‘Gifts for the gods’: lake-dwellers’ macabre remedies against floods in the Central European Bronze Age Francesco Menotti1, Benjamin Jennings1 & Hartmut Gollnisch-Moos2

The lake-dwellings of the Circum-Alpine region have long been a rich source of detailed information about daily life in Bronze Age Europe, but their location made them vulnerable to changes in climate and lake Berlin level. At several Late Bronze Age examples, skulls of children were found at the edge of the lake settlement, close to the encircling palisade. Several of the children had suffered violent deaths, through blows to the head from axes or blunt instruments. They do not appear to have been human sacrifices, but the skulls Study area N may nonetheless have been offerings to the 0 km 200 gods by communities faced with the threat of environmental change. Keywords: Central Europe, Federsee, Lake Nussbaum, Late Bronze Age, lake-dwellings, human sacrifice, offerings, environmental change

Introduction The prehistoric lake-dwellings of the Circum-Alpine region are known worldwide for their invaluable, well preserved archaeological evidence. Since their first discovery at Lake Zurich in 1854 (Keller 1854), they have contributed to myriad scientific developments in archaeology, ranging from reliable palaeo-climatic and palaeoenvironmental reconstructions to prehistoric and historic socio-economic studies (Menotti 2004)—including the establishment of a 12 000-year-long dendrochronological sequence (Friedrich et al. 2004). Amongst this list of practical advances though, they have also revealed evidence of unusual and macabre human behaviour intended to counter the threat of environmental change. The harsh lacustrine environment often forced the lake-dwelling communities to protect themselves from unexpected climate variations—their struggle against transgressive lake

1 Institute of Prehistory and Archaeological Science, Basel University, Spalenring 145, 4055 Basel, Switzerland 2 Department of History and Geography, Thurgau University of Teacher Education, Unterer Schulweg 3, Postfach, CH-8280 Kreuzlingen 2, Switzerland

C Antiquity Publications Ltd. ANTIQUITY 88 (2014): 456–469 http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/088/ant0880456.htm 456 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 30 May 2017 at 13:53:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00101115 at Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms uhusul fudlreyitc)as hwsgso rtlvoec Mnigr2009b). (Menninger violence brutal of signs show also intact) the Wasserburg- the largely to of Two ‘gifts’ (found floods. threatening as skulls the stop re-deposited Buchau to order being in children burial, primary young after long of gods skulls) (mainly settlements remains lacustrine human LBA found best-researched the and of Germany two some (Wasserburg-Buchau, In Late in offerings. the which In activities, macabre water. ritual involved lake with advancing cases associated the became stop actions them to rational however, also of Age but Bronze purposes, most defensive (incidentally, for only palisades not 2003) erecting ( of pine bog consisted of made they instance, 2001, for (Menotti BC pragmatic; century ninth the in towards another occurred and one BC Age; century Bronze 2003). sixteenth the the in of uncommon end accompanied not the variations were climatic transgressions Such level 2010). lake by Billamboz their and 2004; lakes (Magny region Circum-Alpine extents northern catchment the increased, of precipitation most on and imbalance humidity hydrologic and causing deteriorate to behaviour started climatic desperate conditions the into climatic earlier), degenerated against it resilience instances, fight—their some a (Baumeister in without though, admirable, up was give enemy not did communities those more for anymore, persisted shores had tradition—that the years. lake-dwelling settle 3500 to living—the than to (ninth of not abandonment way decided a lake-shore communities terminating another thus lacustrine yet happen the after however, BC), when, not, century (LBA), did eighth Age This Bronze ceased. Late threat the the the in once their of lake-shores, lake-dwellers the relocate repopulated Age to always Bronze forced Middle were the for people case 2003). result, (Menotti the region a was Circum-Alpine settlement as As northern entire areas, houses). the drier the flooding to (increase of periods, habitations variations long interior climatic when for major the periods persisted to (including were precipitation), owing there and but, however, humidity time; temporary in the 132– not 2012: of were (Menotti most directly transgressions lake-shore) built effective the lake surface from were wooden enough protections well-insulated far a Such was of settlement 39). top the on (if was or ground village water), the the the on (if in stilts or on to elevated close either erected were terrain—houses inundated and/or favourability.saturated climatic of period whole a span not did Haumesser) Wollishofen aedelns(enns21) ned nseicaes o xml uihBy(Lake Bay Zurich of example decline for and areas, establishment Neuch Lake the specific around influencing in and factors Zurich) Indeed, several 2012). of (Jennings one shown lake-dwellings been only has it was decline, climate climatic severe that between of synchronisation periods to apparent and the occupation despite lake-dwelling (forty-third that of however, periods out, tradition point to lake-dwelling important also entire is It Arbogast the 2001; (Menotti throughout BC) centuries documented seventh well is levels nms ae,cmuiis rtciemaue gis autiefloswr purely were floods lacustrine against measures protective communities’ cases, most In that revealed have villages lake LBA last-occupied the of most in investigations Thorough lake-dwellers the was, flood the long-lasting or severe how of regardless Interestingly, water- often the to adaptations architectural of mainly consisted measures Preventative https:/www.cambridge.org/core tal. et rnec eot,Bnai enns&HrmtGollnisch-Moos Hartmut & Jennings Benjamin Menotti, Francesco 09.I h eodhl ftennhcnuyB adi oeaeseven areas some in (and BC century ninth the of half second the In 2009). iu rotundata Pinus . https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00101115 . University of BaselLibrary tl oestlmns(..Zrc-leqa n Zurich- and Zurich-Alpenquai (e.g. settlements some atel, ˆ ,aseista rfr aelge ra—e Billamboz areas—see waterlogged prefers that species a ), rchue-on wteln) rhelgsshave archaeologists Switzerland), Urschhausen-Horn, ¨ , on 457 30 May2017 at13:53:16 tal. et 06 ilmo 00 an 2013). Magny 2010; Billamboz 2006; , subjectto theCambridgeCore termsofuse,available C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity

