344 Notation, §Ill, I: Western, plainchant Notation, §Ill, I: Western, plainchant 345 graphic duplication of pitch and partly an indication of (in St Gall notation, but less so in others, and not in Alcuin's work in the scriptoria of Aachen and Tours. A ion hints at the practice of cheironomy, as do 'anfractus' phrase articulation which duplicates the beaming of note Lorraine, Breton or Aquitanian notation; Lorraine and different view, however, was held by Jammers, who or 'inflexio' for two notes in descending order, 'arsis' for a symbols; (5) the pause sign; (6) the pedal release sign; (7) Aquitanian notation each used only one basic single spoke of Gallican and Roman notations (both de single higher note, 'thesis' for a single lower note, and the staccatissimo signs; and finally two suggestively note neume, respectively the uncinus, meaning 'hook' or veloping continuously from grammatical accents), the 'manus verberans' or 'repercussio' for note repetition. graphic signs, (8) the spread-chord indication in bar I, 'barb', and shaped like a sickle, and the punc ancestors of the Aquitanian and the main French Cheironomy, the use of hand movements to indicate and (9) the decrescendo and crescendo signs. tum, meaning 'point' or 'dot'). German notation systems respectively. Floros (1970) melodic movement, is extremely ancient (see CHEIRON From this it can be seen that staff notation is a com These neumes are combined to form other more com proposed a wholesale adoption of Byzantine notational OMY) and is well attested in the Western church (see plex multiple hybrid system with very low redundancy, plex ones. Although the possibilities for this are theor practice by Rome in the second half of the 7th century. Huglo, RdM, 1963). The word neuma is Greek and partly technical and tablature-like, partly representa etically unlimited, no compound neume usually exceeds The earliest surviving Western neumes may be those means 'gesture', as in the Liber de ordine antiphonarii tional. eight or nine notes, and extended melismas are usually in D-Mbs lat.9543, f.l99v, autographed by Engyldeo GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY (before 844) of Amalar of Metz (ed. Hanssens, iii, 55): H. Ricmann: Studien zur Geschichte der Notenschrift (Leipzig, represented by a series of one- to five-note neumes, when clericus at St Emmeram, Regensburg, 817-34. 'Cur, inquam, in isto versu neuma facis, cantor? Inquit: 1878/ RI970) graphically distinct. (This is because of the system's More than 20 pieces survive which have been dated in quia haec missio manus et tactus oris per intellectum - -: Geschichte der Musiktheorie im IX.-XIX. Jahrhundert (Leipzig. connection with cheironomy; but it is also intrinsic in the 9th century (fig.l7, p.346). They are usually priest's, debent conspici' ('Why, I said, do you make a neuma in 1898, 2/ 1921 /RI962; Eng. trans., 1967/RI974) the music's phrase structure.) C. F. A. Williams: The Story of Notation (London and New York, not cantor's, chants. The existence of several 9th-century this verse, cantor? He said: Because this that is sent by 1903/ RI968) There are also neumes indicating liquescence (semi books of texts of the sung parts of the Mass, without the hand [i.e. a gesture] and sensed by the head should J. Wolf: Handbuch der Notationskunde (Leipzig, 191 3-19fRI963) vocalization of certain notes because of text articula neumes, from important liturgical centres, Corbie, St be perceived by the intellect'). Neuma in the Middle Ages - - : Musikalische Schrifllafeln (Leipzig, 1922-3, 2/1927) tion), and ornamental neumes whose meaning is now not Corneille of Compiegne, Monza and others (those edited W. Apel: The Notation of Polyphonic Music, 900-1600 (Cambridge, usually meant a short melodic passage; the single sign Mass., 1942, rev. 5/ 1961 ; Ger. trans., rev., 1970) clear: the qui/isma (always between two notes a 3rd by Hesbert in Antiphonale missarum sextuplex, 1935), on parchment was nota; the single sound was sonus or A. Machabey: LA notation musicale (Paris, 1952, 3/1971) apart) and the oriscus (usually in combination with makes it seem unlikely that there were notated cantor's phthongus. Neuma as 'neume' in the modem sense was a H. Hickmann and others: 'Notation', MGG virga, punctum or pes, or between two notes in ascend books at this time (although unnoted text books con less common usage, although it is found in Bemo of W. Kaufmann: Musical Notations of the Orient: Notational Systems of ing order, forming the salicuf; but it is also found alone Continental East. South. and Central Asia (Bioomington, Ind., 1967) tinued to be produced for many years, e.g. the earliest Reichenau (GS, ii, 64, 791), and occasionally in Guido W. Tappolet: Notenschrift und Musizieren: das Problem ihrer Floros (1970) suggested it was the equivalent of the surviving Sarum gradual, GB-SB 149, of the late 12th of Arezzo; it was adopted for the tabulae neumarum of Beziehung vom Fruhmitlelalter bis ins 20. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1967) modem gruppetto). century). The earliest surviving fully notated books date the IIth- 14th centuries (see Huglo, 1954) and passed L. U. Abraham: Einfuhrung in die Notenschrift (Cologne, 1969) Until neumes were placed, in the IIth century, on from about 900 or later (see SOURCES, MS, §II): these thence into modern terminology. staff-lines whose pitches were indicated by clefs, their include the St Gall cantatorium CH-SGs 359, the Laon Ill. History of Western notation The idea of neumes as the written counterpart of what melodic significance was relative. Neither the intervals gradual F-LA 239, the St Martial troper Pn lat.l240, I. Plainchant: (i) Principal characteristics ofneumatic notation (ii) The it is assumed were a cantor's gestures in directing a earliest neumatic notation (iii) The origin of the neumes; accents and within a compound neume nor the interval between one the St Denis gradual and antiphoner in Mont-Renaud choir is difficult to substantiate, since there is no cheironomy (iv) Styles of neumatic notation (v) Gothic and square neume and another were precisely indicated. Thus and the Breton gradual CHR 47. The earliest definite detailed information on the component gestures of notation (vi) Alphabetical notation (vii) StafTand clef(viii) Rhythm (ix) neumes were a memory aid to which the cantor could references to neumes are by Aurelian of Reome (d c850; Rhythmic interpretation. 2. Polyphony and secular monophony to Western cheironomy. The predominance of curvilinear cl260: (i) Ncume patterns in Aquitanian polyphony (ii) The system of refer in rehearsal or (less often) in performance of a GS, i, 55f1) and the author of Musica enchiriadis shapes in such manuscripts as those of St Gall is never modal rhythm (iii) Currcntes, plica, rests (iv) Modal rhythm in practice piece whose characteristic tonality and inflections were (?c860; GS, i, 1531). Hucbald already knew of differ theless suggestive (Spanish neumes also suggest cheiron (v) Organum duplum, irregular modes, pre-modal rhythm (vi) English already known. ent styles of notation before the end of the 9th century omy graphically). Each separate neume is of such practice (vii) Mensura) notation, 'pre-Franconian' practice (viii) The (GS, i, 117). rhythmic interpretation of polyphonic and monophonic conduct us (ix) dimensions as could be comprised within a movement of Therhythmicinterpretationofsecularmonophony. 3. Polyphonic men (il) The earliest neumatic notation. It is not clear when The beginnings of this increasingly documented the arm: for extended melodies series of neumes were sural notation, cl260-1500: (i) General (ii) Franconian notation (iii) and where neumes were first used in the West. Angles activity might therefore seem to lie near the beginning of used. French 14th-<:enturynotation (iv) Italian 14th-century notation (v) Late (NOHM, ii, 106) thought Gregory the Great (d 604) the 9th century. Opinions continue to vary on the 14th-century notation (vi) English 14th-<:entury notation (vii) 15th Jammers has carried the theory of derivation from century notation. 4. Mensura! notation from I 500: (i) General (ii) must have used notation to aid his work on chant, but if amount of the repertory it was possible to transmit classical prosody signs to the greatest lengths, seeing Notes. shapes, colours, abbreviations (iii) The division oftime (iv) The that were so Isidore of Seville (d 633), who said orally and the number and nature of lost sources. derivations here also of the spiritus asper (as oriscus) joining and separation of notes (v) Clefs, staves, leger lines (vi) melodies could not be written down (GS, i, 20), would and spiritus lenis, the hyphen (liquescence), apostrophos Accidentals, key signatures (vii) Dynamics (viii) Scores; harmonic and have known of it. It is more probable that the use of (iit) The origin of the neumes; accents and cheironomy. descriptive notations. 