Published by the Canadian Arctic Resources Committee Volume 27, Number 2, Spring 2002

On Thinning Ice

At first glance, you might wonder how global climate change could influence thinking about issues like sover- eignty and security. But look deeper, and you will see that impacts of climate change have profound implications for Canadians, ranging from our ability to define and protect our country to how we feed ourselves.

The effects of climate change are with us now, and they are particularly apparent in Canada’s Arctic. Changes More than 200 participants filled the government conference centre in Ottawa. in habitat and ice cover are altering natural rhythms, and jeopardizing the economy and culture of northern • Ice conditions throughout the Arctic have already begun peoples. The appearance of unfamiliar species has to disrupt hunting and may well have implications for magnified the fears of local people that the ecological the survival of some species. balance of the Arctic is under assault. The projected opening of the Northwest Passage brings another set • Canada has neither the policy nor the resources required of challenges, with the possibility that other nations will to defend and administer a northern border accessible ignore Canada’s claims to sovereignty over waters between to international shipping. the Arctic islands. • Without the ability to protect an accessible northern border, our claim to Arctic sovereignty is in jeopardy. Responding to increasing concern from northerners about the dramatic changes in Arctic ice conditions, • Even full implementation of the Kyoto Protocol will only CARC, together with the Canadian Polar Commission slow the rate of these impacts; they cannot be stopped. and the Centre for Military and Strategic Studies, called • Although impacts of climate change are greatest in the together northern leaders, scientists, academics, policy Polar Regions, northerners often feel powerless to influ- makers and public servants for a conference. The “On ence the international debate that is so closely controlled Thinning Ice” conference took place in Ottawa in by economic interests. January 2002. It examined a broad range of issues to One clear and consistent theme emerged from the two days help shape the development of Canadian policy relative of presentations and panel discussions: the threat of climate to the north and to climate change. change is real and we are largely unprepared to meet it. This edition of Northern Perspectives is devoted entirely CARC is continuing the work of publicising the results of to summarizing the conference proceedings. Some high- the conference, so that Canadians will be aware of the lights of the presentations you will read inside include: threats to our northern heartland. We are also moving for- ward with plans to synthesise the information presented • Ice thickness is declining at between 4% and 10% per at the conference, to formulate policy options that we hope decade along the Northwest Passage. At this rate, the will help address the challenges of thinning ice. Passage will become navigable for much of the year within the next three decades. Karen Wristen is Executive Director of CARC. Climate Change—the Difference This Time

Critics of the science behind the links between green- • This is the first time human activity is a significant, and house gases and climate change are fond of pointing out even dominant, factor in controlling climate change. the earth’s previous climatic variations. There were ice • The rate of change is unprecedented for at least 10,000 ages and warming trends before, both historical and years, showing a rapid rise beginning about 100 years prehistoric. Grapes once flourished in England, and ice ago, and an even sharper upturn in the past few years. sheets once covered most of Canada. The current round of climate change, they say, is just another of those climatic • The profound impact of humans on the global ecosystem. blips to which the planet is predisposed. “We are now dealing with many issues besides climate Doctor Donald Lemmen of Natural Resources Canada change,” he explains. “Ecosystems around the globe is not convinced by those arguments. Having studied are under stress from a number of factors. Climate northern hemisphere climate records, he says this current change may, in some cases, be the straw that breaks the round of change is different for 3 reasons: camel’s back.”

The Ice Evidence More than anything else, a frozen ocean defines the the minimum amount of ice over that period of time has Arctic, according to John Falkingham of the Canadian been decreasing by about 8-9%/decade. So that we have Ice Service. If this is true, then the definition of the Arctic observed a very significant decrease in Canadian Arctic ice.” is changing, because the extent of the frozen ocean is While it is evident that the sea ice is decreasing, Falkingham also changing. does not believe we will ever see a time when it disappears The Canadian Ice Service is a branch of Enivironment completely. “The Canadian Arctic is never going to become Canada. Its job is to monitor ice and maintain awareness ice-free all year round,” he says. “At least not in any fore- of Canada’s ice environment. Falkingham says the figures seeable future that we can look at. It gets dark and it gets show conclusively that the amounts of ice in the Arctic are cold in the Arctic in the winter time, so there will always decreasing. He points to two studies, one from 19981 and be at least winter time coverage.” 2 one from 1999 . One found that the amount of sea ice Apart from the trends in actual ice extent, Falkingham in the northern hemisphere had decreased by about 3% cites other evidence that the Arctic is becoming more ice- per decade over the past 2 decades. The second study free. Over the past 30 years, he says the shipping season showed that ice thickness in the Arctic Ocean has decreased for the Hudson Bay port of Churchill has increased by by 40%, a finding that Falkingham calls, “shocking to the 2 weeks. Tieing all of the evidence together—the indications scientific community.” of sea ice change, the direct evidence of temperature Falkingham cautions against taking the ice coverage from increases, and the science of global climate change— year to year as an indication of change. He says in Hudson is still a work in progress according to Falkingham. Bay for instance, the ice coverage changed by 300% between He says it is a field that demands more study. 1992 and 1993. What’s important are trends, and the trends “While there’s no proof of climate change impacts on sea observed by the Ice Service in the Canadian Arctic show ice in the Canadian Arctic, there’s a growing body of cir- that in Hudson Bay, the ice coverage has diminished by cumstantial evidence that during this century we will see 10% over each of the past three decades. Falkingham says significantly reduced amounts of ice. But the bottom line lower numbers, but similar trends have been observed in is, with this growing body of circumstantial evidence, com- the eastern and western Canadian Arctic regions. bined with the significant impacts and the vulnerability “Bottom line, across the area of the Northwest Passage we of the Arctic, we need to spend more time, more effort, can say that over the last 30 years, the amount of ice in the more money, more resources, on monitoring and study- summer time has been decreasing by 4-6% per decade. And ing what’s happening in our own back yard in Canada.”

1 C. Parkinson et al 1998. 2 D. Rothrock 1999.

2 Dr Lemmen hedges no bets when talking about are manifest in changes in sea ice, permafrost, coastal what is causing this accelerated climate change. He erosion, glaciers, and biological ecosystems.” says what’s driving it is the atmospheric concentration of greenhouses gases. Dr. Lemmen further outlines some possible effects of climate change in Canada’s north. Caribou may find food And that is why he says mitigation, through reduction of harder to come by, due to changed snow depths and ice greenhouse gas emissions, is an important first step in layers covering their winter forage; increased forest fires addressing climate change. “We must mitigate,” says Dr. and incursions of warm-weather pests could devastate Lemman. “We must do all we can to reduce the rate of boreal forests; communities that rely on ice roads to haul climate change. We can not prevent climate change, we in essential supplies may be stranded. can not stop climate change.” Mitigation is part of the answer to avoiding catastrophe, The United Nations-sponsored Intergovernmental Panel according to Dr. Lemmen, but the second part of the on Climate Change estimates that temperatures will answer is adaptation. He cites the example of an ice core increase by between 1.4 to 5.8°C over the period 1990 dam at a northern mining site. Rather than design the to 2100. dam based on current temperatures, engineers used warm- ing projections to ensure that the dam will still hold under And much of that change, according to the Panel, will conditions of future warming. be felt first and hardest in the north. “Polar regions are expected to experience amongst the largest, most rapid Dr. Lemmen’s parting message is that whatever strategies climate changes of any region on earth, and will cause are employed to deal with it, climate change should not major physical ecological, sociological and economic be denied, especially by northerners. “Climate change is impacts. Changes in climate that have already taken place real,” he says, “it’s being felt in the north today.”