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A striking similarity that binds all the child skeletal remains together is the location where they were deposited; all of them were found (still in situ) near the settlement perimeter (Kimmig 1992; Gollnisch-Moos 1999; Schobel¨ 2009). Moreover, all the remains were deposited exactly at the time when the severity of flooding became greater. Were these the first signs of a practice that would continue, and actually intensify, in the centuries to come? In fact, starting from the Iron Age, throughout the Roman period and, in some cases, even much more recently, evidence of human sacrifices/offerings (though not necessarily involving children) in wetland milieus is well known all over Northern Europe, as confirmed by the numerous bog bodies found in peat bogs and other water-saturated environments (Van Der Sanden 1996, 2013). However, the uniqueness of the three lake-dwelling sites studied here is that the various pieces of the archaeological jigsaw (e.g. cause and effect, chronology, location and forensic analyses) all fit together perfectly, allowing us to see how human desperation may sometimes lead to irrational actions in order to avoid ‘the worst’.

Siedlung-Forschner, Wasserburg-Buchau and Urschhausen-Horn¨ lake villages: geographical, chronological and archaeological context The pragmatism towards environmental change reflected by the Bronze Age lacustrine communities of the Circum-Alpine region is striking. Although flooding events were certainly not the only cause of lake-shore abandonment (see Menotti 2003; Petrequin´ et al. 2005), archaeological evidence shows that the lake-dwellers did not give up without a fight when threatened by transgressive lake levels. However, no matter how severe the danger might have been, the various remedies were essentially rational; from erecting ‘anti-flood’ fences to elevating the houses on stilts (see Perini 1987). This is, of course, not to say that irrational protective measures against the environmental enemy were not adopted—if they were though, most of them did not survive in the archaeological record for us to see. One Middle Bronze Age and two Late Bronze Age lakeside settlements are nevertheless exceptions. Siedlung-Forschner, Wasserburg-Buchau and Urschhausen-Horn¨ (all located in the northern Circum-Alpine region, within a radius of 40km) retain clear evidence of desperate (possibly even macabre) human behaviour to stop something much bigger than those communities could have ever imagined.