5. Alphabetical, numerical and solmization nota (apostropha) and diastole (quilisma). Floros has pos tions: (i) Keyboard tablatures (ii) Tablatures for plucked string notation is bound up with the musical reform from Although it might be argued that the functional demands tulated far-reaching correspondences between Palaeo instruments (iii) Tablatures for other instruments (iv) Vocal notations. which arose 'Gregorian' as opposed to 'Old Roman' on the notation system were sufficiently strong to Byzantine notation of the Chartres type (in itself largely 6. Non-mensura! and specialist notations: (i) 20th-<:entury non chant. The two main possibilities here would be: that initiate development without drawing upon any pre mensura) notation (ii) Musical shorthand (iii) Notation for the blind reconstructed by him, 1970) and Latin neumatic nota (iv) Cryptography. notation was used by the reforming pope or popes existing system, scholars have usually sought a point of tion, including the liquescent and ornamental neumes (?Vitalian, d 672) and exported to the Franks in departure to explain the origin of the neumes. The ac and significative letters. I. PLAINCHANT. The various styles of neumes are de Pippin's time (under Stephen II, d 757, Paul I, d 767, cent system of Alexandrine grammar (see Laum, 1920, scribed in detail in NEUMATIC NOTATIONS, where illus etc); or that notation was first used by the Frankish 1928) has frequently been cited as a possible 'ancestor' (iv) Styles of neumatic notation. Since Ferretti ( 1925) a trations of each are given, with maps of the areas where church, which was in need of a means to help assimilate e.g. by Mocquereau, PalMus [all references to 1st distinction has frequently been made between point each was prevalent. The following section is concerned and propagate Roman liturgy in place of GaJlican use. It ser. unless otherwise stated], i, 96; Suiiol, 1925, Fr. neumes (Fr. notation en points, notation a points detaches with the concept of neumatic notation, the impulses is unclear whether the Synod of Cloveshoe (in England trans., p.23; Cardine, 1968). The acute accent would or lies or superposes; Ger. Punktneumen), where each behind its development and the stages of its diffusion; in in 747) referred to notated chants when it spoke of have given rise to the virga, the grave accent to the note is represented by a different pen-mark and addition, alphabetical notation is discussed. The chief 'cantilenae iuxta exemplar quod videlicet scriptum de punctum or tractulus, and the circumflex to the clivis or sometimes by a short stroke rather than a dot (albeit sources of plainchant are described in SOURCES, MS, §11. Romana habemus ecclesia' ('chants [cantilenae] accord j/exa. In spite of this, the grave accent is hardly re grouped into 'neumes'), and accent or stroke neumes ing to the written exemplar, the which we have indeed cognizable in most notations, except Palaeo-Frankish (Fr. neumes en accents; Ger. Akzent- or Strichneumen), (l) Principal characteristics of neumatic notation. from the Roman church'). There is no definite proof that ncumes, where it signifies not one but two notes, i.e. the which are written without the pen's leaving the page. Neumes are graphic signs indicating melodic movement, Charlemagne (d 814) knew of notation, although his clivis. Only one medieval treatise explains neumes as Aquitanian notation, for instance, is almost entirely or repetitions of the same pitch. The basic neumes of 'admonitio generalis' has been interpreted in that way: accents in this way, the anonymous IIth-century Quid disjunct, but the second and third notes of the torculus Western notations signify respectively: a note of higher 'Et ut scolae legentium puerorum fiant: psalmos, notas, est cantus (1-Rvat Pal. lat. 235; see Wagner, 1905,2/1912, are joined. Spanish and Bolognese notations are almost pitch than one or both of those next to it (virga); a note cantus, compotum, grammaticum per singula monas p.355), in phrases such as: 'De accentibus toni oritur entirely of strokes, but use a disjunct form for the of lower pitch (punctum or tractulus); two notes in teria vel episcopia et libros catholicos bene emendate' nota que dicitur neuma ... Ex accentibus vero toni de scandicus. A broader distinction has been drawn be ascending (pes or podatus) or descending (clivis or j/exa) (' ... that schools cultivate reading by the boys: psalms, monstratur in acuto et gravi et circumflexo' ('from acc tween two main 'families' of notations: that favouring a order; three notes in ascending (scandicus) or descend notes [notas], chant [can/us], the computus, grammar, ents there arise tones [tom], the written sign [nota] disjunct style (Palaeo-Frankish, Breton, Aquitanian, ing (c/imacus) order; three notes of which the middle in each monastery or bishop's school, and accurate which is called a neume .. .'). Aurelian of Reome called Lorraine, Nonantolan) and those favouring conjunct one is higher (torculus) or ' lower (porrectus) than the versions of catholic books . . .'; Monumenta Germaniae two notes in ascending order 'accentus acutus' (the forms: German (St Gall), French, Bolognese, north other two. For repetition of the same note either virga, historiae, Legum, ii, 1881). Nor can reference to it be Palaeo-Frank.ish pes), and three notes where the middle Italian generally. punctum or tractulus might be used. Virgae might be found in the writings of his chief liturgical adviser one is higher than the others 'circumflexio' or 'circum Hypotheses to account for these distinctive styles used in pairs or groups of three; so might the apostropha Alcuin (d 804), or in what his contemporaries said of volutio' (the Palaeo-Frank.ish torculus). The latter express- were given fresh impetus by the publicizing of 346 Notation, §Ill, 1: Western, plainchant Notation, §Ill, I: Western, plainchant 347 Palaeo-Frankish notation by Handschin in 1950 (it had Sherborne Missal, Pn 943; GB-Lbm Harl.lll7; 1-Rvat never been dealt with by the Benedictine Fathers of Reg.204; the Leofric Missal GB-Ob Bodley 579). It was Solesmes). Mocquereau and Ferretti felt that the system superseded by French notation in Angers by the turn of of stroke neumes, going back to classical accents, was the millennium; it survived in the backwater of Brittany older and more widespread, and that mixed styles and to the mid-12th century. point neumes were the result of a progressive evolution Neither Palaeo-Frankish nor Breton notation dist from this primitive system. Implicit in this view is the inguished between different ornamental neumes, having idea that point neumes are innately more diastematic, no discrete signs for quilisma and oriscus. This has been more precisely indicative of pitch relationships. A re connected with the remarks of Johannes Hyrnmonides finement of the latter idea has been developed by (John the Deacon, of Rome) who, in his biography of Jammers, who has argued that the disjunct style of Gregory the Great (written 874--5), ridiculed in pic Aquitanian notation could cater not only for pitch dif turesque language the difficulties of German and French ferentiation but also for rhythmic differentiation by use singers in reproducing correctly the 'modulationis dul of the punctum (short) and tractulus (long)- an idea first cidinem' of the 'true Gregorian chant' (PL, lxxv, 1849, mooted by Colestin Vivell (Gregorianische Rundschau, p.90). Certainly south Italian notation is richer in orna xi, 1912). Such possibilities were only gradually mas mental neumes than any other. AdhemardeChabannes(of tered by scribes practising stroke notation, by use of Angouleme), writing in the first half of the IIth century, significative letters to clarify pitch and added strokes to spoke of the adoption of Roman chant by the French: indicate long notes. But Jammers does not see one style 'excepto quod tremulas vel vinnolas sive collisibiles vel evolving from the other but, rather, independent origins, secabiles voces in can tu non poterant perfecte exprimere point notation being originally associated with the Franci, naturali voce barbarica frangentes in gutture voces Gallican church, stroke notation with the Roman. potius quam exprimentes' ('except that the French Handschin (1950, pp.8lfl) also spoke of pre could not produce perfectly the tremblings or sweet Carolingian practice on the one hand and a' "gregoriani subtleties and the notes to be elided or separated, being sche" Neumensippe' on the other; and, recollecting naturally of barbaric voice, and rather cracking their Wagner's opinion (ill-founded, however, in 1912, when voices in their throats than projecting them'; Manu Palaeo-Frankish notation was unknown) that accent menta Gerrnaniae historiae, Scriptores, iv, 1841, notation was a degenerate offshoot of point notation, he p.118). Apart from south Italian books, those ofSt Gall u hazarded that accent notation might have developed are richest in ornamental neumes and other subtleties, > -~ from notation of the Palaeo-Frankish type and been French books less so. This aspect of notation has also a given a 'humanistic' stamp with reference to the classical been used in the controversies over the genealogy of accent system. neurne styles. It seems unlikely that any of these hypotheses will be The area in which Lorraine (or Messine) notation was proved conclusively. The earliest surviving sources of used, north-east France and Belgium, includes all the either family are of equal antiquity, and theoretically centres from which Palaeo-Frankish sources are known either can be derived from the other. If Floras is correct (except the importation to Corvey). Stiiblein (1975, in suggesting Roman adoption of Byzantine neumes, p.41) saw it as the direct descendant ofPalaeo-Frankish then accent notation did not derive from point neumes. notation. It was also used in the area of Lake Coma, and Palaeo-Frankish neumes appear to have been used in imported into Austria in the late 11th century (see an area, with St Amand as its possible centre, that PalMus, xviii, 33; Hourlier, 1951, is a survey of 450 includes several important monasteries of Picardy and sources). Hainaut: Corbie, St Bertin, Anchin. Marchiennes. They Elsewhere in German lands, however, German nota -; ...: c.. u. are last found in St Amand in the 12th century (see tion predominated (also known as St Gall notation after Hourlier and Huglo, 1957). some of its most sophisticated and earliest surviving Breton neumes are held by most modern scholars to representatives). In its early stages, particularly in manu derive from Palaeo-Frankish. Their original area of scripts from the Rhine-Moselle area, it is not always prevalence is not clear, since the primitive stages of easy to distinguish from French notation, and there several other notations (principally the point notation seems little doubt that this notation family is closely family) contain forms similar to Breton neumes. It is associated with an important archetype of 'Gregorian' difficult to decide whether such resemblances are due to liturgy and music (whose original home is both the object a general evolution of other styles from a Breton-type of research such as that in Le graduel romain and Corpus primitive state (Huglo, AcM, 1963, p.82, thought it antiphonalium officii, and the subject of the controversy could have been propagated throughout the Carolingian surrounding Gregorian and Old Roman chant). In later realm; Tours is a possible headquarters. Stiiblein, 1975, sources the division between French and German styles p.30, spoke of it as a pan-Carolingian counterpart of became quite wide. Corbin's work on French scriptoria Carolingian minuscule script), or coincidental, the natu (La notation musicale neumatique, diss., U. of Paris, ral result of the use of very simple graphic designs. 