What We Don’t Know— the Challenges of Integrating Knowledge

Human activities are equal to or greater than forces of nature in a local area. He also cautions that models are not in terms of impact on planetary behaviour, according to accurate predictors of what will happen, but rather plau- Dr. Robert Corell. He is chair of the Arctic Climate Impact sible suggestions of what may happen. Assessment, a massive undertaking sponsored by the eight- member Arctic Council, involving the efforts of almost Once a model has predicted an impact, that is not the 300 scientists. Dr. Corell is attempting to grapple with end of the story. Those impacts can be magnified or dimin- quantifying the impact of those human activities. He believes ished depending on the adaptability of local people and that scientists have a key role to play in assessing our impact natural systems. This is what Dr. Corell calls vulnerability. on the planet, and also in creating a more sustainable future. “Vulnerability,” he says, “ is equal to impact, moderated by ability to adapt. A high impact coupled with a high Dr. Corell believes that over the past 20 years scientists ability to adapt equals not very vulnerable. What we don’t have begun to get an idea of how the planet works, partic- know enough about is the adaptability of either the human ularly how the climate works. “One thing we’ve learned is or natural systems.” that this planet behaves in patchy ways. Alaska is warming much more rapidly than the Eastern Canadian Arctic.” Dr. Corell believes that examining the vulnerability of communities requires more than simply examining the This ‘patchiness’ of behaviour is further complicated by impacts of climate change. “What are the big factors other factors that make prediction of impacts difficult. Dr. driving change in these communities of which climate Corell says scientists must deal with changing land use, is one very important one?” He has some suggestions population change, and many other factors before they about what some of these factors might be: pollutants; can come up with a satisfactory model of what may happen globalization; trade issues; information technology.

3 In answering questions of impacts and vulnerability of and vulnerability triggered by Arctic climate change Arctic communities, Dr. Corell says academics can ben- will be gathered into a three volume report. The report efit from the contributions of Aboriginal peoples and is due to be released in 2004. Corell says the report other people who do not necessarily have a scientific will depart from academic convention in not just background, participating in what he calls “the co- laying out the facts but also in making policy production of knowledge” to create a more integrated recommendations to governments and Aboriginal body of knowledge. organizations. “Our argument is we should tell them in a way that’s clear, objective, factual and then let the The efforts of Corell, his fellow scientists and other policy debate occur.” partners to answer the questions about how impacts

On Guard for Thee? Preparing for a Navigable NW Passage

Issues of control, sovereignty, and security will all flow to address any of those issues is that the event from a navigable Northwest Passage, according to that will trigger them, the melting of Arctic ice which University of Calgary Political Scientist Dr. Rob Huebert. currently blocks the passage, is uncertain. Current But the problem in getting the Canadian government trends suggest the passage will become increasingly ice-free, and for longer periods of time, but nobody can predict exactly when that will happen.

Although the event may be considered safely far off, Huebert says the government must act now, because of the lengthy period required to prepare adequate resources to meet the challenges. “To design, build, and get a coast guard vessel functional is easily a 10-15 years period, let alone the political hullabaloo that goes in just in try- ing to design it. Anyone who followed the issue behind the Polar 8 [icebreaker] knows we spent a Rob Huebert interviewed by Reuters correspondent David Ljunggren. good six-seven years

4 The Polar Highway

Lawson Brigham showed a series of historical service maps Ultimately, Brigham believes there may well be increased and recent temperature records. Bright blocks and lines use of the growing ice-free areas. He says this calls for gov- illustrated the inexorable rise in temperatures and decline ernments to pay more attention to meeting the needs and of sea ice coverage over the past few years. He shows these challenges brought by that increased traffic. “No doubt, maps to anyone who doubts that there is a warming trend, in a transition period during the next three or four decades and subsequent loss of ice in the Arctic. if we see marine transportation in the Arctic in any large numbers of ships, there’ll be a greater, a higher need for Brigham shows another slide, this one detailing the increas- ice services...I would think that most governments would ing incidence of polar voyages. He exclaims, “It’s quite, sense that ‘there’s less ice so we need fewer services’. However I think, extraordinary that at the end of the twentieth we may see larger volumes, larger ships, greater presence, century we have roughly 50 voyages by surface ships in and we need to provide more services, not only in Canada the central Arctic Ocean.” of course but in Russia, in and around Greenland, and Of the polar trips, twenty-seven were by Russian icebreak- in the United States off Alaska.” ers taking well-heeled tourists to the North Pole. Brigham’s Brigham says the relatively slow rate at which the ice is dis- intent in displaying these figures is simply to show that Arctic appearing should allow plenty of time for planning, waters are becoming increasingly utilised and accessible. although he’s not sure that governments will avail them- He says there are some downward trends in use. Since the selves of that lead time. “This steady decline, somewhat fall of the Soviet empire, there has been decreasing use of incremental, should allow for some logical management. the northern sea route to ferry cargo, despite increased Protection systems will hopefully be sensitively designed accessibility. Brigham puts this decline down to the weak- to evolve in a methodical way, but of course, that’s not the ened economy of the Russian Federation. way the great democracies operate.”

just arguing which shipyard, whose riding it was going size of those currently using the Panama Canal could to be built in, that was part of the reason it didn’t go use a polar route. forward. We have this issue, to get the instruments ready really takes a long term view.” Ships are not all that is This increased traffic could bring opportunities, but it required. Huebert warns that it will also take several could also bring problems. Huebert recalls that a cruise years to develop the necessary infrastructure, to train ship was already grounded off Cambridge Bay, causing and prepare the human resources, and to design and a small oil leak. Larger vessels could cause much larger build an adequate surveillance network. leaks, perhaps on the scale of the Alaskan spill from the Exxon Valdez. Whether or not the federal government sees the issue of Canadian sovereignty as important, Huebert believes Huebert says that although such a scenario could be there could be a major influx of traffic through Canada’s years away, the Canadian government should start Arctic waters. “If ice conditions improve substantially now by asking itself some critical questions, “How do to allow passage there is a substantial saving for inter- we maintain the proper abilities to protect the envi- national shipping, particularly between Asia and Europe, ronment, protect those who live in that region of the and Asia and the Eastern United States. Furthermore, world, and to provide the necessary opportunities that it also has to be recognised that if the passage is in fact would come from increased shipping?” to clear, it has certain advantages over the Panama Canal.” He says it has been proven that ships about double the

5 Left to right: Marie Fortier (session chair), Gordon McBean, Willy Ostreng, Victor Santos-Pedro Polar Traffic Cops—The Rules for NW Passage Shipping