Siedlung-Forschner This Early/Middle Bronze Age lacustrine village lies within the Federsee basin, some 50km north of the German shore of Lake Constance (Figure 1). It was discovered in the 1920s, but not properly excavated until the mid 1970s (Schlichtherle 2009). Dendrochronological analyses on the large number of wooden piles found at the settlement have been able to identify three occupational phases: Phase 1 (1767–1717 BC), Phase 2 (1610–1600 BC) and Phase 3 (1515–1481 BC) (Billamboz 2009b: 433). A striking similarity that Siedlung-Forschner shares with the two sites below is not only the significant lake-level transgression before the settlement was abandoned for good at the end of Phase 3 (Figure 2), but the analogous human remains (fragments of a child’s skull), found here, as in the other cases, near the protective palisade (see below, and Figure 3a). C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

458 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 30 May 2017 at 13:53:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00101115 at Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms aelvlfluctuations. lake-level iue1 egahcllctoso h he ie studied. sites three the of locations Geographical 1. Figure iue2 hoooyo idugFrcnr Wasserburg- Siedlung-Forschner, and of Buchau Chronology 2. Figure https:/www.cambridge.org/core rchue-oni eaint h various the to relation in Urschhausen-Horn ¨ rnec eot,Bnai enns&HrmtGollnisch-Moos Hartmut & Jennings Benjamin Menotti, Francesco . https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00101115 . University of BaselLibrary , on 459 30 May2017 at13:53:16 ni h ae19s(enrh1928; (Reinerth 1990s Sch campaigns 1992; late research Kimmig the of excavated series until subsequently a in and discovered through was 1920s too the it and Siedlung- Forschner, from 500m the only in basin, Federsee located also is Wasserburg-Buchau Wasserburg-Buchau u-hss aey2 10–8 BC), (1006–988 of 2a namely resolution distinct more sub-phases, three into high 2 Phase further of the division a suggests that even dendrochronology note interesting to is It BC). (867–853 3 Phase and BC) (1006–925 2 1 Phase Phase BC), (1058–1054 hiatuses: evident but with BC, alternating centuries ninth the to eleventh have the 2009a) spanning phases, settlement three 2004, identified (Billamboz tree-ring analyses concerned, is chronology immediately as far occupation. As of time lay the at lake-shore village the on prehistoric lake, the the of south 3km around located now , subjectto theCambridgeCore termsofuse,available C bl19) Although 1998). obel ¨ niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity

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Figure 3. Location of human remains at a) Siedlung-Forschner, b) Wasserburg-Buchau and c) Urschhausen-Horn.¨

2b (964–945 BC) and 2c (932–925 BC) (Billamboz 2009a: 36). Whether these two extra phases should be regarded as distinct occupations, and divide the entire Wasserburg-Buchau chronology into five (rather than three) occupation periods, is still debatable (Andre´ Billamboz pers. comm.). Also unclear is whether the increased efforts at ‘land reclamation’

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460 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 30 May 2017 at 13:53:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00101115 at Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms ftefieWsebr-uhusul r al aae n e ol o edetermined, be not could sex and damaged to badly interesting are however, Three skulls missing. is, Wasserburg-Buchau is fragments five It mandible the the Siedlung-Forschner), skull individuals. of of five that child (including to skulls the all Wasserburg-Buchau belong for that locations) in note different child, five single in one (found of those are lake-level locations) significant a during 3) Figure (see 2). Figure palisade (see the transgression within near buried) BC, properly (not century placed ninth (mid/late period aeoeaecide one hn1 er fae nld kls n ntosettlements two in and skulls, include All age, striking. of is years remains 10 human and than above-mentioned (Wasserburg-Buchau younger the children of are all one of save deposition of similarity The analyses forensic and anthropological remains: Human and Switzerland, Dendrochronological Nussbaum, Federsee. Lake the of shore of the south-west on 80km lies settlement some lakeside Age Bronze Late This Urschhausen-Horn (Sch (not deposited palisade of were protective are they the 3b) and near only, (Figure buried) skulls settlement properly of the consisted of remains perimeter These the importance. around particular scattered children five of remains 2). (Figure never transgressions of lake-level imbalance area severe significant the in a the and resulted was abandonment which that BC, hydrology, final is local century this the certain for ninth reason is mid possible What A the ‘pressure’. again. towards occupied demographic abandoned to finally due was were settlement terrain bog-like the from eeas eoie uigadatccag nciai odtos ihmjrlake-level major with conditions, of climatic remains in human change the drastic 2). Federsee, (Figure a transgressions the few 2009). during a at Baumeister deposited and settlements 1999; humeri also two two (Gollnisch-Moos were tibiae, the child two at same femora, as (two the Just it to to belonging next and bones fragments) inundation other bone involving few intriguingly, and, a processes mandible also the taphonomic was were village skull to there lacustrine the of the due part of preserved though, main periphery the the activities, case on agricultural deposited this were In child a 3c). of (Figure remains the BC. that 635 it and of 650 end between sometime occurred have (seventh must quite phase settling are second archaeologists short still, the the reliable; that as less becomes confident far chronology As the concerned, 1999). subsequent is with (Gollnisch-Moos BC) site, century area the entire of was the abandonment it of the before when inundation shortly the to encroachment by as water it doubts of left (i.e. period still already century had are the inhabitants there Phase of all BC, the that end that 850 however, confidence agreed, and of commonly 870 degree is between certain abandoned—it the built a in second with was the state settlement and can 1 BC, we century While ninth BC. the century in seventh phase main the with occupation, two-phase ¨ hl nSeln-oshe h aiu kl rget fudi ordifferent four in (found fragments skull various the Siedlung-Forschner in While mns h ihacaooia eodotie rmtevrosecvtos h human the excavations, various the from obtained record archaeological rich the Amongst ti,hwvr h rtocpto hti fms neethr—nfc,i stwrsthe towards is it fact, here—in interest most of is that occupation first the however, is, It https:/www.cambridge.org/core rnec eot,Bnai enns&HrmtGollnisch-Moos Hartmut & Jennings Benjamin Menotti, Francesco . https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00101115 c. . University of BaselLibrary rchue-on h eoiinocre vni h same the in even occurred deposition the Urschhausen-Horn) 0 C.Sdmnooia vdneidctsta hr a a was there that indicates evidence Sedimentological BC). 800 ¨ , on 461 30 May2017 at13:53:16 − + 0yas.Tehmnrmiswr all were remains human The years). 20 bl2009). obel ¨ , subjectto theCambridgeCore termsofuse,available C 14 niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity aigagefra for argue dating C Urschhausen-Horn ¨

