A Durable Memento: Portraits by Augustus Washington, African American Daguerreo t y p i s t

Teacher’s Guide Author Christopher Janson

Curator of the Exhibition Ann M. Shumard, Assistant Curator of Photographs

Funding for this teacher packet was provided by The Morris and Gwendolyn Cafritz Foundation. A Durable Memento: Portraits by Augustus Washington, 3 African American Daguerreotypist

Glossary

Ab o l i t i o n i s m . Advocacy of the elimination of er n territories and that southerners had the right sl a v e r y. to have slaves who had escaped to the North ret u r ned. The southerners considered these American Colonization Society. Founded in slaves as prop e rt y . Calhoun threatened seces- 1816 by an influential group of white American sion—the southern states’ withdrawal from the politicians and philanthropists, including Francis union—if these demands were not met. Scott Key (attorney and author of “The St a r Calhoun died during the debate on these Spangled Banner”) and George Was h i n g t o n ’ s issues, and a group of senators, led by Stephen ne p h e w , the society sought to obtain govern- Douglas of Illinois and Henry Clay of ment funding for a plan to relocate free blacks to K e n t u c k y, pushed through legislation that a colony in Africa. became known as the Compromise of 1850. The main points of the compromise were: Br own, John (180 0 – 185 9 ). American aboliti o n - • Admission of California as a free state ist. Active in Kansas fighting for admission of • Or ganization of remaining western terri t o - that state as a free state in a series of violent ries without restriction on slavery sk i r mishes that gave the terri t o r y the name • An end to slave trade in the District of “Bleeding Kansas,” Brown believed in the use Co l u m b i a of violence when necessary as a means of end- • A strict federal fugitive slave law ing slavery. In 1859, Brown and twenty-one fol- • Assumption of Tex a s ’ s debt by the federal lowers captured the United States arsenal at go v e rn m e n t Harpers Ferry, Vir ginia (now West Vir ginia), in an attempt to launch an invasion and uprising Da g u e r reo t y p e . A one-of-a-kind image made of the South to liberate slaves. His group was di r ectly on a sheet of copper, plated with silver, defeated, and Brown was hanged after a trial, and then polished and exposed to iodine vapor, which gained national attention and made so that it is sensitive to light. The sensitized plate Br own a martyr for the abolition movement. is placed in a camera obscura, exposed, and then developed with mercu r y vapor, which creates a Co m p r omise of 1850. In the first half of the chemical reaction with the iodine and silver. nineteenth century, the United States Congres s Me rc u r y deposits form on the plate, the most was faced with a series of threats to the balance remaining where the plate received the most of power as western states began to apply for light, and the least (or none at all) in the shad- admission to the Union as either slave or free ows. Then the plate is washed with a solution states. The last of these major threats came that removes the rest of the light-sensitive mate- when California applied for admission as a free rial, so that only the image remains. Finally, it is state. Southern congressional leaders, headed by cleaned with water, dried, and mounted under South Carolina Senator John C. Calhoun, glass. The process was developed by Fren c h demanded that slavery be permitted in the west- ar tist Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre and scien- A Durable Memento: Portraits by Augustus Washington, 4 African American Daguerreotypist

