such as "numismatic studies of Iran during Sassanid period" (1972, Tehran, Iran) by Malek Iraj Moshiri, "Iranian coins from the beginning until now" by Ali-akbar Sarfaraz and Fereidoun Avarzamani (2009), "The history and chronology of the Sassanid coins" by Pakzadian (2005), "Iranian coins before Islam" that is only catalog of the coins by Amini (2010) as well as "the history of coins" which has been wrote by Malekzadeh-bayani (1960) in two volumes with specialized study of Iranian coins. There are very much cases in recent articles that have been allocated to the coin and numismatic. One of the articles that have discussed some visual features of coins comparatively is the article of Dadvar and Makvandi entitled as "study of kings’ crown designs in Iranian coins from the Achaemenid to the Sassanid". It can be pointed out to other researches such as "stylistics of the Sassanid coins" by Gholizdeh. In this study, it was attempted to study and analyze visual features of coins to achieve their characteristics and similarities and differences between elements and motifs in both the Parthian and Sassanid eras. Methodology This study was based on descriptive-analytical method as well as gathering resources and information has been done as librarian. For this purpose, it was used not only the historical resources and documents and other written materials, but also national and foreign Internet resources have used. And regarding the existing samples, it was discussed to analyze visual elements and similarities and differences in their visual structure of the Parthian and Sassanid coins. In selecting the samples, it has also selected some cases with striking visual features related to the investigation. Emersion and minting the coins Coin is a part of metal from gold or silver or platinum or bronze or copper or nickel that government puts a sign on it and guarantees the accuracy of weight and alloy that would be put on coins, so that people can safely take it and apply it in their businesses (Movaghar, 1952: 313). Herodotus pointed out in his book that: as far as I know Lydians were the first people that have used gold and silver coins and have worked in retail (Herodotus, 2001: 57). The world's first standard coin was minted in Croesus period named as Cersoide in 141 International Journal of Arts and Commerce ISSN 1929-7106 www.ijac.org.uk Lydia land. They possessed a number of characteristics such as weight, kind and identified and fixed grade. The motif was created on the coins was actually seals of the Croesus government that a strict law was imposed to support it and punishment of those who have sneaked into the coinage was death. Iranians also realized the existence of coins and the need to it after successive conquests of Asia Minor. In fact after the conquest of Lydia by Achaemenid Cyrus, Persians were able to reach this important invention of mankind that was the coinage. Although he realized the necessity of the coin and establishment of the mint, but his death did not give him the opportunity, therefore Achaemenid Darius (486-522 BC) was the first king who minted coins in Iran. He applied what was common in Lydia for the proportion of gold and silver and made coins prevailing in trade and business that were the most important economic factors. Darius has also affiliated minting of gold coins across the kingdom and Asian national countries and no one had the right to violate this rule (Wathiq, 2008: 32). The coins had been a means to advertise of ancient Persian governors after availability of them for kings. So, coin that was concerned as the official statement of the government was minted in order to promote political ideas or ideological concepts (Lukin, 2010: 86). All the activities of production, manufacture and mint of coins were taken in a place called mint or "deram-sara". A broker or manufacturer of coins in Sassanian was called "stud" and "Zarrab" or "Amin al-Zarb" in more recent periods. The first coin that has the mint’s sign belonged certainly to the Parthian era and governing of Mithridates I, because before the kingdom of Mithridates I, there was not really necessary to have more than one mint due to limited Parthian territory, but since his coming to power, the scope of this dynasty was significantly expanded and it would become apparent the need to create multiple mints around the country. Coins in the Parthian era The Parthian is considered as one of the most important periods of Iran’s history. This great period begins with uprising of Arsaces I against the Greek rulers about 240 years before Chris and lasted for five centuries. Arsaces attacked to the Parthia during years 238/239 BC during the kingdom of Seleucus II, and won Andragoras, then attacked to Hyrcania (Wolf-land) and captured there also and laid the foundations of the Parthian dynasty.
Recommended publications
  • Zoroastrian Elements in the Syncretism That Prevailed in Asia Minor Following the Achaemenian Conquests KERSEY H