1957) has not yet a counterpart for German manu More or less 'classical' Breton notation is found in scripts or north Italian ones, in which the relationships sources from Pavia of the lOth- IIth centuries. Huglo's might be clarified. survey of sources in Breton notation shows a progres sive retreat from the south-west (e.g. certain features of ( v) Gothic and square notation. From the 13th century F-Pn lat.1120, 1240, 2135, 5552, from St Martial, nearly all notations of the German Empire, i.e. much Limoges), the Loire valley (e.g. 0 72, from Fleury, with Lorraine territory, were affected by a change to what is the organal voice for a tract, a concordance with the known as 'Gothic' notation. This was caused by the use Winchester Troper, see Stiiblein, 1975, p.29, n.228), of an increasingly thick, square-nibbed pen, held at 45°. Chartres, Maine and Normandy south of the Seine. It Curves were replaced by a strict arrangement of horiz was also imported into south-west England (the ontals, diagonals and verticals. The Lorraine miniature 348 Notation, §Ill, I: Western, plainchant Notation, §Ill, I: Western, plainchant 349 Fig.l8 TABLE OF ALPHABETIC SERIES Winchester Troper (GB-Ccc 473: see Die Organa von H 159 (PalMus, viii), may be his work. It is notated in Boethius (De instilulione musica, iv/5): notes in Winchester, 1968, p.89 and pl.l). both neumes and letters (a-p, with i for bp); little curved A F c G K D L M N X E order as measured on monochord The addition of a lower F and G to the 'instrumental' lines above the letters correspond to quilisma and Boethius (ibid .. iv/ 6-11): diatonic series alphabet accommodated it to classical theory, and the oriscus; further signs used in conjunction with A B c E H I M 0 X y cc DD FF KK LL ex tracted from chromatic and harmonic series F-0, A-0, A-F resulted, used frequently in semitones in the scale are thought to indicate quarter Boethius (ibid., iv/14): series used in representing monochord prescriptions, and reported by Hucbald and tones, or some ornament or subtlety of voice production A B c D E F G li I K L M N 0 quarlal, quintal and octaval structures. beginning Notker Labeo (ciOOO). The last stage in the 'vocal' with hypate-hypaton involving a quarter-tone (see figs.20 and 21; for discuss system was the addition of a Greek gamma to represent ion see Gmelch, 1911). Examples of dual notation, or Boethius (ibid , iv / 17)~ diatonir seriec; i n isol<11ion A B c D E F G H I K L M N 0 p a note one tone lower than the lowest A. It was first alphabetical notation, are not uncommon in 11 th-cen Hucbald (GS, i, 110) mentioned in the Dialogus de musica (late lOth century; tury Norman manuscripts, from Fecamp, Jumieges, A B c D E F G A B c D E F G A Musica enchiriadis (GS. i. 161) formerly attributed to Odo of Cluny, 879- 942). Fig.l8 England etc (see Corbin, 1954). A Norman example is Hucbald (missing from GS. i, 110) shows the interval structure of each of these series in shown in fig.22. A B c D E F G li I K L M N 0 p Sco/ica enchiriadis ( GS. i. 184, 209) relation to the modem pitch series. Another series used in the alphabetical representation (vil) Staff and clef The staff, as a continuous pitch' F G A B E A 8 c D E F Hucbald ( GS. i. 118) c D F G of pitch was the Daseian letter series, first used in reference, was used in many early treatises from Musica a r A B c D E F G a bb c d e f g a Dialogus de musica Musica enchiriadis. Each sign is derived from the Greek enchiriadis onwards. It presupposes one clef or more to A B c D E F G a bb c d c f g aa bb cc dd (ec) Guido of Arezzo daseia prosodic sign (indicating 'rough breathing', e.g. indicate the pitch of the individual lines, or at least their a b c d e f g h i i k I m n 0 p Guillau me de Dijon 'h' at the beginning of a word). A basic set of four signs intervallic relationship. In Musica enchiriadis (facs. of the earliest surviving copy, F-VAL 337, one of the 9th G A 8 c d e I g a b c' d' e' !' g' a' b' c" d" e" modern use corresponds to the notes of a tetrachord with the semitone as the middle interval; the signs are repeated century sources of Palaeo-Frankish notation from St for transpositions of the tetrachord, in reverse, inversion Amand mentioned above, in Smits van Waesberghe, sickle (the 'Fliegenfuss' or 'fly's foot' shape) used for a the staff. In square notation the neumes have become and reverse inversion (see fig. II, p.342, and fig.l9). It is 1969, p.105; ed. in GS, i, 156), a five-line staff is used single note practically lost its up-strokes and became a known as ligatures, since many consisted of squares famous for its use for the incipit of a two-voice version of with Daseian letters for each line and an ascending lozenge-shaped punctum. The virga of both notations 'tied together' by thin lines - an obvious rapprochement Rex celi Domine (a non-liturgical sacred sequence, series TSTT confirming the intervals between them. The became the 'Hufnagel' ('hobnail'), a broad lozenge with point notation. where the same music is used for both halves of the text: syllables of'Alleluia' are split up and set on the different with a thick vertical tail (in the Lorraine area, only in see SCORE, fig. I). pitch-lines, and a seven-note incipit is thus indicated. compound neumes). (vt) Alphabetical notation. This was rarely applied in Finally, reference should be made to manuscripts The example following that one has an eight-line staff French notation followed a similarly stylized path. everyday music; but since it progressed from theory where the interval relationships between notes are (see also SCORE, fig.!). From the IIth century there was a tendency to mark the books to the staff notation of Guido of Arezzo it should indicated by using the letters T[onus] and S[emitonus], Such diagrammatic staff and clef combinations are top of virga and pes with a small left-facing head. Even be discussed before the latter. The alphabetization of the or combinations of them. These are found on the staves found in many theoretical works. They were too clumsy tually each note of a neume was transformed into a individual notes of the scale was at first a purely theor of some examples in Musica enchiriadis and were used and wasteful of space for regular liturgical books. The regular square, joined to other squares by thin vertical etical prodecure. It was intimately connected with the in music examples in the works of HERMANNUS CON system of GUIDO OF AREZZO, announced in Aliae lines. The virga had a tail, the punctum was without; the use of the monochord as a teaching instrument, which TRACTUS (see illustration in that article), Frutolfus of regulae (c1030), was eminently practical: its staff had climacus was disjunct, a virga followed by lozenges, dated back to Greek antiquity. Boethius (c500), whose Michelsberg and Johannes Affiighemensis. A dot under lines only for every alternate note and took up hardly the only neume to use them. For the first two notes of knowledge of Greek theory came from Porphyry's the letter denoted a descending progression. Frutolfus more space than was normally needed by notation in the porrectus a descending diagonal stroke was used, the translation of Ptolemy, demonstrated several features of used a letter to give the starting-note of each piece. campoaperto ('in open field', i.e. without horizontal guide only neume to use one. This square notation, still used the Greek systema teleion (Greater Perfect System) by Hucbald showed particular concern over the am lines); the clef system could take one or both of two in modern chant books, was first developed in the Ile de this means. For instance, starting from the lowest note biguities of neumatic notation in the matter of pitch. He forms: the lines might be coloured (Guido preferred a France in the late 12th century; it spread throughout of the monochord he gave instructions for finding the weighed up the advantages of both neumatic and alpha red F line and a yellow C line), and letters from the France, and eventually Italy too, where it was adopted different lengths of string necessary to produce different betical systems, giving an example in each: the pitches traditional 'vocal' alphabet might be placed at the begin by the Franciscans. Hesbert (Monumenta musicae notes, not in scale order. When Boethius juxtaposed were only generally discernible from the neumes, but ning of the lines. Learning chant was revolutionized by sacrae, ii, 1954) demonstrated the change from each note of the diatonic, chromatic and harmonic gen exactly so from the letters; on the other hand, letters this system (and its counterpart, the alphabetized hand). north French to square notation within one scriptorium, era of the systema teleion in a continuous series, and conveyed no rhythmic nuances ('tarditatem cantilenae'), The average time it took to learn the repertory, ten Jumieges (his table is reproduced in MGG). Palaeogra gave a letter name to each, the diatonic series would no ornaments ('tremulam sonus'), liquescence or phras years, was reduced to two; unknown melodies could be phical differences did of course remain from one area to read A, B, C, E, H, I, M, 0, X, Y, CC, DD, FF, KK, ing (GS, i, 118): sung at sight. another, particularly between Aquitanian and Lorraine LL. Alphabetized in isolation, the diatonic genus read So if these little letters be placed for each separate sound above or next Guido's ideas were rapidly taken up in central and notations in transition - the disjunctfconjunct scandicus, from A to P. The diatonic genus corresponded in inter to these lncumes] that we take as musical notes, pcrocption will flow northern Italy, northern France and the Low Countries the left/right-facing virga at the top of the c/imacus, the val structure to the medieval tonus deuterus (modem A forth perfectly and without any error or harm to truth: for, however the and much of south Germany, where only in certain pes porrectus, a'). voioc is to be raised or lowered, this is indicated; and likewise the left/right-facing last note of and the subtleties Ivarie tatesl. without which no song fitly proportioned is com proud and conservative centres - St Gall, Freising, St square or the lozenge used for a punctum, and other In the late 9th century Hucbald reproduced this posed, are firmly fixed in the mind. Florian, Kremsmiinster, Vorau etc - were books still features. series, among others. Again as a theoretical idea only, Hucbald's concern for correct calculation of intervals Beneventan notation (the earliest surviving examples, the earlier Musica enchiriadis (?c860) had used a was not of course unique, and many chant books of the such as the gradual/-BV VI 33, are from shortly before repeating series A-0, A-0, A to represent the same lOth and IIth centuries show the same careful attitude. 