From the perspective of Victor Santos-Pedro, climate preservation of the peculiar ecological balance that now change may not be exactly a good thing, but he’s optimistic exists in the water, ice, and land areas of the Canadian Arctic.” about opportunities to adapt in the area of increased marine traffic. Santos-Pedro is with the marine safety Santos-Pedro says the Act enables Arctic shipping division of Transport Canada, and he’s been giving plenty pollution prevention regulations, including construction of thought to the prospect of lengthier ice-free seasons standards for ships, navigation control, and necessary luring more shipping to the Arctic. crew qualifications. He says safety concerns are picked up by the Canada Shipping Act, and where the Santos-Pedro believes that there is already a solid foun- government has seen gaps between the two pieces of dation for Arctic shipping regulations in Canada, and legislation, it has introduced standards and guidelines, that we are on the threshold of having a good framework including guidelines for passenger ships, spurred by the for international polar shipping regulations. “Climate increase in Arctic ecotourism. change is being proposed as anticipating a disaster, a disaster can sometimes engender good rule-making, The Canadian government is also pursuing a set of inter- not necessarily always but it can.” national rules and regulations, to cover shipping in both northern and southern Polar Regions. Santos- Santos-Pedro points to the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Pedro’s prescription for such an international framework Act as one of the underpinnings of Arctic protection from is that it should integrate rules on ship design and con- shipping, as well as an early example of a Canadian com- struction, crew qualifications, communications and oper- mitment to sustainable development. The Act reads, “ and ations. He says work is well underway on some parts of whereas Parliament at the same time recognises and is deter- the new framework. mined to fulfill its obligation to see that the natural resources of the Canadian Arctic are developed and exploited and the There is work in progress on construction standards for Arctic waters adjacent to the mainland and islands of the the hulls and machinery of ships built for Polar Regions Canadian Arctic are navigated only in a manner that takes that Santos-Pedro expects will be finished this year. Next cognizance of Canada’s responsibility for the welfare of the year, he’s expecting the release of a non-binding set of Inuit and other inhabitants of the Canadian Arctic and the guidelines on operating Arctic shipping.

6 The Human

Face of Climate “Protecting the Arctic and its people from the effects of climate change continues to occupy Change centre stage in the minds of many northerners and governments. Sound knowledge is an Sheila Watt-Cloutier, President of the Inuit Circumpolar essential foundation for the integrated Conference (Canada) has recently moved to Iqaluit, decision making and risk management that capital of the territory of Nunavut. She could not believe what she saw there this past winter. “We had a very late will be necessary for the Arctic, where the freeze-up this year, which created an incredible amount of sensitive environment and societal vulnera- anxiety... Without snow, without ice freezing, life almost bility are insufficiently understood.” stops in the Arctic. As you know, we’re still very connected to our traditional way of life and if the ice doesn’t freeze, Mary Simon there’s no seal hunting, if there’s no snow on the land, Ambassador for Circumpolar Affairs there’s no caribou hunting.”

To Watt-Cloutier, and thousands of Inuit around the pole, Climate change is not an academic problem, it is a present and personal problem. They are well aware of scientific predictions that polar regions are likely to be among the first and hardest hit by climate change. Arctic islands and the waterways between them. In 1985, Canada’s sovereignty was challenged by an American Nunavut Tunggavik Incorporated, the Inuit land claims icebreaker which cruised through Canadian Arctic waters group, recently brought Inuit together to discuss changes without permission. Watt-Cloutier reminds people of they are seeing, and the effects of those changes. According the response of the then-minister of External Affairs, to Watt-Cloutier, people spoke of melting permafrost, Joe Clark. “Canada’s sovereignty in the Arctic is indivis- retreating glaciers, a shorter snowmobiling season, more ible. It embraces land sea and ice, it extends without sunburn, more windstorms. She says conservation groups interruption to the seaward facing coasts of the Arctic tend to concentrate on such things as the effects of climate Islands. These islands are joined and not divided by the change on polar bears, and she adds “We agree, there are waters between them. They are bridged for most of the effects on polar bears. But to us it’s about more than bears, year by the ice, and from time immemorial Canada’s Inuit it’s about our culture, it’s about our health, it’s about our people have used and occupied the ice as they have used very survival as a people.” and occupied the land.”

Aside from the considerable direct impacts of climate Watt-Cloutier says the well-documented Inuit use and change, Watt-Cloutier is concerned about the indirect occupancy of Arctic land and waters is still Canada’s best effects that could flow from an Arctic made more acces- argument in asserting sovereignty over the region. sible by melting sea ice. “We will most likely experience disproportionate adverse impacts from the potential Despite being on the front lines of climate change impacts environmental incidences that may occur, such as oil spills, and their sovereignty implications, Watt-Cloutier says wildlife, such as the changes in the breeding and migration Inuit have not been engaged on the issue by the federal routes, and the socio-economic disruption such as illegal government. She says Inuit will not be powerless victims immigration and possible increased drug trafficking in of climate change, but will lobby actively in international the Arctic.” meetings to ensure that their concerns are not ignored. “We must give climate change in the Arctic a human As for challenges to Canada’s sovereignty by other nations face, an Inuk face, and we must show climate change taking advantage of melting Arctic ice, Watt-Cloutier says negotiators impacts in the Arctic foreshadow impacts Inuit solidly back Canada’s claim to sovereignty over the around the globe.”

7 Global Process, Community Impact

Manitok Thompson is constantly confronted by evidence of climate change. As the Minister of Community Government and Transportation for the Nunavut Government, she has to deal with the extra costs of putting artificial ice in community hockey arenas which were previously frozen naturally. She has to deal with the trans- port implications of shifting ice seasons.

But Thompson doesn’t need the reports coming across her desk to make her aware of climate changes; she’s seen them herself, in her home community of Coral Harbour, where strange southern bird species have made an appearance. She hears local people talk about how the changing snow and wind patterns are making hunting and fishing difficult.

Thompson wants all of these factors taken into consid- eration in discussions of climate change. “Too often the community-based impacts of climate change are lost in arcane arguments regarding emissions trading and the impacts of national emissions reductions to business and industry,” she argues. “Within Nunavut we see things from another perspective. We have no control over emissions trading and the efforts of countries to reduce the impacts on existing industrial and business infrastructure. In fact, we have no control over the emissions that are being created. Nunavut produces 1/10 of one percent of the total amount of greenhouse gases that the arrival of a cruise ship off their community. Canada produces.” Thompson also recounts the story of a sailboat that turned up last summer off Coral Harbour, crewed by a Thompson is frustrated by the lack of Arctic focus dis- group of people who spoke no English or Inuktitut. She played by industries and policy makers. She wants people says the boat got stuck near the community, and nobody to understand that climate change is not simply an exercise was available to help. involving research and policy—it presents a real current problem on the ground for Inuit, with health and Thompson believes an investment in communications social impacts. Apart from forcing changes in traditional and transportation infrastructure is necessary to antici- hunting and fishing lifestyles, she is concerned that pate and deal with increased northern traffic. The warming could bring new species and new diseases. It Nunavut government has proposed such measures as could also bring more traffic to northern waters. an excellent investment in Canadian sovereignty. Thompson says the Nunavut government would like “Who will handle the costs of cleanup when mistakes and to work with Inuit organizations and with the federal accidents occur?” asks Thompson. She is concerned about government to address security and sovereignty challenges the apparent lack of planning or authorization for Arctic in the north, but doesn’t believe Nunavut is “on the federal travel. People in Resolute Bay were reportedly shocked by radar screen.”