    Zoroastrian Elements in the Syncretism That Prevailed in Asia Minor Following the Achaemenian Conquests KERSEY H

    Zoroastrian Elements in the Syncretism that Prevailed in Asia Minor Following the Achaemenian Conquests KERSEY H. ANTIA Introduction Since the total population of Zoroastrians in the entire world today is a meager 130,000 at best, it is hard to conceive that Zoroastrianism not only prospered in Iran but also acted as a very prominent factor in the syncretism that prevailed in Asia Minor from the time it became an integral part of the Achaemenian empire to the downfall of the Sasanian empire. It is generally acknowledged that Semitic Armenia was Persianised in the Achaemenian times, a process which lasted up to the Sasanian times. Strabo. (XI.532) reports that Mithra and Anahita were especially worshiped by the Armenians. It was also in the Achaemenian times that the Jews first came into contact with the Persians. The Zoroastrian concepts heretofore unknown to the Jews such as satan, “the angel of wisdom”, and “the holy spirit” became common features of Jewish beliefs, along with many others. Moreover, the Achaemenian kings welcomed Greek scientists, physicians and Phoenician explorers and artisans at their courts. The conquest of Iran by Alexander the Great further exposed the Greeks to Iranian influence just as it exposed Iran to Greek Influence. Alexander married an Iranian princess, Roxane and he arranged for a mass marriage of 50,000 of his Greek soldiers with Iranian women at Susa after his return from India. Such a mass phenomenon must have left its mark on the fusion of the two races. With the Greeks came their gods represented in human forms, a concept so sacrilegious to the Iranians.
  • Lecture 27 Sasanian Empire

    Lecture 27 Sasanian Empire

    4/12/2012 Lecture 27 Sasanian Empire HIST 213 Spring 2012 Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE) Successors of the Achaemenids 224 CE Ardashir I • a descendant of Sasan – gave his name to the new Sasanian dynasty, • defeated the Parthians • The Sasanians saw themselves as the successors of the Achaemenid Persians. 1 4/12/2012 Shapur I (r. 241–72 CE) • One of the most energetic and able Sasanian rulers • the central government was strengthened • the coinage was reformed • Zoroastrianism was made the state religion • The expansion of Sasanian power in the west brought conflict with Rome Shapur I the Conqueror • conquers Bactria and Kushan in east • led several campaigns against Rome in west Penetrating deep into Eastern-Roman territory • conquered Antiochia (253 or 256) Defeated the Roman emperors: • Gordian III (238–244) • Philip the Arab (244–249) • Valerian (253–260) – 259 Valerian taken into captivity after the Battle of Edessa – disgrace for the Romans • Shapur I celebrated his victory by carving the impressive rock reliefs in Naqsh-e Rostam. Rome defeated in battle Relief of Shapur I at Naqsh-e Rostam, showing the two defeated Roman Emperors, Valerian and Philip the Arab 2 4/12/2012 Terry Jones, Barbarians (BBC 2006) clip 1=9:00 to end clip 2 start - … • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t_WqUbp RChU&feature=related • http://www.youtube.com/watch?NR=1&featu re=endscreen&v=QxS6V3lc6vM Shapur I Religiously Tolerant Intensive development plans • founded many cities, some settled in part by Roman emigrants. – included Christians who could exercise their faith freely under Sasanian rule • Shapur I particularly favored Manichaeism – He protected Mani and sent many Manichaean missionaries abroad • Shapur I befriends Babylonian rabbi Shmuel – This friendship was advantageous for the Jewish community and gave them a respite from the oppressive laws enacted against them.
  • The Politics of Parthian Coinage in Media