1000; the notation fell into disuse in the 14th century) series. But a different system (again a continuous series Most of the significative letters found in German, also developed a style characterized by use of a broad A-P) was already in practical use in the 9th century. It Lorraine and Breton notations (also a few in nibbed pen held at 45°, with neumes composed of was recorded by Hucbald and by the Scolica enchiriadis Nonantolan and English books) are rhythmic (see §viii lozenges and vertical, diagonal and horizontal strokes. (also late 9th century) and was used in instructions for below), but others refer to pitch. They help principally Some of the earliest manuscripts already display these monochord tuning and the construction of organs and to indicate the intervals between neumes (for a list see proto-Gothic features (e.g. the Monte Cassino sacramen bells. In this series 'A' designated not modern A but NEUMATIC NOTATIONS, §11, 3). The St Gall books are tary /-MC 339, from the third quarter of the llth cen modern C, i.e. the interval pattern corresponded to the particularly rich in them. tury; facs. in PalMus, ii, pi. 19; Suiiol, 1925, Fr. trans., modern major scale, with the semitones between the The 'vocal' alphabet is in fact found in practical use in pl.47; Jammers, Tafeln zur Neumenkunde, 1965, third and fourth notes and between the seventh and an important group of sources stemming from the work p.93). eighth notes: between C and D, G and H of this ' instru ofGuillaume de Dijon (William ofVolpiano), the Italian The tendency behind all these changes was to make mental' notation as it is usually called, not, as in the abbot of St Benigne, Dijon, who from Fecamp reformed the diastematy (i.e. the vertical positioning of the other, 'vocal' notation between B and C, E and F. most of the leading monasteries of Normandy in the 19. Example of organum from the treatise 'Musica enchir neumes on the page so as to indicate relative pitch) Holschneider has found the only example of practical early IIth century. The most celebrated extant example iadis '(?c860). prefaced by Daseian letters giving the pitch of clearer and the neumes more amenable to disposition on use of this 'instrumental' alphabet in the famous of alphabetical notation, the tonary ofSt Benigne, F-MO each syllable (F-Pn lat.721/.f/Ov, detail) 350 Notation, §Ill, 1: Western, plainchant Notation, §Ill, I: Western, plainchant 351 iv, 9: 'lettres romaniennes'). Smits van Waesberghe indications) thought in proportional terms, the follow (1936--42) attributed their invention to Notker. Floros ing theoretical writings have been adduced: (i) the (1970, ii, 134) has connected them with contemporary group of treatises beginning with Musica enchiriadis Byzantine practice, and suggested Byzantine origin (as (?c860) and continuing with Scolica enchiriadis (c900), did Wagner, Einfiilrrung, 2/ 1912, p.233). The richest Commemoratio brevis (lOth century), De organo (lOth sources of significative letters are the Breton gradual F century) and Alia musica (lOth century) (GS, i, 152, CHR 47, the Laon gradual LA 239, the St Emmeram 173, 213; CS, ii, 74; GS, i, 125); (ii) isolated remarks Regensburg gradual D-BAs Lit.6, and three Swiss books in Musica disciplina of Aurelian of Reome (d c850; GS, - the St Gall cantatorium CH-SGs 359, the Hartker i, 27; PL, cvi, 1521), De harmonica institutione of Antiphoner SGs 390-91, and the Einsiedeln gradual E Hucbald (c900; GS, i, 104), and Commentum in 121, which according to Smits van Waesberghe contain Martianum Cape/lam of Remy of Auxerre (late 9th 4156, 12,987 and 32,378 significative letters respec century; GS, i, 63; PL, cxxxi, 931); (iii) Pro/ogus in tively. tonarium of Berno of Reichenau (d 1048; GS, ii, 62); The ways in which neumes were modified varied from (iv) Micrologus (chap.l5) of Guido of Arezzo type to type. St Gall scribes might use episemata (ad (c1030; GS, ii, I; CSM, iv), who knew Musica enchir ditional short strokes, denoting lengthening), lengthen iadis, and De musica of Guido's pupil Aribo (1068- the punctum to a tractulus or make curved forms 78; GS, ii, 197; PL, cl, 1307); (v) Quid est cantus (1- angular (e.g. the pes). F-CHR 47 and LA 239 also have Rvat PaL lat.235, llth century; Rassegna gregoriana, iii, episemata, but are chiefly notable for a different way of 1904; Wagner, 1905, 2/ 1912, p.355); (vi) Questiones indicating lengthening: the separation of conjunct in musica (cl lOO; ed. R. Steglich, 1911), mainly com neume forms into disjunct ones (Fr. desagregation, piled from Musica enchiriadis, Berno, Guido and 20. Introit 'In vo/untate tua' (F-MO H/59, {30r): signs between semitones over '-tale tua'; liquescence over coupure; Ger. Neumentrennung). Thus the conjunct nor Aribo; and (vii) a remark in Johannes Affiighemensis's 'universa'; oriscus over 'voluntate'; quilisma over 'posita' mal pes and c/ivis might separate into two pen-strokes, De musica cum tonario (early 12th century; GS, ii, 230; the torcu/us and porrectus into three. For neumes that PL, cl, 1391; CSM, i). Fig.21 Signs between semitones in F-MO HI 59 are normally disjunct, CHR 47 uses the tractulus for the No theorist illustrated his ideas with a chant in melis • - • - • b.~- ..., punctum, and LA 239 the sickle for the dot. Nonantolan matic style; all referred to the feet of classical metre. . . • W • M notation uses episemata and separation; Beneventan Some spoke of long and short syllables in chant without • notation uses episemata, tractuli and separation, and a b t- c d e ~ f g h r i i , k I mJ n o p specifying a simple mathematical relationship between also has angular shapes rounded off to indicate quicker the two (Aurelian, Hucbald and Berno). Hucbald's The five special signs in thi s scale always occur linked to the upper note of delivery. The principal form of Aquitanian notation friend Remy cannot be assumed to refer to chant, but did a semitone, in a pes (e.g. 1{). a clivir ( f t ) or a porrectu.~ (fi f). The sign 22. Alphabetical notation in a lament on the death of used to indicate lengthening is the tractulus (F-Pn speak of metric values in the ratio 2: I. Musica enchir for liquescence is a semicircle linking tht two letters which give the pitches William the Conqueror (d 1087) (F-Pn /at.8625, f33v, lat.lll8, a troper from south Aquitaine, has been the iadis and its successors were more specific: there is a in question. For the oriscm: a small round hook appears over the letter; for the qui/i.sma a wavy Line ( ...... ) appears o ver the letter. detail) favourite manuscript for investigation; Jammers's colourful description of the performance of a short theory that Aquitanian notation is the descendant of a antiphon by metrical feet where measure is stamped out notated in campo aperto as late as the 15th century. liquescence was optional: 'there is no harm in per Gallican rhythmic notation, whose rhythmic possibilities by teacher and pupils. But with Guido and Aribo discus Aquitaine was conservative, but less so, and for a forming them more fully, not liquescing, if you wish: were emulated by German notation only with difficulty, sion of rhythmic proportions concerns the relationships different reason. By the mid-IIth century ifs books but often it [liquescence] is very pleasant' (Micrologus, was discussed above). between short phrases and periods, and there are diffi regularly used a single dry-point line (occasionally xv). But liquescent neumes did survive into the 16th Agreement over rhythmic indications outweighs var culties in deducing relationships between individual coloured), and the point neumes, always tending towards century. In polyphonic music using square notation the iance among the manuscripts sufficiently to allow ack notes. Classical proportion theory, which was usually unusually exact diastematy, were by this time precisely simple liquescent neume became known as the 'plica' nowledgment of a common tradition, though even in applied to harmony rather than rhythm, hangs heavily heighted: thus a book such as the well-known St Yrieix ('fold') after its characteristic notated shape in north the closely interrelated south German and Swiss group over the discussion. Guido posited identities between gradual, F-Pn lat.903 (PalMus, xiii), is among the France and England. Changes of attitude similar to this there are significant divergences (e.g. CH-SGs 339 dis harmonic intervals and temporal durations, and Aribo earliest unambiguously readable complete liturgical abandonment of ornamental subtleties are discernible in penses with letters entirely). These sources are probably said: 'Jubilation Uubilatio] is doubly pleasing when the books. (The early 11th-century Dijon tonary· is perhaps the notation of rhythm after the turn of the millennium. the work of cantors not copying mechanically from ex neumata [short phrases] and periods are composed in the earliest by virtue of its alphabetical notation - the See also STAFF and CLEF. emplars but 'editing' according to their own experience the same proportion as the sounds themselves that have 'spirit of the age' is thus evident in many progressive (it has been suggested that E 121 was sent from St Gall been selected on the monochord'. The classicizing intent centres.) The line was often 'keyed' to the mode of the (viiz) Rhythm. Indications of rhythmic differentiation to Einsiedeln as a specially prepared model gradual). is particularly clear, though the expression confused, in piece notated, a common system being: for the 1st mode between notes are found in many lOth- and IIth Since SGs 359, F-LA 239 and CHR 47 are among the Quid est cantus, already noted (§iii above) for its refer an F line, 2nd D , 3rd G, 4th F , 5th A, 6th F, 7th B, 8th century chant books. They take the form of significative earliest extant sources, their rhythmic tradition may ences to prosodic accents. Such ideas are not difficult