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Figure 4. Skulls of two of the children: left) S.4 (boy); and right) IP.6 (girl); both found at Wasserburg-Buchau (c R. Baumeister, Federseemuseum Bad Buchau). though it is clear that their ages range between 2 and 16 years old (e.g. WR.2 303a/391a = 2–6 years old; S.9 = 4–10 years old; and 393a/390a = teenaged) (Trautmann & Wahl 2009). Two skulls (S.4 and IP.6; see Figure 4) are fairly well preserved, allowing detailed forensic analyses to be carried out. Skull S.4 was that of a boy (c. age 8), whereas skull IP.6 belonged to a girl of about the same age—the possibility has also been advanced that the two children were related (e.g. brother and sister), but recent aDNA analyses have failed to corroborate this theory (Parson 2009). Trace element and isotopic analyses (especially 87Sr/86Sr) have also shed light on the nutrition, health and origin (e.g. birth place, local movements, etc.) of the two children. The two individuals seem to have had a predominantly vegetarian diet, their health was not optimal (chronic respiratory inflammation, anaemia, advanced tooth decay, etc.), and it can be confirmed that both children were born and raised in the Federsee region (Menninger 2009a; Stephan 2009). A certainty that has emerged from the analyses though, is the fact that both individuals met a gruesome death; the boy received a lateral blow to the head with a rounded stick-like object, and the girl was hit on the top of the cranium with a sharp implement (see Figure 5) resembling a typical LBA winged-axe (Figure 6), examples of which were also found in the settlement (Menninger 2009b). The human remains from Urschhausen-Horn¨ differ slightly from the two Federsee sites; the individual is also a child (age 6–7), but in this case the remains consist of a mandible and parts of the postcranial skeleton (two femora, two tibiae, two humeri, and various small bone fragments). Also in this case evidence speaks in favour of symbolic skeletal- part depositions, occurring well after the individual’s death. It is quite clear that these human remains were buried there intentionally as they do not show any sign of weathering due to longer exposure to the elements. The location coincides perfectly with that of Wasserburg-Buchau and Siedlung-Forschner—the remains were deposited at the edge of the village (just outside a stone-reinforced floodwall) during a major lake-level transgression (Gollnisch-Moos 1999). C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