    The Politics of Parthian Coinage in Media

    The Politics of Parthian Coinage in Media Author(s): Farhang Khademi Nadooshan, Seyed Sadrudin Moosavi, Frouzandeh Jafarzadeh Pour Reviewed work(s): Source: Near Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 68, No. 3, Archaeology in Iran (Sep., 2005), pp. 123-127 Published by: The American Schools of Oriental Research Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25067611 . Accessed: 06/11/2011 07:31 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. The American Schools of Oriental Research is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Near Eastern Archaeology. http://www.jstor.org The Parthians (174 BCE-224CE) suc- , The coins discussed here are primarily from ceeded in the the Lorestan Museum, which houses the establishing longest jyj^' in the ancient coins of southern Media.1 However, lasting empire J0^%^ 1 Near East.At its Parthian JF the coins of northern Media are also height, ^S^ considered thanks to the collection ruleextended Anatolia to M from ^^^/;. housed in the Azerbaijan Museum theIndus and the Valley from Ef-'?S&f?'''' in the city of Tabriz. Most of the Sea to the Persian m Caspian ^^^/// coins of the Azerbaijan Museum Farhang Khademi Gulf Consummate horsemen el /?/ have been donated by local ^^ i Nadooshan, Seyed indigenoustoCentral Asia, the ? people and have been reported ?| ?????J SadrudinMoosavi, Parthians achieved fame for Is u1 and documented in their names.
  • EASTERN CENTRAL ASIA the Early History of Central Asia Is Gleaned

    EASTERN CENTRAL ASIA the Early History of Central Asia Is Gleaned

    CHAPTER FOUR EASTERN CENTRAL ASIA KASHGAR TO KHOTAN I. INTRODUCTION The early history of Central Asia is gleaned primarily from three major sources: the Chinese historical writings, usually governmental records or the diaries of the Bud­ dhist pilgrims; documents written in Kharosthl-an Indian script also adopted by the Kushans-(and some in an Iranian dialect using technical terms in Sanskrit and Prakrit) that reveal aspects of the local life; and later Muslim, Arab, Persian, and Turkish writings. 1 From these is painstakingly emerging a tentative history that pro­ vides a framework, admittedly still fragmentary, for beginning to understand this vital area and prime player between China, India, and the West during the period from the 1st to 5th century A.D. Previously, we have encountered the Hsiung-nu, particularly the northern branch, who dominated eastern Central Asia during much of the Han period (206 B.C.-220 A.D.), and the Yiieh-chih, a branch of which migrated from Kansu to northwest India and formed the powerful and influential Kushan empire of ca. lst-3rd century A.D. By ca. mid-3rd century the unified Kushan empire had ceased and the main line of kings from Kani~ka had ended. Another branch (the Eastern Kushans) ruled in Gandhara and the Indus Valley, and the northernpart of the former Kushan em­ pire came under the rule of Sasanian governors. However, after the death of the Sasanian ruler Shapur II in 379, the so-called Kidarites, named from Kidara, the founder of this "new" or Little Kushan Dynasty (known as the Little Yiieh-chih by the Chinese), appear to have unified the area north and south of the Hindu Kush between around 380-430 (likely before 410).
  • The Heritage of India Series

    The Heritage of India Series

    THE HERITAGE OF INDIA SERIES T The Right Reverend V. S. AZARIAH, t [ of Dornakal. E-J-J j Bishop I J. N. FARQUHAR, M.A., D.Litt. (Oxon.). Already published. The Heart of Buddhism. K. J. SAUNDERS, M.A. Asoka. J. M. MACPHAIL, M.A., M.D. Indian Painting. PRINCIPAL PERCY BROWN, Calcutta. Kanarese Literature, 2nd ed. E. P. RICE, B.A. The Samkhya System. A. BERRIEDALE KEITH, D.C.L., D.Litt. Psalms of Maratha Saints. NICOL MACNICOL, M.A., D.Litt. A History of Hindi Literature. F. E. KEAY, M.A., D.Litt. The Karma-MImamsa. A. BERRIEDALE KEITH, D.C.L., D.Litt. Hymns of the Tamil Saivite Saints. F. KINGSBURY, B.A., and G. E. PHILLIPS, M.A. Rabindranath Tagore. E. J. THOMPSON, B.A., M.C. Hymns from the Rigveda. A. A. MACDONELL, M.A., Ph.D., Hon. LL.D. Gotama Buddha. K. J. SAUNDERS, M.A. Subjects proposed and volumes under Preparation. SANSKRIT AND PALI LITERATURE. Anthology of Mahayana Literature. Selections from the Upanishads. Scenes from the Ramayana. Selections from the Mahabharata. THE PHILOSOPHIES. An Introduction to Hindu Philosophy. J. N FARQUHAR and PRINCIPAL JOHN MCKENZIE, Bombay. The Philosophy of the Upanishads. Sankara's Vedanta. A. K. SHARMA, M.A., Patiala. Ramanuja's Vedanta. The Buddhist System. FINE ART AND MUSIC. Indian Architecture. R. L. EWING, B.A., Madras. Indian Sculpture. Insein, Burma. BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT INDIANS. Calcutta. V. SLACK, M.A., Tulsi Das. VERNACULAR LITERATURE. and K. T. PAUL, The Kurral. H. A. POPLBY, B.A., Madras, T> A Calcutta M. of the Alvars.
  • Persian Royal Ancestry