to G (Stiiblein, 1975, p.41 , n.372 lists 28 manuscripts). letters (already mentioned above in connection with well be related to the putative 'Gregorian' archetype apply mensurally to syllabic chants, antiphons and Beneventan notation was similarly slow to take up the pitch) and modifications of the neumes. whose restoration is still the motive force behind most psalms of the Office and Mass, old poetic genres such Guidonian staff and clef, for the same reason as Significative letters are concerned with melody and research. as hymns (according to Johannes Affiighemensis), and Aquitanian. Although not far from their place of origin, expression, but mostly with rhythm. (A list following especially the new poetic genres of sequence and trope. only in the second half of the 12th century did the staff Notker Balbulus's citation of them in a letter to an (ix) Rhythmic interpretation. The great controversies Furthermore, apart from Guido and Aribo, all the above and clef appear regularly. otherwise unknown monk, Lantbertus, is given in since the mid-19th century over the rhythmic interpreta writers were Frankish, and, in the case of the author of The Germans' conservatism was perhaps not merely NEUMATIC NOTATIONS, §ll, 3.) Ekkehard IV ofSt Gall tion of plainchant have involved two main ideas: first, Musica enchiriadis and Hucbald, actively involved in atavistic. Only German manuscripts retained separate (d 1036) attributed their invention to Romanus, a that the indications cited above were non-mensura! the composition of non-Gregorian sequences, versus, signs for the ornamental neumes after the 12th century Roman cantor who, in 790, with a second cantor Peter, nuances of tempo of delivery; and second, that they tropes, new Offices and also organum. (and in many centres they were ignored in the 11th). It has was forced by illness to break a journey to Metz at St should be interpreted mensurally, using note values in a However, in the manuscripts the rhythmic indications been said that such neumescould not survive the introduc GalL He had brought an authentic antiphoner of St simple proportional relationship (crotchet-quaver, or are not restricted to chants in syllabic or neumatic style. tion of the staff: calli graphically this view would not be Gregory from Pope Hadrian I, to which he added 'lit minim-<:rotchet-quaver) perhaps even grouped into It has not been difficult, therefore, for the Benedictine correct. But the medieval psyche is credited with inhibi terae alphabeti significativae'. Notker Balbulus ~ater ex phrases where there is a regular pulse. As Vollaerts Fathers (Gontier, Methode raisonnee de plain-chant, tions about fixing neumes of unstable pitch on to fixed plained them to 'a certain friend' (i.e. Lantbertus: (1958) said, the issue is whether or not proportional 1859 - Gontier was a friend of Dom Gueranger of lines. A simpler explanation is that in most centres they Monumenta Germaniae historiae, Scriptores, ii, 1829, rhythm of any sort was practised; the method of ap Solesmes; Pothier; Mocquereau, 1908- 27, etc) to main were no longer performed or even understood - this in p.I03). Since Schubiger's Die Siingerschu/e St. Gal/ens plication of the proportional values is another matter. tain a non-mensura! viewpoint, which sees the rhythmic turn is partly the reason for present-day uncertainty (1858, pp.5, 10) they have been known as 'Romanus As evidence that musicians of the 9th- II th centuries indications of the manuscripts as nuances (Pothier did about them. Guido of Arezzo advised singers that even Buchstaben' ('Romanian letters'; Mocquereau, PalMus, (the period when the manuscripts contained rhythmic not even admit these, treating them as the idiosyncrasy 352 Notation, §Ill, I: Western, plainchant Notation, §Ill, 1: Western, plainchant 353 23. Part of the sequence of Murray ( 1963). In his first ten examples (i.e. omitting barred, the bar would generally precede the last note of 'Quid tu virgo ', using St the Office antiphons) there are 342 neumes of two or a neume, not the first; and the idea of a stressed final Gall neumatic notation more notes, excluding all liquescent neumes. Murray note assorts less well with syllabic music where the with episemata and signifi transcribed 223 of these (65%) with first notes short, iteration of a syllable emphasizes the first note of a cative letters: troper and 119 with first notes long (35%); only 88 have last notes neume. In practice, however, conflict is rarely felt, since sequentiary from Mainz. short (26%), while 254 have last notes long (74%). in syllabic chants unaccented BB or BBB neumes seem c960 (GB-Lbm 19768, Again, if one attaches the nomenclature B[revis] to be the norm. But the distinction between melismatic ff.18v-19r) and L[onga] customary in discussion of mensura! music and syllabic music is also significant in the rhythmic to the rhythmic vocabulary of St Gall manuscripts ex interpretation of polyphony of the late 12th century and posed by Cardine (1968), the following varieties appear: the early 13th. c/ivis - BB, BL, LL; pes - BB, BL, LL; porrectus - The chants shown in figs.23 and 24, transcribed in BBB, BBL, LLL; torculus - BBB, BLL, LLL; scandicus exx.4 and 5, are sequences, one in German neumatic - BBB, BBL, LLL; climacus - BBB, BBL, LBB, LLL notation of the St Gall type, using episemata and signifi (never BLB). (Configurations where special 'coupure' or cative letters, the other Aquitanian. Fig.23 is from a its opposite occur have been ignored.) The only neume Mainz troper of about 960, GB-Lbm 19768. The used in a long- short form is the climacus. The tendency melody is given over the text as a series of virgae and is a striking prefiguration of the principles of modal tractuli of undifferentiated rhythmic value. In the mar rhythm (see §2 below), where ligatures begin with a gin the melody appears in compound neumes with clear breve and end with a long. Two points should be noted: rhythmic indications, interpreted here in longs (crot the predominating interpretation of the neumes is chets) and shorts (quavers). The simple neumes over the anacrusic, and if a transcription in this style were to he text are not superfluous, however, since they also help
Ex.S Transcription of fig.24
' :J :J :J Jl :J " Ji J " , r [ ~ J :J E- pi~ fa- ni-am do-mi-no ca- na-mus glo-ri-o- sum
; ; Jl :J J J jl ~ r [ ~ J :J IU J! J Qua pro-lum de - i uc- re ma- gi a- do- rant ln-men-sam Ex.4 Transcriplion of fig.23 delivered in the same constant unit of time (the 'equalist' Quem cun-cti objection to this is that typical melodic formulae may be .I J Jl i h J! I used for both long and short phrases of text; for a long text a syllabic setting results, for a short text a neumatic Quid tu uir • go ma - ter plo - ras Ra - chel for- mo -sa . setting; it is argued that the melody should not be acceler . 4J Ji J J Jl :J J! :J F ~ J :J Jl Jl J :J I ated or slowed on account of the number of syllables kal- de-i cui - us per se que ue-ne-ran- tur po-ten-ci- am J F r Ji J Jl)JiJt~ J F c J ~ F r J :11 to be fitted). Riemann and Houdard both eventually (a) pro- phe-te pre- ci -ne - re uen-tur un-gen-tes ad sal-uan-das $ tended to modify the resultant rhythms to fit regular Cui-us uul-tus Ja-cobde-lec-tat Ceu so - ro-ris an-ni- cu - lac Lip- pi - tu - do c-urn iu - uet four-beat bars, though Houdard had not originally used bars of constant length. Wagner eschewed bar-lines 41UJ}t , ~ J , ~ J J J J! J Jl r--1'¥- completely: in 1912 he published transcriptions using Cui - us rna-jes-tas i - ta est in - cli - na- ta ut as - su-me 411 : Jl J! J J J J J· Jl J J· '11 F F r F the values quaver, crotchet and minim; in 1924 An- te se - cu -la qui de-us et tern-po-ra ho-mo fac-tus Ter -ge ma- ter flu- en. tes o-cu-los Heu heu heu quid (Handbuch der Musikgeschichte) the values he used were Quam te de - cent ge-r.a-rum ri -mu-lae quaver, crotchet and dotted crotchet. For Jeannin (1926, 1930, 1931 ), quaver and crotchet sufficed; he used bars of constantly varying length, except in certain simple .. :~, r"" rJ'1 .... "rnr r~ r.~ '-"~«'" ~,.;n 4J J! )! J j :11 ) Jl :J Jd :J Jl}>:J )i J! Jl ~ , ; ; 4 c ~ [ ~ F J• J F ~ , J! J· IF u;F antiphons where regular phrase structure resulted in ...... - ret ser- ui for-mam Ba- la -hamde quo ua - ti -cin-ans ex - ib- me in-cu-sa -tis fl e -tus in - cas-sum fu
Ex.9 Hac in anni iamm (1- F/ Plut.29.1.. f. 229v) (S~ (a) r---"' r---"' r----, ,..-----. r----, r---, " 8 8 " A r----, r::----, ,..-----. ..---, r:::-----, r--:' 8 ·a ·- ,.------, r----, ,.---:::> ,...----, r---, " " ,.------, Ctl - 0 . • Hac in__ an - ni ia - nu - a, _ _ hoc 10_ ra - nu a - n o __ which are an independent repertory). That rhythm Except for the songs that can be linked directly with (bl involving longer and shorter notes in mathematical the circles where modal polyphony was cultivated in the " proportions was intended is open to question. There is 13th century, modal rhythm seems difficult to justify. no evidence that modal rhythm has any direct relevance Some scholars have held that a basic time unit does 8 to secular monophony from outside Paris and before nevertheless underlie the rhythm of the songs. Angles, " 1200 (e.g. the bulk of the troubadour repertory). for instance, held that the time occupied by one syllable For simple songs, rarely having more than two notes was the basic unit; if a syllable was sung to more than & to a syllable, with a regular pattern of stressed syllables, one neume, then each neume occupied a unit of time. " long and short notes are easily assumed. The more Jammers transcribed songs so that each group of ornate the melody, the greater are the difficulties of stressed and subordinate unstressed syllables together mensura! interpretation, and the less do regular patterns • Hac in __ an - ni ia - nu - a. __ hoc m ~ la - nu a - n o __ forms the basic unit; compound neumes may cause the such as those of modal rhythm seem intended. In retro addition of extra units. Ex. I! gives three lines from each