8 A Call for a Vision for the North

Over many years in the Northwest Territories Joe Handley there’s no domestic policy. There’s no clearly articulated has seen the economy and the people of the territory common vision of what the Northwest Territories will driven by a succession of needs of people from outside be 50 or 100 years from now.” the territories. He says it began before his time, with fur trading, then religion, oil, the north warning system, and Investment by the federal government is needed now, mining all brought their influences north. These external says Handley, to ensure sufficient planning for such things forces have led to such things as an infrastructure developed as the growth of mining and oil and gas development. for economic development, rather than for the use Two years ago, the territorial government prepared of northerners. its own non-renewable resource development strategy. That strategy called for an investment of $230 million Handley is now the territorial Minister of Finance, but over four years from the federal government, while the feels he still has little control territorial government would over the real levers of power that contribute $100 million. Two govern development in the years later Handley says the Northwest Territories. He says territorial government is still for instance when it comes to struggling to raise the money it development of territorial oil and wants. “Without the up-front gas resources, the decisions will investment,” he adds, “northern- be made by Exxon, Conoco/ ers will not have a real share Philips and BP. in development.”

When development is being driven The pressures of development in by the needs of multinational cor- the north may well be magnified porations, Handley wants to know by climate change. Handley is who is looking after the big pic- particularly concerned about ture for the north. “When we talk increased traffic off northern to the federal government about coasts, and the infrastructure that development and what’s happen- may be built to accommodate ing, the answer is ‘well wait until and attract that traffic. “The there’s a proposal, then we’ll talk.’ development of any kind of deep But see, it’s too late by then. Once sea ports in the Arctic I think has you’ve got that proposal in hand, to be done very, very, very care- you’re not going to make a huge fully. We may make some huge difference on anything. You’ve got mistakes that, given the rate of to have a plan in place before that change in the Arctic environment proposal ever happens. I appreci- may stay with us for hundreds ate the work and the interest you of years.” people are showing, the non- government organizations...I think what you are doing Handley says he’s not proposing freezing out southern is a step in the right direction, but we need to figure out development pressures, but he wants to ensure responsi- how we work with your agencies on a common agenda, ble, sustainable economic development for the territories. along with the federal government.” “We are prepared to share our wealth to the benefit of other Canadians,” he concludes, “if in return our land is Handley says the federal government has looked beyond respected, and Canadians, all Canadians support a vision its northern borders, but has not sufficiently examined that will make the north a better place for our people and what lies within those borders. “I note that although all people of Canada.” Canada has a foreign policy on the north and the Arctic,

9 Climate

Change Raises “The highly vulnerable geography of Canada’s Arctic has been experiencing growing pressures Sustainability due to climate change, contaminated sites, per- sistent organic pollutants and economic devel- Stakes opment based on non-renewable resource industries, such as diamond mining and oil and Global climate change is another challenge piled on top gas extraction, increased recreational boating of the already difficult job of achieving sustainable devel- or commercial shipping and ecotourism. We opment for Canada’s North. That’s the viewpoint of Gordon McBean of The University of Western Ontario. need to apply greater effort to develop solutions. McBean uses the measure developed by a UN report, Ignoring current trends could increasingly put commonly known as the Brundtland Commission, to at risk human health, economic activity and the talk about sustainability: social and cultural traditions of the North. New “Sustainable development is development that meets knowledge will be required to address these issues, the needs of the present without compromising the abil- ity of future generations to meet their own needs.” in particular the existing or potential impacts on the aquatic resources in the North. DFO’s McBean says sustainable development in the Arctic is already a challenge because of the fragile Arctic ecology, mandate for fisheries and oceans management, and the pollutant loads carried from development for environmental and fish habitat protection elsewhere. For instance, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), toxic chemicals that build through the food and for safe shipping gives rise to the need for chain, are already widely found in Arctic regions, trans- new scientific research, to amass evidence and ported from sources sometimes thousands of miles to develop plans of action.” distant. McBean says those pollution problems could be magnified by warming in the Arctic, as chemicals in Building awareness and capacity: an action plan for snow and ice are released by melting. continued sustainable development 2001-2003. Fisheries and Oceans Canada report McBean believes local sources of Arctic pollution will also increase as there is mounting pressure to develop Arctic resources such as oil and gas. He says all of the fac- tors added together may put sustainability beyond reach, especially if there is not an integrated response. “The be a case of learning through experimentation and threat is coming from multiple stressors, working in a adaptive management. variety of ways, yet largely speaking, we’re dealing with them in our response strategies to these one at a time. It may also require a shift in thinking about how impacts We’re dealing with climate change over here, with pol- from government policy are calculated. McBean gives the lution and POPs over here, with stratospheric ozone over example of the Kyoto protocol on greenhouse gas reduc- there, with other issues in other fora. We have not yet tion, and the agreement between the federal government been able in a societal sense to bring a common integrated and the provinces that no region should bear a dispro- response to these and I think that’s what we need when portionate impact from mitigation measures taken to we talk about sustainability or sustainable development.” implement the protocol. McBean wonders if in addition the agreement should be that no region should bear a However, McBean warns there is no quick-fix, no magic disproportionate burden of the impacts of inaction, or solution to emerge from a workshop. He says it will instead insufficient action, on reducing greenhouse gases.

10 Left to right: Frances Abele (session chair), Bob Williamson, Whitney Lackenbauer The Inuktitut for “Sovereignty”

For Professor Bob Williamson, language is the key to the last 50 years Canadian Inuit have moved from a situation future shape of sovereignty in the Arctic. Williamson, a wherein their sense of participation in a nation state was cultural anthropologist, is speaking specifically of the minimal or entirely lacking, to the vital role in the gover- concepts of relationship to the land and waters embedded nance of Canada today.” in Inuktitut, the language spoken by Inuit. He says the scattered Inuit population is key to some of the big Inuit must build on the level of self-determination they questions facing Canada’s Arctic region.”It is not a large have achieved in the past 30 years, advises Williamson, population, but it is a very significant population in the so that they can assert yet more control over events in resolution of Canada’s identity and its relationship with their homeland. “Virtually all of the non-indigenous the rest of the world.” population living temporarily in the Arctic during their working years ultimately go south. There is no question Williamson believes Canada’s sovereignty in the Arctic is, that the future of the Inuit and their habitat should firmly and should be, exercised by Inuit, and that the nature of be in the hands of their own people.” that sovereignty will be determined by Inuit attitudes to their relationship with the environment. He characterizes Williamson has some concrete suggestions about how that relationship as a “companion” relationship, with Inuit Inuit could achieve more prominence. He says Inuit should linked physically, culturally, and spiritually to the land forms be given an equal place at first ministers meetings; they and water bodies that surround them. should be given more responsibility for search and rescue on their lands and waters; and there should be a cabinet Over the past generation and a half, Williamson says the minister with more prominence appointed to take Inuit place in Canada has changed enormously, “Over the responsibility for federal dealings with the north.