    Persian Royal Ancestry

    GRANHOLM GENEALOGY PERSIAN ROYAL ANCESTRY Achaemenid Dynasty from Greek mythical Perses, (705-550 BC) یشنماخه یهاشنهاش (Achaemenid Empire, (550-329 BC نايناساس (Sassanid Empire (224-c. 670 INTRODUCTION Persia, of which a large part was called Iran since 1935, has a well recorded history of our early royal ancestry. Two eras covered are here in two parts; the Achaemenid and Sassanian Empires, the first and last of the Pre-Islamic Persian dynasties. This ancestry begins with a connection of the Persian kings to the Greek mythology according to Plato. I have included these kind of connections between myth and history, the reader may decide if and where such a connection really takes place. Plato 428/427 BC – 348/347 BC), was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. King or Shah Cyrus the Great established the first dynasty of Persia about 550 BC. A special list, “Byzantine Emperors” is inserted (at page 27) after the first part showing the lineage from early Egyptian rulers to Cyrus the Great and to the last king of that dynasty, Artaxerxes II, whose daughter Rodogune became a Queen of Armenia. Their descendants tie into our lineage listed in my books about our lineage from our Byzantine, Russia and Poland. The second begins with King Ardashir I, the 59th great grandfather, reigned during 226-241 and ens with the last one, King Yazdagird III, the 43rd great grandfather, reigned during 632 – 651. He married Maria, a Byzantine Princess, which ties into our Byzantine Ancestry.
  • Characteristics of Water in Iranian Culture and Architecture

    Characteristics of Water in Iranian Culture and Architecture

    The Turkish Online Journal of Design, Art and Communication - TOJDAC November 2016 Special Edition EVALUATION OF SEMANTIC (CONCEPTUAL) CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER IN IRANIAN CULTURE AND ARCHITECTURE Hooman Sobouti Assistant Professor, Department of Architecture, Zanjan Branch, Islamic AzaUniversity, Zanjan, Iran and Young Researchers and Elite Club, Zanjan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Zanjan, Iran Kiana Mohammadi M.Sc.Architecture,Department of Architecture, Central Tehran Branch Faculty, Islamic Azad University ,Tehran, Iran ABSTRACT Water in different cultures defines different symbolic meanings and every country depending on its climate, religion and historical experiences embedded different concepts and meaning of the water in their culture. In Iran, due to arid and hot climate there is high consideration focused on the water and looking at historical Iranian background we would find that Iranian from ancient tiles respected highly the water. In this research, using library sources and analytic-descriptive methodology, the semantic (conceptual) characteristics of the water are investigated in Iranian culture and architecture in several periods of the history. Public believes and ideas ion Iranian rich culture about water are very extensive and spreading. The water natural purity from ancient time so far, brought different beliefs in Iranian culture. Keywords: organizational silence, organizational commitment, organizational trust RESEARCH THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS WATER MEANING FINDING EXAMPLES IN PRE-ARYAN CULTURES The geological information indicates that about 10 thousand years ago, Iran was a suitable land and environment for Iranian societies living. Documents and evidence based on the myths, the oral tradition and ancient environment findings also confirm this issue. Among the remained works from pre-Aryan age, there are dissociated indicators and signs which show the importance and mythical place of the water in pre-Aryan cultures.
  • Migration History of the Afro-Eurasian Transition Zone, C. 300