(c) spect, Ludwig's initial suggestion to Aubry (see of the transcriptions by Gennrich (modal), Angles and Gennrich, 1958), that troubadour and trouvere melodies Jammers of a trouvere song (F. Gennrich: Exempla " might be transcribed in rhythmic patterns resembling 8 those of the rhythmic modes, seems to have been adopted " r----:;;- with excessive zeal. Given the difficulties faced by the Ex . I I Bele Yolanz (F-Pn fr.20050, f.64v) first scholars of the repertory, modal rhythm must have (a) Gennrich 8 seemed like a lifeline in unfathomable waters. But the J :J V I g J J If'" IQ) A evolution of modal rhythm was itself a slow process, 4 nv perhaps not completed before 1200. The rhythmic I . Bele Y - o - lanz en ses cham- bres se - oit _ modal theory which was taken over and applied to Hac __ in rl- Q __ an "' - ia - nu - a, _ _ hoc _ m nu - a secular monophony was an abstraction belonging to the '" early 13th century. It was intended to clarify the (d) rhythmic meaning of series of ligatures in melismatic 3. A son a - mi tra- met - tre la vo - loit _ " music. 8 Ex. IO Turma.v armmt christicolas (1- F/ Plut.29. 1. f.43 1 ,,) " .. ,---, ~ .---, r-----1 r----, ,.-, c----, 5. Deus_ tant est douz li nons d'A - mours, ___ 61 m m ; JJ Ji%m ~ ;. ,. mr ~ J. Tur - - ( tur-J - mas ar - (b) Angles
~ ,------, r---, r-----1 r--- w • Hac in_ an ia - nu - a, __ hoc in_ l il - nu a - ri o __ =fa n: SJ ; r :4& J a 4__ E ni *ID:J. r r· r ~ r Qfr- t r tff r· m I. Bele Y - o - lanz en scs cham-bres_ se - oit_ (e) - ment chri - sti - eo - !as de - uo te _ _ ~ .---, " . ,------, - r----, r---, - ,.---, ~ r---. 4! J :J iJJ ] ::J J r r )J m:@ 8 J J 1 DJ;, arcgm:J. ID:J. l· r· r· 3. A son a - rni tra - met- tre la vo - loit _ r--, ,..--., r--, ..---, " - r-----., ~ Sy - on ___ fi - li - e, ce-thus 8 J .... $ rlJna-:J J J r ;II£?r 1' r---, r=: r::::: ,.------, 5. Deus tant est douz Ji nons d'A - mours, _ ___ " ci - ent ce - li - eo ~ las if __... (c) Jammers Hac in_ an ni ia nu - a, _ _ hoc in_ la - nu n 0 w (f) 4J nb/w fJ:J ]JJ ,.--. .---..-., .---..-., r r " • ti e, in -sur gant ig- no - I. Bele Y - o - lanz en ses cha m- bres se - oit_ 1\ 8 ~ --, r----, ,-----. ,..., .---, r;---, J .... r---, ,.--. " r::---; r----, r----, ~ if r- r tt:f ;. J. t· r ~ I [ en Elf ; .Jl:J F JJuQ) - m1- m - e__ ma tris_ 3. A son _ a - mi tra- met- tre la vo - loit_ 8 ---- " r-= r--, ,..--., .....---.--. ~ ,---. r:-----. • .. s· 11 Hac in _ _ an - ni ia - nu a,__ _ hoc in__ la - nu a - ri 0 Hen tis_ ec - c\c · si - c. _ _ _ _ 5. Deus~ tant est _ douz li nons d'Amours, ____ 362 Notation, §Ill, 3: Western, c 1260-1500 Notation, §Ill, 3: Western, c1260-1500 363 alr(ranzosischer Lyrik. 1958. no.9; H. Angles. 1960.2/ 1962. three basic hexachords (based on G, C and F I); and one later writer, the author of the Quatuor p.l~; Jammers, 1975, p.62). Other scholars have es respectively). J principalia (CS, iv), even attributed this interpretation chewed the idea of a constant time unit capable of being See A CCID~AL; ScoRE, §3; SoLMIZATION, §I; SouRCF.S, MS, §1. W£Z:tf;R ·~~~~§! directly to Franco. transcribed mensurally. For instance, Vanderwerf Franco defined ascending and descending plicas for ( 1972) and Stiiblein ( 1975) used undifferentiated note (il) Franconian notation. The development of notation 30(b). F-MO H 196./36/v, with transcription below the long and breve. Plicas continued in use in the 14th heads. during the period c1260-1500 was almost exclusively century, but their pitch and rhythmic evaluation are in the realm of rhythm, and specifically concerned with For bibliography see end of §3. $ ,------, r-, sometimes open to question (see Handle's evaluations. achieving precise notation for note values shorter than ~ J J I J J I f'· I J t t I r f' Ir f' I F' IJ s s I CS, i, 383ff). They were obsolete before 1400, by 3. POLYPHONIC MENSURAL NOTATION, c1260-1500. the long and breve. The 13th century saw the gradual which time any surviving plica shapes no longer have (1) General. Well before this period the notation of pitch adoption of graphic distinctions between the long and the former significance of a plica. had lost all ambiguity apart from occasional uses of the the breve, both as isolated note shapes (simplices) and as Franco took over the existing ligature shapes with plica and the operation of the rules of musica recta and they appear within ligatures. The forms of square note their connotations of propriety and perfection depend musica ficta (see PLICA and MUSICA FICTA). The four with and without stem had been used arbitrarily in the ing on the presence or absence of stems (see §Ill, 2 Florence manuscript (1-Fl Plut.29.1 ), but were used line staff used for plainchant was still sometimes re Although identical in duration with the imperfect long it above). He provided evaluations that were mostly con throughout the next generation of sources, including the tained in polyphony, especially for a voice presenting could not be written thus because of the preceding rule. sistent with the earlier system but which could stand 'Montpellier manuscript (F-MO H 196), to indicate long plainchant, but the five-line staff had come to be used for Where a long followed by a breve would normally be independent of their modal meanings. The first note of a polyphonic voices. A six-line staff became normal for and breve respectively (see SOURCES, MS, §V for these imperfect, it could be rendered perfect by the placing ligature 'with propriety' was a breve, the last note of a sources). Ligatures began to have fixed evaluations the 14th-century Italian repertory, and was occasionally immediately after it of a dot or stroke, variously called ligature 'with perfection' was a long. He opened the door used outside it. Additional staff-lines were provided regardless of their modal context, even though they still tractulus, signum perfectionis or divisio modi, as in to many hitherto unused ligature shapes and provided a often adhered to modal patterns and though the values throughout the period wherever the range of a voice fig.30b. A long followed by two breves was perfect means of evaluating them, simple for anyone familiar demanded, though the leger line itself was rare. The assigned to them derived from their modal interpreta unless preceded by a single breve. The following set of with the existing shapes. A ligature with a stem ascend most commonly used clef was the C (on any line), as in tions. These and other fundamental changes can be patterns illustrates the operation of the system ing from the first note was described as having 'opposite plainchant, and its position was readily movable from traced in the musical sources, and are mentioned in (numerals represent multiples of breve-values; primes propriety': it signified two semibreves. All notes other line to line when range or a copying error made this the the01;etical writings of Johannes de Garlandia represent signs of perfection): than the first and last were breves. In practice, down expedient. Of the other two clefs used in plainchant the (c1240), Magister Lambertus (before 1279) and the St ward stems were occasionally used to create a long in F came increasingly into use with the gradual extension Emmeram Anonymous (I 279), all of which are now LBLB = 2- 1-2-1 the middle of a ligature; the upward stem could occur of the lower pitch register, but the B~ - that is, the ~ dated earlier than the main formulation of these changes L'BLB = 3-1-2-1 elsewhere than at the beginning to create two semi sign used on its own as a clef - was rare in polyphony, by Franco of Cologne (c1280) on whose rules the fol LBBL = 3-1-2-3 breves; and the long body of the duplex long or maxima probably because of the growing use of the same symbol lowing summary is based. BLBBL = 1- 2- 1-2- 3 could be used to create this value anywhere in the liga to supply what would now be called a key signature. The The Franconian system required that note symbols LB'BL = 2- 1- 1- 2 ture. These are later modifications to Franco's system. G clef appeared in the 14th century; it came increas should be capable of indicating the rhythmic modes LBBBL = 3- 1- 1- 1- 3 Notes in ligature were subject to the same rules for ingly into use, especially in England, again in connec rather than being determined by them. Under this LB'BBL = 2- 1- 1- 2- 3 imperfection and alteration as single notes, but in tion with extension of range. (See STAFF and CLEF.) system, each of the three principal note values had two LBBBBL = 2- 1- 1- J- 1- 3 practice grouping in ligatures tended to favour certain Score notation had disappeared by about 1260, ex states. The long was either 'perfect' or 'imperfect', there L'BBBBL = 3-1-1-1-1-2 groupings as strongly as did a divisio modi. cept for late copies of the organum and conduct us reper was also a duplex long, worth two longs, which Franco Franco advocated the use of ligatures where possible; tory, and certain categories of composition in England, explained as a means of avoiding repeated notes. The The brevis recta might contain not more than three if possibility here implies absence of constraints from for which it was retained late into the 15th century breve was either recta or altera ('other' - Robert de semibreves and not fewer than two. If three, they would be word underlay, he did not say so. However, it remains (including carols, homophonic sequences and cantilenas, Handlo in 1326 proposed that the breve be thought of equal and all minor; if two, they would be minor- major generally true (with a few exceptions) that two syllables and English discant). Notation in separate voices as alterata, 'altered', CS, i, 385). The semibreve could be {1-2). Franco made no provision for two equal semi do not have to be fitted to one ligature. On the other reflected their new rhythmic independence. either 'major' or 'minor'. breves, though several earlier theorists did not specify hand, Franco disallowed the pre-Franconian practice of The perfect long was worth three breves. The imper the value of a pair of semibreves when it constituted a notating 5th-mode tenors in motels as three-note Fig.29 fect long was worth two breves, as had been the earlier breve nor did they recognize a group of three ligatures and insisted on a succession of separate longs. long, and was used in combination with a preceding or (Garlandia, ed. Reimer, i, 50; Dietricus, ed. Muller, 5; Fig.31 (a) # (b) b (c) 8 following breve; it could not stand on its own, and hence Amerus, p.II). (The semibreve pairs in F- MO Hl96 could not be called /onga recta (but see Johannes de and D-BAs ED.N.6, and possibly other sources, in most with propriety, with perfection B L (lo ., Throughout the period there were three principal