462 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 30 May 2017 at 13:53:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00101115 at Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms aeanme fte eedpstdaogtestlmn eiee Cls&Minnitt & (Coles this perimeter in settlement also the along and deposited England, were south-western them in of Village number Lake a case Glastonbury of settlement Age Bronze the of lake-dwellings from the region. among links remains Circum-Alpine practice in Age human uncommon possible skulls) an particular other these not making (in was and parts paper, information, contexts skeletal these settlement of this contextual deposition However, the establish. in that full demonstrate to Switzerland have studied western difficult not sites change do climatic three Zurich) to the in unlike (as Unfortunately, several Neuch remains Lake fact, 2006)). around In Andrey settlements area. from (see western recorded the are in adult, M found as also identified are all skulls, but region, Circum-Alpine answered. northern be of cannot part events, represented remains macabre those more whether or to practices, as burial question lake-dwelling the the result, a As 52). 2005: Wagner notntl etoe l ftesrtgahccnetaddtn nomto (K information dating the and at found context were stratigraphic age), the excavation of the bones of during years all human used eight dredging destroyed of approximately the unfortunately Zurich)—but of number (Lake child Zurich-Alpenquai a of a example, site of LBA For 2003)), jaw David-Elbiali reported. the & frequently also (Moinat (including more Vidy-Chavannes are and remains 1977) settlements human the (Beeching with Circum- Boiron associated northern cemeteries Le the few (e.g. with in enigmatic, communities largely lake-dwelling remain LBA region the Alpine perspective of wider practices burial a the wetlands: While the in remains human ( Age girl right) Bronze and boy; left) killed: were children the how to as explanation Possible 5. Figure rgn ia-tibr,Cnie Hauterive-Champr Concise, Nidau-Steinberg, origen, ¨ nawdrErpa otx,1 dl ua klswr eoee rmteIron the from recovered were skulls human adult 15 context, European wider a In the of part eastern the to confined not are lake-settlements from remains Human https:/www.cambridge.org/core rnec eot,Bnai enns&HrmtGollnisch-Moos Hartmut & Jennings Benjamin Menotti, Francesco . https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00101115 . University of BaselLibrary , on 463 30 May2017 at13:53:16 vye n Grandson-Corcelettes and eveyres ´ , subjectto theCambridgeCore termsofuse,available C  c niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity hitn o Elm). von Christina tl(e.g. atel ˆ unzler ¨

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1995: 170–74, 203). Interestingly, it has been proposed (Cunliffe 1991: 507) that the frequent occurrence of human skulls in Iron Age settlements in England represents a special social interest in the head/skull, with excarnation and selection of specific bones for cultural retention (even in houses) and disposal of the remainder in burial practices. When considering these human remains, it is important not to confuse them (especially those from wetland settlements) with those from peat bog contexts—usually known as ‘bog bodies’. Occurring in the peat bogs of Northern Europe, many of these amazingly well preserved bodies show significant signs of violence, but were deposited in a largely complete state (Van Der Sanden 2013). Evidently, different social practices and attitudes were responsible for the diverse deposition practices highlighted in the wetland-settlement and wetland- environment locations. The relatively small data set used in this study is primarily the result of nineteenth and early twentieth century excavation Figure 6. Winged-axes from Wasserburg-Buchau similar in techniques, which provided insufficient form to that which may have been used to kill the girl (IP.6) contextual information for comparative  ( c M. Schreiner, Archaologisches¨ Landesmuseum Baden- analyses. Similar sites to those considered Wurttemberg).¨ here do, however, exist (e.g. on Lake Neuchatel,ˆ see above), showing that the deposition of human remains in settlement contexts was relatively common in northern Circum-Alpine lake-dwellings during the Bronze Age. It is also evident that the deposition of human skulls, in particular, diverges from the ‘normal’ burial practice in the region, with cremation burial and inclusion of selected long-bones—but not skulls—identified at, for example, the LBA cemetery of Le Boiron (Lake Geneva, Switzerland; Beeching 1977).