11 Environmental Security in the Arctic

Canada’s Ambassador for Circumpolar Affairs would like the concept of Arctic security broadened to include environmental protection and “people-oriented socio- economic considerations.” Mary Simon, a northerner herself, says these are some of the key issues that occupy people’s minds in the Arctic.

Simon welcomes the renewal of interest in this broader concept of security in the Arctic, but cautions that it will require an ongoing dialogue. To reinforce her point, she quotes from a submission made three years ago in Inuvik when the federal government was consulting on its new northern foreign policy document, “ We have seen many environmental changes such as decreased precipitation, more forest and tundra fires, and the cycles of animals changing, which affect trapping and fishing seasons. All these are inter-related and affect the lives of our people. We can not be expected to talk about the complexities of climate change and human rights in 5 minutes.”

Simon says the Canadian government is supportive of the necessary for the Arctic, where the sensitive environment pursuit of a broader definition of security in the Arctic. and societal vulnerability are insufficiently understood.” She cites the four “overarching objectives” of the Northern Dimension of Canada’s Foreign Policy, a document released Simon says that in the Arctic Council, Canada is taking in 2000 by the department of Foreign Affairs. “One, the lead in capacity building, ensuring that northern people enhancing the security and prosperity of Canadians, and their institutions can take part in building sustainable especially northerners and aboriginal peoples. Two, development. She says meeting the pressing economic asserting and ensuring the preservation of Canada’s development needs of northerners while respecting sovereignty in the north. Three, establishing the sustainability, the environment and human health is one circumpolar region as a vibrant geo-political entity of the biggest challenges facing northerners, government integrated into a rules-based international system. Four, and industry. She says that is a theme which the Canadian promoting the human security of northerners and the government intends to raise at the coming world summit sustainable development of the Arctic.” on sustainable development, to be held this August in Johannesburg. Simon says another way in which Canada is advancing an agenda of Arctic security is through the eight-nation Arctic Council. She says the research being undertaken by Arctic Council working groups is particularly impor- tant. “Protecting the Arctic and its people from the effects of climate change continue to occupy centre stage in the minds of many northerners and governments. Sound knowledge is an essential foundation for the integrated decision making and risk management that will be

12 or Canadian sovereignty in Arctic waters. There will be ways found to deal with anybody who wants to Sovereignty, come through.”

Griffiths also argues that security is not the correct term Whose to use in considering climate change impacts. He says it has been bandied about so much that the term has become almost meaningless, used by people who are looking to Sovereignty? lay a better claim on resources by framing it as a security issue, “Security as a whole suggests that there is an external threat; where climate change is concerned, we For University of Toronto professor Franklyn Griffiths, are the threat.” the concepts of sovereignty and security are not the right way to go about looking at climate change in Rather than speaking of security and sovereignty, Griffiths the Arctic. believes northern governments should support Inuit in taking the lead in dealing with the new challenges brought Griffiths calls those concepts “old think.” Firstly, he by climate change. “The Inuit are not hung up on sover- says, the idea of Canadian sovereignty is rapidly becom- eignty the way southerners are, and I think there is an ing outmoded, due to the melding of Canadian and opportunity for the Inuit to take a lead, to think in terms American security systems. By the time the Northwest of sustainability rather than sovereignty when we look to Passage becomes navigable, adds Griffiths, the question Arctic waters and Canada’s Arctic waters in particular. I of Canadian sovereignty may well be moot. think a stewardship approach, which is innate to Inuit, “In some ways, it seems to me, the Canada-U.S. border is one that we need, rather than title.” is now up in Iqaluit, it’s up in Resolute, it’s in Inuvik. Griffiths notes that the Canadian government has not This is the outer perimeter of this place that Canada moved toward giving Inuit more jurisdiction over offshore inhabits with the United States, this common North waters, despite using an Inuit presence there as the basis American space. The United States is not going to for Canadian sovereignty. He says that is a contradiction allow a challenge to its own sovereignty in effect, in Canadian policy, and not a noble one.

The Defenceless Arctic

Water pirates, major shipping accidents and an increase where there’s no radar coverage. He notes that Arctic in illegal activity are developments that Pierre Leblanc search and rescue operations are coordinated from believes are real threats to the Canadian North. Leblanc Trenton, Ontario, thousands of miles away. “Will we be is now an executive with a diamond mining company; able to react quickly enough to a major air disaster on his previous job was Commander of Canadian Forces Ellesmere Island? As the pattern of air transportation Northern Area which includes Yukon, Nunavut and the changes there may be a need to shift some of the resources Northwest Territories. allocated to that function.” Leblanc says some challenges to Canada’s Arctic capacity Leblanc believes increasing ship traffic in polar seas may are exacerbated by climate change, while others are com- also require an enhanced ability to mount search and ing anyway. The recent opening of Russian and Chinese rescue operations. He asks, “Are we prepared to cope with airspace to commercial traffic is having a dramatic effect a cruise ship on fire where all passengers need to be evac- on the number of flights crossing Canada’s polar regions. uated, including a number of casualties?” Leblanc’s figures show more than 90,000 overflights of Other challenges Leblanc catalogues include increased Polar Regions every year, and from 20 to 30 per day traffic and population spurred by resource development,

13 Island. He says the conclusion was that there would be no way to tell if such a thing was even happening, let alone mount a response. Such a scenario would raise not only sovereignty issues, but also environmental concerns, such “We have insufficient resources to properly as the discharge of foreign bilge water in Arctic waters, monitor and control activities in the Arctic, which could upset the Arctic ecosystem. Leblanc notes that at the same time the scenario was being debated, a a beautiful and rich part of our country. Chinese government research vessel arrived in Tuktoyaktuk, Although additional resources will come at “virtually undetected.” a cost, Canada should see this as a long- Matched against all these threats, Leblanc lists a declining term investment.” government security presence in the Arctic. He says the navy has no capacity to operate on or under Arctic waters, Pierre Leblanc the air force surveillance flights are almost non-existent, and a depleted Northern Region headquarters staff now has a “limited capability to monitor the Arctic and produce intelligence.”

Leblanc concludes that, “There needs to be an informed including potential exploitation of huge Arctic oil and gas public debate on this issue. Canadians need to know for reserves. Leblanc says his current employment, diamond example that part of our airspace is not covered by radar, mining, has a history of attracting organized crime. that their navy can not operate in the Arctic and so on...We Global climate change, with its attendant droughts and have insufficient resources to properly monitor and con- increased Arctic access, may also draw illegal activity to trol activities in the Arctic, a beautiful and rich part of our another Arctic commodity—water. Leblanc says a 1999 country. Although additional resources will come at a cost, Arctic security symposium discussed the scenario of a ship Canada should see this as a long-term investment. To do arriving from Asia to collect water from Prince Patrick otherwise would be an abrogation of sovereignty.”