Garlandia, ed. Reimer, i, 37). When a long preceded a cases lend themselves much more comfortably to equal signs for what are now called accidentals. They did not second long the first must always be perfect (thus, in performance, and it is not always certain that Franco's without propriety, with perfection L L o, , ; function as modem accidentals do, in that they did not terms of breves, 3-3 or 3-2). rules apply.) with propriety. without perfection B B i""' I' signify the automatic raising or lowering of an otherwise The brevis altera was worth two recta breves. It arose There is no provision for the breve to be imperfected as the second breve in the context breve-breve-long {1- 'natural' note by a semitone. They were adjuncts of the by the semibreve, or for the semibreve to stand alone: without propriety. without perfection LB .... fill' ~ solmization system: the signs in fig.29a (alternative 2- 3 breve units respectively): see fig.30a (in the upper the breve-semibreve relationship was not at that stage forms adopted by different scribes) designated the note voice the first breve is subdivided into semibreves). analogous to that of the long-breve. This meant also with opposite propriety ss~ ('..,) 11' (~) following it to be sung to the syllable mi, and fig.29b that the principle of 'alteration' did not apply. A breve designated it to be sung to the syllable fa. Fig.29c was preceding a second breve is not said to be perfect, Fig.31 shows the principal ligature shapes of the often used simply as an alternative to fig.29b, though it ~ • I , because there is no question of its being imperfected. Franconian system. (An oblique shape involves only two seems to have been used by some scribes to refer to Similarly, the second of a pair of semibreves is not said pitches: the first and last covered.) In evaluating notes in the upper octave of a given voice range. In to be 'altered' before a breve, because a pair of semi ligatures of more than two notes, the first and last were consequence, the note F, for example, would be breves is rendered iambically, regardless of what fol treated as though each formed a two-note ligature with 30(a). F-MO H /96,f365v, with transcription below rendered not flat but Fq by the placing of the 'flat' sign lows. Hence the following patterns (numerals represent its neighbour. Middle notes were breves unless modified (fig.29b) before it; a 'sharp' sign before the note E would multiples of semibreve-values): by stems making them longs or semibreves, or by exten ~ render it Eq. Ambiguity could arise with A and D as to sion of the note body to make a duplex long or maxima BSSSS = 3- 1-2-1-2 (see fig.32). whether a flat sign meant natural or flat, and with G and SSS'SS = 1- 1- 1- 1- 2 D as to whether a sharp sign meant natural or sharp; but cief bien_ se - ans. Fig.32 this ambiguity could usually be resolved by con Several of Franco's contemporaries (e.g. St Emmeram sideration of context. Significantly, the three clef [ Anonymous, 1279) added to the semibreve-pair rule signs discussed above were all indications of fa in the en tie - re - ment. 'and vice versa', implying the reverse interpretation (2- BBBBB LBLB SSL SSBL SSB L Max BSS 364 Notation, §III, 3: Western, cl260-1500 Notation, §III, 3: Western, cl260-1500 365 Fig.33 shows the rests given by Franco, together with graphically. The first surviving musical instances of this to tempus, that is according to breves' -worth, by exten fixed value (e.g. any rest, or a note imperfected by colora their values in terms of recta breves. They are respec practice are some of the motets interpolated in about sion of Franco's principle, and also to indicate perfec tion or perfected by a dot). Dots of syncopation tively the perfect long, the imperfect long and brevis 1316 into one copy of the Roman de Fauvel (F-Pn tion. This led in later treatises towards the idea of a 'dot are in effect dots of division unusually positioned to altera, the brevis recta, the major semibreve, the minor fr.l46). Vitry cited these, and may well have been the of addition' which added half again to the value of an show displacement. A note set off by two dots, as found semibreve and the finis punctorum, which marked the composer of them, for composer and theorist alike were imperfect note. At first this concept was expressed in in later 14th
lxi: I Perfi:cl Nml' lmpf!rjecz nm~
IT~liAN FREI'ICH 36(b). Giovanni da Cascia, 'Agnel son bianco' (1-F/ 87.flv), with transcription Jsr division J.st dil·l.sion . . . J J J -t-t . J J t • ••• •••i• t J J 4• j J 3J JJJ 3JJ S;s I J 4 2nd d1vision So . . J. )>J (q) J. )ll )> J. J. J )>I)>J J. ..__.. '-' 36(c) . Lorenzo da Firenze, 'Ita se n'era' (1-F/ 87.f45v), with transcription . . • . nJ J n~ . . . J. J )> . J. ;n J )lJ )l since here a semibreve in such a position need not the counterpart to the French mensuration signs (see §iii T nn precede a breve; the procedure is Franconian. When above), which found no place in the Italian tradition J J. )l ever unequal division of notes within an 'Italian' division until it merged with the French later in the century. n J Jn . . J was called for, the longer note (or notes) was again Marchetto advocated '.i.' and '.p.' for 'imperfect' and placed at the end (as in fig.36a, bars 2-3) unless 'perfect' modus (see figs.36b and a), not for the . . • . . nnJ modified by stems. But the 'French' divisions, whose divisions of senaria imperfecta and perfecta (see fig.38) Jrd divistOfl 3rd dh•i.sion evaluations as given in the right-hand column of fig.37 which had not yet acquired these names. The letters '.b.' J'iTjffl n (0) are taken from Guido, normally placed the shorter notes and '.t.' were to indicate the binary and ternary divisions ...... J JT.J T • after the longer. Though not entirely consistent, and of the breve(CSM, vi, 164). The letters 'Y' and 'G' were to j )> thus in defiance of Marchetto's attempt to impute indicate the Italian and French (literally 'Gallic') manners TL L m nn • L • J )lJ superior logic to the French system, they are the in imperfect time. In addition, the letters 'S.G.' were used )l rhythms most commonly encountered in contemporary presumahly for sPcundum gallicn.~ or senaria gallica in rrl J J-.._.-.n H J J J . . . . . ITI J (naturales) French music. 1-Rvat Rossi 215. The later uses of letters, derived from Unless bounded by a breve or ligature, each tempus musical sources and subsequent theoretical writings, in • iT L .nJ fl. nm • l • l l (per artem) group of semibreves was marked off by a dot. Any particular from Prosdocimus de Beldemandis, are ligature comprising two semibreves occupied a full shown in fig.38. There seems to be no theoretical or • l • . . J )l JTI ~ tempus. Although Guido provided two forms of semi practical justification for the widespread modern r I hcsc C\amples Renaissance Music: a Birthday wissenschaftliche Studien-Bibliothek, i- ii (Nicder-Modau, 1946, 2/ A. Hughes: 'The Old Hall Manuscript: a Re-appraisal', M D. xxi ( 1967), especially after the rise of the thoroughbass, however, Offering to Gustave Reese (New York, 1966, rev. 2/1978), 785 1956) 97- 129 F. Reckow: Der Musiktraktat des Anonymus 4, ii: Interpretation der H. Angles: 'La notaci6n musical espafiola de la segunda mitad del A. Hughesand M. Bent: 'The Old Hall Manuscript: an Inventory', MD, theory and teaching were increasingly controlled by Organum Purum-Lehre (Wiesbaden, 1967) siglo XV', AnM, ii (1947), !51 xxi (1967), 130 instrumentalists such as keyboard players, and the staff --: 'Proprietas und perfectio', A cM, xxxix (1967), 115 F. Gennrich: Abriss der Mensura/notation des XIV. Jahrhunderts und R. Strohm: 'Ein Zcugnis fruher Mehrstimmigkeit in ltalien', Festschrift notation used for the bulk of the repertory was G. A. Anderson: 'Mode and Change of Mode in Noire Dame der ersten Hii/fte des XV. Jahrhunderts, Musikwissenschaftliche Bruno Stiiblein (Kassel, 1967), 239 influenced by instrumental requirements, adopting Conductus', AcM, xl (1968), 92 Studien-Bibliothek, iii- iv (Nicder-Modau, 1948, 2/1965) M. Bent: 'New and Little-known Fragments of English Medieval R. Flotzinger: Der Discantwsatz im Magnus Liber und seiner W. Ape!: Introduction to French Secular Music of the Late Polyphony', JAMS, xxi (1968), 137 many features that pennitted it to express increasingly Nachfolge: mit Beitriigen zur Frage der sogenannten Notre-Dame Pourteenth Century (Cambridge, Mass., 1950) F. A. Gallo: 'Alcune fonti poco notcdi musica tcoricae practica', L'ars complex infonnation. Conversely, keyboard tablature Handschriften (Vienna, 1969) M. F. Bukofzer: Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Music (New nova ita/iana del trecento: convegni di studi 1961-1967 (Certaldo, began to decline. The instrumental features adopted R. A. Rasch: Johannes de Gar/andia en de ontwikkeling van de voor York, 1950) 1968), 49 f'ranconische notatie (New York, 1969) A. Carapetyan: 'A Fourteenth-century Florentine Treatise in the U. Michels: Die Musiktraktate des Johannes de Muris. mit Edition und included, in the 16th and 17th centuries, the bar-line, H. H. Eggebrecht and F. Zaminer: Ad organum faciendum: Vernacular', MD, iv (1950), 81 Besprechung der 'Notitia artis musicae· und des 'Compendium beam and slur, pennitting the clear grouping of notes Lehrschriften der Mehrstimmigkeit in nachguidoni.rcher Zeit (Mainz, L. Dittmer: 'The Ligatures of the Montpellier Manuscript', MD, ix musicae practicae', i: Quel/enkritik und Besprechungen (diss., U. of for rhythmic and other purposes; the standardization 1970) (1955), 35 Freiburg, 1968) of clefs, facilitating the sight-reading of even fairly R. Erickson: Rhythmic Problems and Melodic Structure in Organum R. H. Hoppin: 'A Musical Rotulus of the Fourteenth Century', C. A. Miller: 'Gaffurius's Practica Musicae: Origin and Contents', MD, Purum: a Computer-assisted Study (diss., Yale U., 1970) RBM, ix (1955), 131 xxii (1968), 105 complex textures; and the reintroduction of the score, W. Frobcnius: 'Zur Datierung von Francos Ars can/us mensurabilis'. N. Pirrotta: 'Marchettus de Padua and the Italian Ars Nova', MD, ix G. Vecchi: 'Primo annuncio del sistema proporzionale di Marchetto in which had been dropped in French notation in the 13th AMw, xxvii (1970), 122 (1955), 57 un passo del "Lucidarium" ', Quadrivium, ix (1968), 83 century. In