Murders, mercy killings or ‘gifts’ for the gods? The varying practice and nature of deposition between settlements and environments most likely reflects different functions for the deposition. Many of the bog bodies with significant signs of violence have been interpreted as ritual sacrifice or ‘gifts for the gods’, though such interpretations have recently undergone greater interrogation (cf. Menotti 2012: 198–201). The use of defined violence in ritual sacrifice, including burning, drowning, strangulation C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

464 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 30 May 2017 at 13:53:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00101115 at Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms niiul eekle—rmree—uigat fageso,ete rmwti the within from (Baumeister either ‘warfare’ aggression, during or of community, acts settlement in murdered—during made killed—or kindness were to individuals method. concessions compassionate some a seems expect killed hardly to trauma were sensible head individuals significant be the death; physical would if their with Besides, it sufficient case 141). compassion, the present 1996: of been not Sanden have out Der may would (Van as Woman children euthanasia’, Zweeloo ‘social the ease the warrant to and to killing abnormalities individuals, mercy or warrant the deformities to of appear not suffering residing would when the maladies unusual the Such not environments. are though common problems a humid above), is respiratory in (see erosion and tooth grain, health exceptional: hand-ground optimal nothing from were in problem suffered not they were which from individuals complaints the that indicate Buchau killed people lake- (i.e. gods’). sacrifices the the primary for represent from of ‘gifts use not as from remains symbolic may intentionally skulls the bodies the or the these itself on with act therefore the seen and not either weapons, acts in controlled might violent so The this appear it not region. while do examples, Wasserburg-Buchau However, Circum-Alpine northern 2002). body the (Green bog in texts the dwellings Classical with in recorded fits well clearly is sacrifice, blood and hi oea acsos eg akrPasn19;Amt21) u h hlho g of and ‘ancestor’, age of childhood explanation. status ‘votive’ possible the alternative the but an from suggest 2012), them may removes Armit effectively 1999; here Pearson discussed Parker skulls the (e.g. ‘ancestors’ as role their manners different in of disposed were parts settings. other and while skulls settlement locations: the different within in retained placed were to remains represent specific possible locations with is lake-dwelling/wetland burials, ‘multi-stage’ the it or within ‘multi-part’ Therefore, found unknown. remains human is the boundaries that suggest settlement the until excarnated within or in placed deposition retention were bones, remains for their the remains the Where the off-site. on of deposition burning and/or division settlement, of subsequent the by indications of followed or excarnation lack skulls, natural A to the processes. point of retention, preservation de-fleshing for and manual bones taphonomic indicating specific of marks of outcomes selection fortunate deliberate being the than to rather attest Switzerland western in from bones and various mandible Wasserburg-Buchau, at a skulls depositions of the fragment absence at skull that other The evident and community. is skulls the intact it to the gods’, significance the particular for some ‘gifts retained sacrificial represent not do lake-settlements skull. violence the of and of lack non-recovery) the above, Similarly, but (or survived. individuals, (see has the skull must bat the upon the It on only inflicted wooden observable attack. as been observed have or and be may warfare cannot axe violence simply during of they an occur acts other can this; that that considered support violence be may unstructured indicate damage 5) the Figure inflict to used rchue-onadSeln-oshe,adsul adbns tZurich-Alpenquai at bones) (and skulls and Siedlung-Forschner, and Urschhausen-Horn h ilnese ntetosul rmWsebr-uhucudas niaeta the that indicate also could Wasserburg-Buchau from skulls two the on seen violence The Wasserburg- from 4) Figure IP.6; and (S.4 skulls intact two the that suggested been has It n ftetaiinlitrrttosfrtertnino klsi eteet oue on focuses settlements in skulls of retention the for interpretations traditional the of One region Circum-Alpine northern the at found remains human the that likely is it While ¨ https:/www.cambridge.org/core rnec eot,Bnai enns&HrmtGollnisch-Moos Hartmut & Jennings Benjamin Menotti, Francesco rchue-onidvda a ipyb euto non-preservation of result a be simply may individual Urschhausen-Horn ¨ . https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00101115 . University of BaselLibrary , on 465 30 May2017 at13:53:16 tal. et 09 18) h weapons The 81–83). 2009: , subjectto theCambridgeCore termsofuse,available C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity

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Figure 7. Artist’s impression of human skull offering in the Circum-Alpine region lake-dwellings (c Susanne Kiebler).