Pierre Leblanc interviewed by TVA

14 Arctic Battleground

While some people are thinking of Arctic security in missile attack. I don’t want to alarm you about this environmental or socio-economic terms, Lt. General because in the event of a ballistic missile defence the George Macdonald approaches the warhead and vehicle that delivers it and question in military terms. Macdonald, so on are smashed to smithereens, and now the Canadian Vice Chief of there’s no nuclear effect at all, and the Defence, is fresh off a stint as the deputy remnants would mostly be burned up commander-in-chief of NORAD, the in the atmosphere on re-entry because North American aerospace defence this occurs in outer space. So it’s not as command. NORAD, formed in 1958, if there’s a threat to those on the ground has a binational command structure in the north.” with an American commander paired with a Canadian deputy. While downplaying any threat to peo- ple on the ground, Macdonald also says Macdonald says despite the end of any such attack is not likely, but because the cold war, NORAD still considers of the possible catastrophic conse- the north an important region. A radar quences, it is a threat for which net is maintained at 70 degrees north NORAD must be prepared. The cur- to capture information about any rent NORAD agreement runs until airborne threats, and a network of 2006. Macdonald believes it is an agree- forward operating locations provides ment that should continue, “Being in bases from which aircraft can be quickly the north, being in NORAD, presents launched. Macdonald says there have us with a continuing opportunity to been recent instances of what he calls cooperate in aerospace defence with our “incursions” by Russian bombers, to which NORAD closest ally, the United States, in the mutual defence of forces have responded. our North America.”

“The issue here is not that we’re defending against a real threat, but that we recognise that there’s value, and it’s important for us to ensure that we can protect our air sovereignty for our sovereign territory. And by deploying fighters forward, we didn’t intercept a Russian aircraft in any of these instances, because they didn’t fly “Increasingly governments are talking about towards our territory and penetrate our radar coverage. economic, environmental, demographic, But we were there, they knew we were there, we knew what they were doing, they knew roughly what we were ecological, human, energy, sustainable, soft, doing, and we ensured that our sovereignty was protected and cultural security, pooling together into and of course defended if that became the case.” various combinations of extended and While Macdonald doesn’t suggest that the Russian planes comprehensive security. In other words presented a military threat, he says there is a real threat security has become more international that would also likely choose a northern route. than national, more cooperative than unilateral “For almost anywhere in the world where ballistic missiles are held, an attack on the United States would and more civil than military.” occur from a northerly direction. Great circle routes to targets in the United States traditionally come across Willy Ostreng, Director, Fridtjof Nansen Institute the coast or the northern part of Canada, so the Canadian north is ultimately going to be the upper space battleground if there is some sort of a ballistic

15 The Canadian Rangers— Sovereignty on a Shoestring

marksmanship skills, which helps feed the communities. Members of a patrol also transfer traditional knowledge, which may have been lacking in the younger members, but is an essential part of the rangers’ skills.

Lackenbauer argues that the system of electing officers from within the group is used as a tool for grooming future community leaders. One third of Nunavut’s MLAs, for instance, either are or were ranger leaders. “The last few decades have been marked by repeated calls for demili- tarization of the North, on the grounds that military Whitney Lackenbauer, a Research Associate at the activities threaten both the environment and Northern University of Calgary’s Centre for Military and Strategic ways of life,” says Lackenbauer. “The Rangers appear to Studies, poses the question at the centre of traditional do neither. The program focuses on human rather than ideas of sovereignty; “How can Canada deal with the real- physical infrastructure or environmentally threatening ities of maintaining a military presence in isolated areas technological solutions to Northern sovereignty and secu- of the country, on a very low budget, to maintain at least rity dilemmas. Furthermore, Ranger activities are usually the veneer of sovereignty?” For Lackenbauer, this is a pursued in conjunction with subsistence and traditional rhetorical question. While global climate change sharpens activities in Northern communities and on the land. This the debate about the nature and form of Arctic sover- is significant. Northerners do not have to leave their com- eignty, one government program is quietly going about munities, or abandon their lifestyles, traditional practices, asserting sovereignty the old-fashioned way, through a and Northern identity to serve in the Canadian Forces.” military presence. While Lackenbauer believes the ranger experience to date But this is no ordinary military. These are units of what has been positive, both in terms of their military role, and Lackenbauer describes as “low-cost, localized, citizen- in terms of the effect on northern communities, he is soldiers,” otherwise known as the Canadian Rangers. The concerned that rising expectations could distort the current rangers, formed in the 1940’s, are a force of local people balance. “Pushing for too much coverage is not realistic recruited to act as the eyes and ears of the Canadian given the rationale behind the force, but such pressures military in areas where it would not be cost-effective to could accompany the exploitation of a Northwest Passage have regular forces on patrol. They also take part in search by commercial traffic. In recent years, CFNA [Canadian and rescue operations. In the north, the ranger patrols are Forces Northern Area] has been increasingly reliant on predominantly Aboriginal. the Rangers for ground-based search and rescue north of 60. A fifteen-man ground search team, once maintained About 1300 rangers, divided into fifty-eight “patrols” by the CF in the North, has been disbanded due to operate in Canada’s northern territories. The costs are personnel shortages. While Rangers assist in SAR [search minimal; a few items of clothing, .303 rifles, and and rescue] near their communities, they should not be 300 rounds of ammunition a year, plus some other costs expected to provide comprehensive coverage of the Passage when the rangers are actually on patrol. and archipelago.”

Lackenbauer says apart from the value to Canadian To increase ranger responsibilities too far, argues sovereignty, the ranger program adds to the communities Lackenbauer, would place too great a strain on the where it operates. For instance, patrol members are volunteers, and undermine what he calls “the sustainable encouraged to use the rifles for hunting to sharpen their human development” achieved by the program to date.