    Migration History of the Afro-Eurasian Transition Zone, C. 300

    Chapter 1 Migration History of the Afro-Eurasian Transition Zone, c. 300–1500: An Introduction (with a Chronological Table of Selected Events of Political and Migration History) Johannes Preiser-Kapeller, Lucian Reinfandt and Yannis Stouraitis When the process of compilation of this volume started in 2014, migration was without doubt already a “hot” topic. Yet, it were only the events of 2015,1 which put migration on top of the discussion about the Euro and the economic crisis in the agenda of politicians, the wider public and the media. In this heated debate, the events of past migrations have been employed in a biased manner as arguments against a new “Völkerwanderung” destined to disintegrate Eu- rope as it did with the (Western) Roman Empire. Thus, the present volume could be seen, among other things, also as an effort to provide a corrective to such oversimplifying recourses to the ancient and medieval period.2 It should be noted, however, that it was planned and drafted before the events. The volume emerged from a series of papers given at the European Social Science History Conference in Vienna in April 2014 in two sessions on “Early Medieval Migrations” organized by Professors Dirk Hoerder and Johannes Koder. Their aim was to integrate the migration history of the medieval period into the wider discourse of migration studies and to include recent research. The three editors have added contributions by specialists for other periods and regions in order to cover as wide an area and a spectrum of forms of migration as possible. Still, it was not possible to cover all regions, periods and migra- tion movements with the same weight; as one of the anonymous reviewers properly pointed out, the “work’s centre of gravity is (…) between the Eastern Mediterranean region and the Tigris/Euphrates”, with Africa not included in a similar way as Asia or Europe.
  • Wizerunkowa Legitimizacja Władzy Na Monetach Sasanidów (Za Kavada I I Zamaspa)

    Wizerunkowa Legitimizacja Władzy Na Monetach Sasanidów (Za Kavada I I Zamaspa)

    SPRAWY NARODOWOŚCIOWE Seria nowa / naTIonalITIES AFFAIRs New series, 47/2015: 95–103 DOI: 10.11649/sn.2015.062 Ilnaz RahbaR MahMoud TavoosI Reza afhaMI The RepResenTaTIon of legITIMacy In sassanIan coIns (Kavad I and zaMasp eRas) A b s t r a c t In each era, social, cultural and political aspects, and their changes have a prominent role on the creation of the Govern- mental artworks that tries to act as a public media to show their power and legitimacy trends. This study wishes to sur- vey the symbols of Sassanian coins and the role of this visual media from the power and legitimacy point of view during Kavad I (r. 488-531 AD) and Zamasp (r. 496-499 AD) eras, as a challenging period of the Sassanid dynasty. We try to show how Sassanid kings used artworks, especially coins, because ............................... of their spreads to transfer their legitimacy messages, thus they used it as the most principal media to show the power Ilnaz RahbaR and its changes to publics. The result shows the changes Tarbiat Modares University, Islamic Republic of Iran during the first reign of Kavad I and after his deposing by cler- E-mail: [email protected] gies due to supporting the Mazdakites doctrine, raise of Za- masp to the throne and the second reign of Kavad I that they MahMoud TavoosI Tarbiat Modares University, used various icons and symbols rooted in Zoroastrian beliefs Islamic Republic of Iran to show their power and legitimacy according to condition E-mail: [email protected] changes. The emphasis of Kavad I on astrologic signs as the Reza afhaMI symbol of charisma and, in contrast, the representation of Za- Tarbiat Modares University, masp, the successor of Kavad I after deposing, in the form Islamic Republic of Iran E-mail: [email protected] of receiving diadem as a sign of his superiority and power, This work was supported by the authors’ and the reuse of traditional symbols of legitimacy by Kavad I own resources.
  • A Strange Date on Sasanian Drachms of Kavad I*