It is sufficiently clear that the head/skull formed a socially significant object to the communities of the lake-settlements, resulting in the deliberate deposition of those human remains in liminal locations at the edges of settlements—sited between the inside (dry) and the outside (wet) zones. Such settlement perimeter/wetland depositions may even represent an elaboration of the more-common LBA wetland deposition practices. A small metal hoard (consisting of Hallstatt B1 (c. 1000–900 BC) style arm-rings, a spear head and a winged axe) is also known from Wasserburg-Buchau, and, like the skulls, was also recovered from the perimeter of the settlement, near the palisade (Kimmig 1992). The intended function of bronze deposits remains unclear, but a more symbolic rather than functional aspect has been accepted in recent years, particularly for those placed in wetland environments (cf. Bradley 1990, 2005; Hansen 1994; Hansel¨ & Hansel¨ 1997). It has also been proposed that some metalwork hoards represent the participation of multiple actors in a communal event, as opposed to the individual deposition of objects (Fredengren 2011). Placement of high value bronze-work in votive offerings by multiple members of communities may represent supplication to the gods for beneficial events made on behalf of a whole community. Similarly, the deposition of selected human remains in liminal wetland locations may also signify final entreaties and ‘gifts for the gods’ to protect against climatic deterioration, encroaching water levels and declining agricultural productivity—not as sacrificial victims, but as symbolic depositions (Figure 7). Infant members of the community may have died some years before, possibly during earlier phases of climatic decline, been processed in the typical method for lake-dwelling communities, their location of primary deposition in the environment recorded, and selected bones (skull) retained in the settlement area as significant ‘objects’. In the face of climatic changes, ‘traditional’ metalwork depositions may C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

466 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 30 May 2017 at 13:53:16, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00101115 at Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms Acknowledgements a Europe; Circum-Alpine Central the of Age importance lake-dwellers Bronze the the in amongst more, present remains) region. much the human skeletal very all or their was highlights, that objects when phenomenon This of dead various (whether long gifts. fact Wasserburg- depositions the symbolic in of of as (e.g. were purpose analysis deposited individuals skulls on were thorough ‘sacrificed’ young necessarily remains the a event—the not near and worlds. offering were of area children remains the lake) the some for human liminal that transgressive show on the (the symbolic processes of formation violence wet highly site study the gruesome a careful and a of in village) Buchau), settlement evidence (the the the dry the of Despite between edge palisade, the the at deposited were offered children and their mercy, of for skulls) particular, deities (in remains the 7). skeletal (Figure ask selected side. most: to the valued macabre, remedies they hazard, what not environmental desperate them if the more irrational, against to measures an turned pragmatic lake-dwellers also of had ineffectiveness resilience the inhabitants’ Realising their abandonment), that final their revealed in before has events found flooding with remains by affected human and, severely and all Wasserburg-Buchau the stilts, (Siedlung-Forschner, Urschhausen-Horn, settlements of on lacustrine re-consideration Age houses Bronze recent been three (palisades), A have these barriers relocation. to even physical thought events, of were drastic fluctuations form lake-level the and in The flooding rational—usually threats. to environmental solutions with possible the dealing of only in pragmatism communities marked the lacustrine highlighted region always Circum-Alpine has tradition research processual strong A Conclusions Central of much across Age they 2012). Iron that (Armit the indicate Europe during certainly further developed lake-settlements which at significance, deliberate bones social the held selected of other instances and of recurrent skulls concepts The of signified fertility. deposition have potential could and remains future adult) the than continuity, (rather hope, infant of use the settlement, the deposition metalwork and of community, practice the the to) of the addition above). members (or (see many of settlement, continuation involved a the have represent may also Furthermore, of might remains children. human their position continued of of of remains offering precarious face objects—the the symbolic the increasingly more in to but the turned deity, community responsible and the appease deterioration to climatic attempts in made been have upr.Aseiltakyuge lot afBuese o i naubehl uigtewiigo this of writing the during phenomenon: help lake-dwelling invaluable his the for of Baumeister end Ralf to (The also project goes SNF you paper. large thank special a A of support. research the from cultural stems paper This ¨ h oilysgicn hl kls eandb h omnt o h occasion, the for community the by retained skulls, child socially-significant The in location their from removed or environment surrounding the from recovered Either https:/www.cambridge.org/core versus niomna hne;w r hrfr rtflt h ws ainlFudto o its for Foundation National Swiss the to grateful therefore are we change); environmental rnec eot,Bnai enns&HrmtGollnisch-Moos Hartmut & Jennings Benjamin Menotti, Francesco . https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00101115 . University of BaselLibrary , on 467 30 May2017 at13:53:16 , subjectto theCambridgeCore termsofuse,available C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity

Research ‘Gifts for the gods’

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