16 cold war. Ostreng highlights a speech given by Mikhail Gorbachev in 1987 as the turning point in doing The Ignored away with the east/west divide in the Arctic. He says the speech signalled a willingness to engage in international cooperation in civil issue areas in the Arctic. “A brand Arctic new civil cooperative and communicative structure is dawning on the region,” says Ostreng, “Opening up an era in which the north and the south may multiply their The Mediterranean has long been seen as the centre of points of contact and further their integration in a the Western World, criss-crossed by trade, and transport, number of civil issue areas affecting the security attention the focus of an interplay of cultures. Willy Ostreng believes of Arctic cabinets.” that focus is shifting north; he sees the Arctic Ocean as the new Mediterranean. Ostreng, director of Norway’s Now that Arctic governments no longer see military Fridtjof Nansen Institute, points out that the Arctic is a security as the dominant Arctic issue, Ostreng says the short-cut between the world’s most advanced and pro- governments are defining Arctic security more as a ductive regions. But he is concerned that the potential collective venture, encompassing human security, and challenges of a new Arctic focus are shunted aside environmental security and economic security. Bound because of political indifference. into that package are important considerations such as development of Arctic energy, responses to global climate 80% of the world’s industrial production is north of change, and the sustainability of Arctic development. 30 degrees latitude says Ostreng, and 70% of all the world’s metropolitan areas are north of the Tropic of Cancer. The Despite the increasing role of the Arctic in world affairs, Northwest Passage route through Canada’s Arctic is not and the future potential of Arctic energy and trade, currently viable for commercial shipping, but the north- Ostreng says the Arctic is being all but ignored by ern sea route through the Russian Arctic may well become senior politicians around the pole. “With the exception an attractive route, according to Ostreng. He says all har- of the former Soviet Union, formulation of Arctic policies bours north of Hong Kong and San Francisco are closer in Arctic states have for long been undertaken by a via the northern sea route than through either the Suez handful of mid and high level bureaucrats and hired or Panama canals. For example, a ship travelling from external experts. As a rule political guidance in polar mat- London to Yokohama through the Suez ters has been scant, episodic and low-key.” Canal would have to travel 11,400 nau- tical miles, a northern sea route would Arctic Council meetings often see cut that distance by 40% to 6,600 nau- cancellations of planned ministerial tical miles. appearances, according to Ostreng, and members of the United States congress as Ostreng says the political instability of a rule don’t participate in meetings of par- the canal routes may also add to the attrac- liamentarians of the Arctic region, as the tiveness of the northern route. “10 years meetings are not deemed sufficiently ago, the world had no alternative but to important to U.S. interests. live with the political risks associated with the Middle East and Central America. Ostreng believes that leaving the Arctic to The official opening of the northern sea bureaucratic rather than political guidance route to international shipping on July is a mistake. He says without political guid- 1991 has changed the situation and ance, bureaucrats are doomed to a stand- provided an alternative to existing routes.” still, because while politicians have the authority to initiate and innovate, civil The Arctic’s new role as a trade route is servants are supposed to act only when told also made possible by a shift in military to. Ostreng concludes, “If members of attitudes, according to Ostreng. From the cabinet continue to play down the signif- 1950’s to the 1970’s, he describes the icance of the Arctic in global relations, the Arctic as a “military flank,” becoming a world may lose out in the efforts to make “military front” by the 1980s. But that international politics more coherent, attitude unwound with the end of the predictable, rational and even stable.”

17 A Shift in Perspective— the View From the Arctic Council

Ten years ago, says Kai Granholm, northerners had a ten- has long been one of the biggest boosters of the Arctic dency to view themselves as being on the fringe of the Council concept, and currently holds the Presidency of civilized world. Now, he senses a growing self esteem the eight-nation group. among northern peoples, a feeling that they are in the Granholm ticks off a long list of priorities for the Finnish centre of the action. Granholm, a Finnish diplomat, cred- presidency: its the Arctic Council with helping change northerners’ view of themselves and their world. • To make the Arctic Council a mouthpiece for the Arctic globally Granholm says the Council is an example of a new atti- tude in northern peoples who have woken up and taken • To make the European Union an Arctic coopera- charge of their destiny. Finland is certainly in the centre tion partner of the circumpolar world at the moment. The country • To rationalize the Council’s work

Left to right: Sandy Hunter (session chair), Tony Penikett, David Scrivener, Kai Granholm

18 • To intensify the protection of the environment, Arctic Finland is now preparing a report, due in October, which research and the University of the Arctic critically evaluates the structures of the Arctic Council. Granholm says although some people criticize the • The situation of indigenous peoples Council’s lack of structure, that could also be seen as a Granholm says he’s satisfied with the progress achieved strength. “The Council has to continuously justify its on all of those fronts. Although the Council can’t repre- existence to the governments. This has been regarded as sent members at international negotiations, representatives a weakness by some, and we have a chronic discussion have been busy in the background, spreading information about the need to establish a permanent secretariat and a about Arctic concerns and coordinating with other central budget. But the present situation could also be international bodies. Council activities in this area include seen as a strength, as an appropriate arrangement in the ensuring that the Arctic as a region is visible at the coming information society era. The absence of a permanent World Summit on Sustainable Development. Granholm administration, one that develops a life and routines of says Council liaison with the European Union has also its own, is a guarantee for close contacts among the borne fruit, a northern dimension to EU policy introduced members whose responsibilities cannot be delegated to in 1997, and an action plan following up on that policy. any anonymous substitute.”

Arctic Council at the Crossroads

Is the Arctic Council a meaningful body? That’s a ques- try to boost outside awareness of Arctic concerns, and tion posed by David Scrivener of England’s Keele especially the vulnerability of the Arctic to global processes, University. Scrivener, a keen observer of the Council, not just environmental change, be it climate change or believes the international body is poised to answer that long-range transboundary contaminant flows, but also question by its actions over the next couple of years. its vulnerability to the workings or ravages of the global The Council was formed in 1996, and has representation free market economy. And more importantly in the long from eight circumpolar governments as well as six run, will the Arctic Council make a difference in the “permanent participants,” organizations representing context of the policies and the rules emerging from various circumpolar indigenous peoples, and 21 “permanent international and global political, legal regimes? That is observers” representing other organizations or states with the ultimate test.” an interest in the work of the Council. Scrivener believes some early supporters of the Council Scrivener describes the Council as an organization that are now frustrated and disappointed by the years of is still trying to find its niche, and is permanently having argument over procedural issues. But he says the Council to justify its existence. He says that job is complicated does already have some things to show for the years of by the rhetoric surrounding the founding of the effort. He believes that without the Arctic Council it organization, which led to unreal expectations of what would not have been possible to inject in circumpolar it could deliver. thinking a greater emphasis on the human dimension of sustainable development. Scrivener believes the first test case of the Council’s real value is later this year, at the World Summit on Sustainable Scrivener says whatever role the Council plays, whether Development in Johannesburg. The Council is attempt- as talking-shop or external actor, it must first resolve issues ing to coordinate activities of member states at the World of structure and funding, which continue to plague the Summit, the first international forum at which this will organization. He says member states must decide on a be attempted. Scrivener says success in Johannesburg funding mechanism and formula for more equitable would be the first step in a successful articulation of Arctic sharing of costs of Council work, and on the need for a concerns at a variety of fora. “I guess their purpose is to permanent secretariat to coordinate that work.

19 Extending Canada’s Arctic Comfort Zone

Left to right: Peter Johnson (session chair), Ron Macnab, Franklyn Griffiths, Rob Huebert

It is generally accepted that coastal states have the author- Canada has taken no formal steps to extend its jurisdic- ity to exercise jurisdiction over portions of the ocean that tion into this zone, which would establish its authority lie within 200 nautical miles of their coastlines, an area over future resource operations. known as the Exclusive Economic Zone. What is not so well-known is that a provision of the UN Convention on These are questions that Ron Macnab has been investi- the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) permits some states to gating. Recently retired from the Geological Survey of exert control over resources of the seabed beyond that 200 Canada, Macnab believes that UNCLOS allows Canada mile limit. A substantial part of the Arctic seabed could to go beyond the customary 200-mile limit and to fall under this extended jurisdiction by the five coastal claim jurisdiction over non-renewable seabed resources states that surround the Arctic Ocean, including Canada. such as gas, oil, gas hydrates, and minerals, as well as cer- tain living resources that could be important as food stocks, Shrinking ice cover could leave open waters in the Arctic or as raw materials for pharmaceuticals and other bio- Ocean within a few decades. Seabed resources beyond the logical products. 200 nautical mile zone could become more accessible, and appropriate regulatory regimes would be necessary Macnab says potential control over resources is only one to control their development and exploitation. To date, advantage of extending a coastal state’s area of jurisdiction.