    A Strange Date on Sasanian Drachms of Kavad I*

    A Strange Date on Sasanian * Drachms of Kavad I e-Sasanika 18 2011 Francois Gurnet The reign of Kavad the first is probably the most interesting in Sasanian history. The chaos caused by Mazdakism during his reign lead to a restored, strong, monarchy under his son and successor. Kavad I had two reigns, 488 to 496 and 499 to 531 AD. He succeeded Valkash (484-488) but was soon deposed by his brother Zamasp (496-499). Three years in exile Kavad recovered his throne and was eventually succeeded by his son, one of the most remarkable Sasanian kings, Khusro I (531-579). Kavad had numerous coin types1. The one that interests us here is his first type. It was used during his first reign, showing no date, and was then used during the first two years of his second reign, being known for years 11 and 12. A new type was introduced in year 13. Dates on Sasanian coins were first introduced during the reign of Kavad’s father, Peroz I (457-84). Drachms of Peroz’s second type are known dated from year 2 to year 7. Most of these drachms are scarce2, in comparison to the undated coins of the same type, perhaps indicating that these were struck for special use, perhaps for distribution during special events such as New Year. Normal coins without dates may have been struck at the same time3. After year 7, Peroz stopped the production of dated coins and probably started to strike his third type soon after4. Kavad’s coins from his first reign are not dated.
  • Kings, Priests and Gods on Sasanian Investiture Reliefs

    Kings, Priests and Gods on Sasanian Investiture Reliefs

    Iranica Antiqua, vol. XLVIII, 2013 doi: 10.2143/IA.48.0.2184703 AND MAN CREATED GOD? KINGS, PRIESTS AND GODS ON SASANIAN INVESTITURE RELIEFS BY Bruno OVERLAET 1 (Royal Museums of Art and History, Brussels / Ghent University) Abstract: An inscription on the Naqsh-i Rustam I rock relief identifies the two protagonists in the investiture scene as Ardashir I and Ahura Mazda. All investing authorities on the royal Sasanian reliefs are therefore commonly identified as Ahura Mazda. In view of conflicting historic information and unexplained varia- tions in the iconography of “Ahura Mazda”, a re-interpretation of the investiture reliefs is made. The inscription on Ahura Mazda’s horse at Naqsh-i Rustam appears to have been added at the end of Ardashir’s reign or early in Shapur I’s reign and the earliest reliefs are now considered to depict an investiture by a priest, instead of by Ahura Mazda. Once the inscription had been added to the Naqsh-i Rustam I rock relief, it changed from an investiture by a priest to one by a god, Ahura Mazda. Iconographic details that conflicted with this transformation (such as the barsum, attendant and possibly the “royal” tamga) were left out of the divine image in later representations of the investiture on horseback. The late Sasanian Taq-i Bustan III investiture on foot, up to now considered to be the investiture of Khusrow II by Ahura Mazda and Anahita, is equally interpreted as an investiture by clergy, in this case by representatives of the cults of these two gods, rather than by the gods themselves.
  • Problems of Chronology in Gandhāran Art

    Problems of Chronology in Gandhāran Art

    Rienjang and Stewart (eds) Problems of Chronology in Gandhāran Art Edited by Wannaporn Rienjang Peter Stewart Problems of Chronology in Gandhāran Art Since the beginning of Gandhāran studies in the nineteenth century, chronology has been one of the most significant challenges to the understanding of Gandhāran art. Many other ancient societies, including those of Greece and Rome, have left a wealth of textual sources which have put their fundamental chronological frameworks beyond doubt. In the absence of such sources on a similar scale, even the historical eras cited on inscribed Gandhāran works of art have been hard to place. Few sculptures have such inscriptions and the majority lack any record of find-spot or even general provenance. Those known to have been found at particular sites were sometimes moved and reused in antiquity. Consequently, the provisional dates assigned to extant Gandhāran sculptures have sometimes differed by centuries, while the narrative of artistic development remains doubtful and inconsistent. Building upon the most recent, cross-disciplinary research, debate and excavation, this volume reinforces a new consensus about the chronology of Gandhāra, bringing the history of Gandhāran art into sharper focus than ever. By considering this tradition in its wider context, alongside contemporary Indian art and subsequent developments in Central Asia, the authors also open up fresh questions and problems which a new phase of research will need to address. Problems of Chronology in Gandhāran Art is the first publication of the Gandhāra Connections project at the University of Oxford’s Classical Art Research Centre, which has been supported by the Bagri Foundation and the Neil Kreitman Foundation.