the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, the demi H. Angles: 'Die alte spanische Mensuralnotation'. Kongressbericht: J. Stenzl: Die vierzig Clausu/ae der Handschrift Paris Bibliotheque M. Bent: The Old Hall Manuscript: a Paleographical Study (diss., U. semiquaver and the hemidemisemiquaver were added to nationale Iatin 15/39 (Saint Victor-Ciausu/ae) (Berne, 1970) Wien Mozartjahr 1956, 7 of Cambridge, 1969) H. H. Eggebrecht: 'Organum purum', Musikalische Edition im K. von Fischcr: Studien zur italienischen Muyik des Trecento und R. Fcderhofer-Kiinigs: 'Ein Beitrag zur Proportionslehre in der the vocabulary of note values; keyboard notation Wandel des hiswrischen Bewusstseim·, cd. T. G. Georgiades (Kasscl, friihen Quaurocento (Berne, 1956) zweiten Hiilfte des 15. Jahrhunderts', SM. xi (1969), 145 adopted, when necessary for the sake of clarity, a score 1971), 93 --: 'Zu Johannes Wolfs Obertragung des Squarcialupi-Codex', F. A. Gallo: 'Tra Giovanni de Garlandia e Filippo da Vitry: note sulla layout with more than two staves to the system, not S. Fuller: 'Hidden Polyphony: a Reappraisal', JAMS, xxiv (1971), 169 MJ, ix (1956), 77 tradizione di alcuni testi teorici', MD, xxiii ( 1969), 13 T. Giillner: 'Frlihe Mehrstimmigkeit in Choralnolation', Musik R. H. Hoppin: 'Conflicting Signatures Reviewed', JAMS, ix (1956), 97 U. Michels: 'Dcr Musiktraktat des Anonymus OP: ein fruhes previously used except in the partitura. In the 19th a/ische Edition im Wandel des historischen Bewusstseins, ed. T. G. G. Massera: 'Un sistema teorico di notazione mensurale nclla escr Theoretiker-Zcugnis der Ars nova', AMw, xxvi (1969), 49 century, the vocabulary of signs for dynamics, accents Georgiades (Kassel, 1971 ), 113 citazione di un musico del '400', Quadrivium, i (1956), 273 G. Vecchi: 'Anonimi Rubricc breves', Quadrivium, x/1 (1969), 125 and articulation was greatly extended; some novel G. Reaney: 'The "Ars Nova" of Philippe de Vitry', MD, x (1956), 5 G. A. Anderson, ed.: The Latin Compositions in f'oscicules Vll and E. C. Fellin: A Study of Superius Variants in the Sources of Italian features, which became basic to 20th century practice, Vlll of the Notre Dame Manuscript Wolfenbiillel Helmstadt 1099 G. Vecchi: 'Su la composizione del Pomerium di Marchetto da Padova e Trecento Music: Madriga/sandCacce(diss., U. of Wisconsin, 1970) (1206), pt.i: Critical Commentary, Translation of the Texts and la Brevis compilatio', Quadrivium, i (1956), 153- 208 W . Frobenius: 'Zur Datierung von Francos Ars cantus mensurabilis', were introduced by Beethoven, Schumann and Liszt. Historical Observations (New York, 1972) L. Dittmer: 'The Dating and the Notation ofthe Worcester Fragments', AMw, xxvii (1970), 122 Thus notation continued to develop after the 16th R. Flotzinger: 'Zur Frage der Modalrhythmik als Antike-Rezeption', MD, xi (1957), 5 N. S. Josephson: 'Vier Beispiele der Ars subtilior', AMw, xxvii (1970), century. Yet a cleavage gradually developed between AMw, xxix (1972), 203 H. Hewitt: 'A Study in Proportions', Essays on Music in Honor of 41 K. Hofmann: Untersuchungen zur Kompositionstechnik der Motelle Archibald Thompson Davison (Cambridge, Mass., 1957), 69 U. Michels: Die Musiktraktate des Johannes de Muris (Wiesbaden, notational theory and notational practice; professional im 13. Jahrhundert (Neuhausen-Stuttgart, 1972) A. Kellncr: Ein Mensuraltraktat aus der Zeit urn 1400, Anzeiger der 1970) musicians often came to treat theory as elementary and E. Reimer: Johannes de Gar/andia: De mfnsurabili musica, pt.ii; 6sterrcichischen Akademieder Wissenschaften, xciv (Vienna, 1957), C. Wolff: 'Arten der Mensuralnotation im 15. Jahrhundert und die in consequence to expound it merely within the sphere Anfange der Orgeltabulatur', GfM KB. Bonn 1970, 609 Kommentar und Interpretation der Notationslehre (Wiesbaden, 72 of musical rudiments or incidentally in treatises on 1972) C. Parrish: The Notation of Medieval Music (New York, 1957, 2/1959), N. Biiker-Heil: 'Weisse Mensuralnotation als Computer-Input und E. RohlofT: Die Quellenhandtchriften zum Musiktraktut des Juhannes chaps. 5-7 Output', AcM, xliii (1971), 21 perfonnance. This situation began to change only in the de Grocheio (Leipzig, 1972) H. Angles: 'De cantu organico: tratado de un autor catahin del siglo R. Bockholdt: 'Franziisische und nicderliindische Musik des 14. und 15. second half of the 19th century. Meanwhile, however, G. A. Anderson: 'Magister Lambertus and Nine Rhythmic Modes', XIV', AnM, xiii (1958), I Jahrhunderts', Musikalische Edition im Wandel des historischen proposals for refonn had been made, from the 17th AcM, xlv (1973), 57 K. von Fischer: 'Trcccnto- Trecentoprobleme', A cM, xxx (1958), 179 Bewusstseins, cd. T. G. Georgiades (Kasscl, 1971 ), 149 --: 'The Rhythm of cum littera Sections of Polyphonic Conductus A. Gilles and G. Reaney: 'A New Source for the Ars Nova of Philippe C. Dahlhaus: 'Die Mensurzeichen als Problem der Editionstechnik', century onwards, by those seeking a universal musical in Mensura! Sources', JAMS, xxvi (1973), 288 de Vitry', MD, xii (1958), 59 Musikalitche Edition im Wandel des historischen Bewusstseins. ed. notation. Even though most proposed refonns were im R. Baltzer: Notation, Rhythm, and Style in the Two-voice Notre Dame K. von Fischer: 'Zur Entwicklungder italienischen Trcccnto-Notation ', T. G. Gcorgiades (Kassel, 1971), 174 practicable and were adopted by no-one but their inven C/ausu/a (diss., Boston U., 1974) AMw, xvi (1959), 87 F. A. Gallo: 'Due trattatelli sulla notazione del primo Trecento', tors, as a whole they strikingly illustrate the desire of W. Frobenius: 'Longa- Brevis'. 'Minima', 'Modus (Rhythmuslehre)', U. Glinther: 'Dcr Gebrauch des tempus perfcctum diminutum in der Quadrivium, xii /1 (1971), 119 ·Perfectio', 'Prolatio', 'Proprietas (Notationslehre)'. 'Semibrevis', Handschrift Chantilly 1047', AMw, xvii (1960), 277 N. S. Josephson: 'Rodericus, Angelorumpsalat', MD, xxv (1971), 113 Western notators for a notation independent of any --: 'Die Anwendung der Diminution in der Handschrift Chantilly ~semiminima' , HMT M. L. Martinez-Giillner: 'Musik des Trecento', Musikalische Edition im single musical style. Even a system as economical and K.-J. Sachs: 'Punctus', HMT 1047', AMw, xvii (1960), I Wandel des historischen Bewusstseins, ed. T. G. Georgiades (Kassel, R. H. Hoppin: 'Notational Licences of Guillaume de Machaut', 1971), 134 adequate as Tonic Sol-fa was not adopted for the bulk of See also ORGANUM AND DISCANT: BIBLIOGRAPHY MD, xiv (1960), 13 S. B. Patrick: The Definition. Dissemination and Description of diatonic music: its limitation in practice to a single style R. Fcderhofer-Konigs: 'Ein anonymer Mensuraltraktat aus dcr Petronian Notation (diss., U. of North Carolina, 1971) was felt as a fatal flaw , as similar limitations had never POLYPHONY c1260--15QO: STUDIES 2. Hiilfte des 14. Jahrhundcrts in der Stiftsbibliothck Michaclbeurenj H. Sehoop: Entstehung und Verwendung der Handvchrift Oxford been present in medieval notational systems. That did H. Bellermann: Die Mensura/no ten und Taktzeichen des I 5. und /6. Salzburg', KJb, xlvi ( 1962), 43 Bodleian Library, Canonici mise. 213 (Berne, 1971) Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1858, 2/1906, enlarged 4/1963 cd. H. A. Geering: 'Ein tutsche Musica des figurirtcn Gesangs 1491', W. Arlt: ' Dcr Tractatusfigurarum: ein Beitrag zur Musiklehre der "ars not prevent its use for the benefit of the musically un Husmann) Festschrift Karl Gustav Pellerer (Regensburg, 1962), 178 subtilior" ', Schweizer Beitriige zur Musikwissenschaft, i (1972), 35 educated: and Tonic Sol-fa merely exemplifies the J. Wolf: Geschichte der Mensura/ notation von 1150 bis 1460 nach den U. Gunther: 'Die Mensuralnotation des Ars nova in Theorie und J. A. Bank: Tactus, Tempo and Notation in Mensura/ Music from the numerous novel notational systems for vocal music theoretischen und praktischen Quellen (Leipzig, 1904/RI965) [see Praxis', AMw, xix-xx (1962-3), 9 13th to the 17th Century (Amsterdam, 1972) devised from the 16th century onwards for this purpose. also review by F. Ludwig, SIMG, vi (1904-5), 597-6411 C. Ha mm: ' Manuscript Structure in the Dufay Era', A cM, xxxiv (1962), H. Besseler and P. Giilke: Schriftbild der mehrstimmigen Musik , E. Kurth: 'Kritische Bemerkungen zum V. Kapitel der "Ars cantus 166 Musikgeschichte in Bildern, iii/5 (Leipzig, 1973) These systems are often unconcerned with theoretical mensurabilis" des Franko von Koln', KJb, xxi (1908), 39 F. J. Leon Tcllo: Estudios de hi,, toria de la teoria musical (Madrid, F. A. Gallo: 'Figura and Regula: Notation and Theory in the Tradition abstractions, and thus resemble instrumental tablatures. J. Wolf: 'Ein anonymer Musiklraktat aus der ersten Zcit der Ars 1962) of Musica mensurabilis', Studien zur Tradition in der Musik: Kurl Most of them were based on popular solmization nova', KJb, xxi ( 1908), 33 E. H. Sanders: 'Duple Rhythm and the Alternate Third Mode in the von Pischer zum 60. Geburtstag (Munich, 1973), 43 --: Handhuch der Notationskunde, i (1913/R1963), pts.iii, iv 13th Century', JAMS, xv (1962), 249-91 P. Gossctt: 'The Mensura! System and the Choralis Constantinus', practice, and many provide the same infonnation in --: Musikalische Schrifttafeln (Leipzig, 1922-3, 2/1927) R. Bockholdt: 'Semi brevis minima und Prolatio temporis', Mf, xvi Studies in Renaissance and Baroque Music in Honor of Arthur more than one way. --: Die Tonschriften (Breslau, 1924) (1963), 3 Mer.del (Kassel and Hackensack, 1974), 71-107 A turning-point in notational practice seems to have H. Birtner: 'Die Probleme der spiitmittelalterlichen Mensuralnotation M. B. Collins: The Performance of Coloration. Sesquialtera, and W. Frobenius: 'Longa- Brevis', 'Minima', 'Modus (Rhythmuslehre)', occurred in the second half of the 19th century in und ihrer Obertragung', ZMw, xi (1928- 9), 534 Hemio/a (1450-1750) (diss., Stanford U., 1963) 'Perfectio', 'Prolatio', 'Proprietas (Notationslehre)', 'Semibrevis', A. M. Michalitschke: 'Studien zur Entstehung und Fruhentwicklung K. von Fischer: 'Neue Quellen zur Musik des 13., 14. und 15. Jahrhun 'Semiminima', 'Tactus', HMT consequence of the hannonic and rhythmic theory of the der Mensuralnotation', ZMw, xii (1929- 30), 257 derts', AcM, xxxvi (1964), 79 K.-J. Sachs: 'Punctus', HMT period (Moritz Hauptmann, Hugo Riemann and Mathis