20 “It also gives you the right to prevent, reduce and control dumping in waters beyond the 200 nautical mile limit. This ought to provide coastal states with a better instru- Upsides of ment for cutting down pollution in waters adjacent to their Exclusive Economic Zone, and for seeking redress.” There is a possible negative effect of the extension of states’ Northern jurisdiction in the Arctic Ocean, and that is a provision of the Convention that gives those states the right to authorize and regulate marine scientific research. “This Governance could be worrisome in the North, because if all the coastal states together sewed up a major part of the high seas, severe administrative burdens could become a significant As a former Yukon government cabinet minister, Piers cost of doing research in the Arctic.” McDonald knows it can be easy to just “blame the feds” for northern problems, instead of taking action and responsibility. McDonald believes that as the North faces development pressures and other challenges such as global climate change, it is actually well positioned to react to and influence global change. “In 1990, there was one tour cruise to the McDonald says limited resources for government in Canadian Arctic, in 1999 there were 15. And the north, and fragmented governance responsibilities I’m not trying to be alarmist or melodramatic, have led to the development of smaller, nimbler, decision-making bodies that make effective use of but I wonder if we have another Titanic resources and react more quickly and innovatively to situation developing. What if you have a large challenges. He cites comanagement boards, such as liner full of tourists and it runs into trouble? those established to manage renewable resources, as examples of how territorial, Aboriginal, and federal If you’re up in the Arctic, you’re pretty far from government interests can come together to form help, and these are the sorts of things that effective local decision-making bodies.

people have to think about when you talk about This ability to interact with other governments the opening up of the Arctic.” effectively is not limited to local jurisdictions, according to McDonald. He says northern governments have also Ron Macnab been quick to form inter-jurisdictional and interna- tional alliances. “They recognise that global pressures cannot be ignored, that environment and lifestyles are changing fast, and if they don’t speak for themselves consistently, forcefully, and clearly, no-one else will. At present, the positive and negative effects of extended They need to learn from each other, they know they jurisdiction are hypothetical. Of the countries with must share limited resources, they know they must coastlines on the Arctic Ocean, only Norway and Russia come together to be heard in the din of the geopolit- have ratified UNCLOS. Canada, the United States, and ical debate and they’ve done so on many fronts, both Denmark have yet to do so. So far, only Russia has in co-operation with the federal government and on submitted to the United Nations the proposed outer their own.” limits of its extended jurisdiction. Acting under the authority of the Convention, a panel of technical experts Another factor in McDonald’s optimistic viewpoint is will review this submission and make recommendations that development decisions in the North are likely to to the Secretary-General of the United Nations. Macnab be made more carefully as northern governments expects this process will get underway sometime gain more jurisdiction. He believes this is due to the this year. fact that northern governments assume liability as they assume responsibility. As they do not have

21 Left to right: Mike Robinson (session chair), Manitok Thompson, Joe Handley, Piers McDonald pockets as deep as the federal government’s, they [climate change], and perhaps to influence change must therefore exercise more caution in making in a way that would preserve the essence of what development decisions. is good about the northern people, their lifestyle, culture, and environment.” McDonald says the three trends of shared governance, increased liability, and ability to work together internationally add up to a bright outlook for the north. “These three trends essentially encourage and compel governments, particularly in the north, to act carefully and collaboratively both internally and internationally. Power to the This I believe will bode well for northerners to adapt to the kinds of changes the conference has identified Northern Peoples

According to Tony Penikett, the only place that sustainable “Canada doesn’t have the capacity to be able development appears in the Canadian constitution is in the modern day Aboriginal treaties enshrined in the consti- to maintain sovereignty, let alone manage the tution. Penikett is Senior Fellow at the Walter and Duncan environmental issues and land management Gordon Foundation, a philanthropic organization. He speaks issues we have in the north. The 42,000 people glowingly of the value of the modern northern treaties, especially compared to the “...ignominious 19th century up there and our one MP and our one senator arrangements that created tiny reserves and shameful poverty just don’t have the clout to be able to have in this country.” He says the northern treaties took so long things done properly in our part of the world.” to negotiate in part because the federal government initially refused to accept northern Aboriginal models of wildlife Joe Handley management, resource control, and land use planning. NWT Minister of Finance Penikett cites the new treaties as one example of north- ern peoples wresting more control over their destinies from southern powers. He says the creation of the

22 and Aboriginal communities pursuing their own for- eign policies. He also points to the formation of the Inuit Circumpolar Conference, a body that brings together Inuit from around the pole, which predates “Canada can pretend that the ice is not melting. the Arctic Council by several years. The establishment and strengthening of circumpolar east-west links have That would mean the surrender of Canadian helped to loosen the domination of the north by the sovereignty over the Northwest Passage without south, says Penikett. a fight. The warning bells have been sounded. Despite the innovations and strengths displayed by new The Canadian government can assert its northern governance initiatives, Penikett worries that responsibility for its northern borders, or the gains may be threatened by outside forces, such as trade agreements. He meekly wait for a flotilla of American, gives the example of European, and Japanese vessels to proclaim the the Yukon Land Claims agreement and ultimate success of Columbus’ dream—a viable the North American commercial route between Europe to Asia.” Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), signed Rob Huebert within months of each Centre for Military and Strategic Studies University of Calgary other, as examples of the conflicting forces at play. “The Mayan people [of Mexico], under the NAFTA agreement, lost the same kinds of protec- Nunavut government demonstrates another path to tions for their subsis- more control for northern peoples, that of a public tence economy Yukon government in an Aboriginal-majority jurisdiction. people had achieved in Nunavut has the only regional government in North the Yukon land claims America with an Aboriginal majority. agreement. So in the Northern peoples, having gained more power over Yukon, the federal their own territories are also influencing Canada’s government signed an foreign policy. Penikett believes northern ideas about agreement to protect sustainable communities have significantly influenced those things, in the NAFTA agreement they signed they Canadian positions on such international issues as the took those things away from the Maya.” Law of the Sea and Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). Penikett is disturbed by news that federal negotiators He adds that although the Americans have struggled working on treaty talks in British Columbia are now valiantly to keep security issues off the agenda of the saying that trade deals such as NAFTA will over-ride Arctic Council, Canadian parliamentarians have urged treaties. He calls such a move “a huge step backwards,” the Council to develop a new understanding of and says it undoes some of the good the government security questions that incorporated “human and envi- has done in the Canadian North. ronmental dimensions.” Here again, says Penikett, the influence of northern and Aboriginal communities was evident. Editor’s note: The articles in this edition are not intended to capture Influencing Canada’s foreign policy is not the only the entire presentation given at the conference, but to give way in which northern peoples have been interna- a flavour of the ideas of the presenter. CARC intends tionally active. Penikett uses the Porcupine Caribou to publish the complete papers given at the conference Management Board, an international (Canada/U.S.) at a later date. wildlife management body, as an example of northern

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