Glossary

tist Nicéphore Niepce, and was announced to rights of citizenship for all blacks in America. the public in Paris in January 1839. . A country located on the Atlantic Douglass, Frederick (18 1 7 – 1 8 9 5 ). Am e r i c a n Ocean on the western coast of Africa. It was abolitionist, writer, and lecturer who escaped founded as a colony in 1821 through the fr om slavery in 1838 and traveled in the No rt h eff o r ts of the American Colonization Society and Europe speaking out against the institution and from 1822 to the 1860s was largely settled of slavery. He was the author of the Na r rative of by freed slaves from America. Established as a the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845) and editor co u n t r y in 1847, it is the oldest independent and cofounder of a prominent abolitionist news- republic in Africa. Today its population is paper called The North Star. roughly 1,911,000, and is the capi- tal and largest city. Fugitive Slave Law. A key part of the Co m p r omise of 1850, this act obligated citi- Ma n u m i s s i o n . The freeing of a person from zens to help capture escaped slaves in the sl a v e r y or bondage. Emancipation. No r th. It rejected a fugitive slave’s right to a trial by jury, requiring cases to instead be Slave states. The fifteen states of the Union in ad m i n i s t e r ed by specially appointed commis- which slavery was legal in the years before the sioners who would be paid $5 if an accused Civil War: Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware , fugitive were let go and $10 if he or she were Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, ret u r ned. The act made it easier for a slavehold- M a ryland, Mississippi, Missouri, Nort h er to file for a claim, and appointed more feder- Ca r olina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Tex a s , al officials to help enforce the law. Any free and Virg i n i a . black man living in the North could be more easily accused of being a fugitive and ret u r ned to Un d e rg r ound Railroa d . A covert system, estab- sl a v e r y in the South on the slimmest of evidence. lished in the years before slavery was abolished Those most affected by the law, however, were in the United States, that helped slaves escape fo r mer slaves living in the North, many of to freedom in the north e r n states or Canada. whom fled to Canada. From 1850 to 1860, it is This network relied on secret supporters sprea d estimated that twenty thousand black people out along the pathway to freedom who would immigrated to Canada. aid the escaped slaves in passing from one safe house to another. These helpers or “conduc- Ga r rison, William Lloyd (18 0 5 – 1 8 7 9 ). A prom i - tors” were often free blacks or Quakers, who nent American abolitionist leader and founder usually operated at night. Usually the pathways and publisher of The Liberator, an antislavery to freedom took advantage of the terrain to ne w s p a p e r . Garrison called not only for a com- facilitate undetected travel, following natural plete, immediate end to slavery, but also for full boundaries such as rivers or mountain ranges. A Durable Memento: Portraits by Augustus Washington, 5 African American Daguerreotypist

Who was Augustus Washington?

Augustus Washington was one of the first black da g u e r reotypist and farme r , and in 1865 was photographers in the United States. He was chosen as Speaker of the House of bo r n in Trenton, , in 1820 or 1821, Re p r esentatives of the Republic of Liberia. and he was educated as a young boy at private Washington continued to prosper financially schools alongside white students. He later stud- and politically, and in 1871 was elected a sena- ied at the Oneida Institute in , and to r . In August 1873 he founded a newspaper then taught at a school for black children in called the New Era. He died in Monrov i a , Br ooklyn, where he was also active in the Liberia, on June 7, 1875. African American community, working for abolition and acquiring voting rights for free blacks. He was one of the first African Americans to be accepted to Dart m o u t h College, where he studied for a year before having to drop out for financial reasons. In 1844, he took a teaching position in Hartf o rd , . In 1846 he set up a successful business taking daguerreotypes, a skill he had le a r ned while at Dartmouth to help pay off his debts. He made hundreds of daguerreotypes of Ha rt f o r d citizens, both prominent and ordi - na r y, wealthy and middle class. He made three da g u e r reotypes of the radical abolitionist John Br own while Brown was living in nearby Springfield, Massachusetts. Only one of these plates is known to have survived, and it is now in the National Portrait Gallery collection. He also made a portrait of abolitionist leader William Lloyd Garrison in the summer of 1853, while Garrison attended a convention in Ha rt f o r d. This image is not known to have sur- vived. In November 1853 Washington, with his wife Cordelia and their two young children , immigrated to Liberia in Wes t e r n Africa under the partial patronage of the American Colonization Society through funds approp r i - ated by them to the Connecticut state legisla- tu r e. In Liberia, Washington pros p e r ed as a A Durable Memento: Portraits by Augustus Washington, 6 African American Daguerreotypist

Voices from the Past—Primary Source Material

William Lloyd Garrison from The Liberator, January 1, 1831

Gr owing up in Trenton, New Jersey, Augustus him to moderat e l y rescue his wife from Washington learned to read and was inspired the hand of the ravisher; tell the mother by The Liberator and other abolitionist news- to grad u a l l y extricate her babe from the papers. In this passage from Garri s o n ’ s editori- fire into which it has fallen;—but urge al in the first issue of The Liberator, Garri s o n me not to use moderation in a cause like set the tone for this publication, which for the the present. I am in earnest—I will not next thirty-five years denounced slavery and eq u i vocate—I will not excuse—I will advocated the rights of black Americans: not retreat a single inch—AND I WI L L BE HEARD. The apathy of the people Assenting to the “self-evident truth” is enough to make every statue leap maintained in the American Declarat i o n from its pedestal, and to hasten the res- of Independence, “that all men are cre- urrection of the dead. ated equal, and endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights—among which are life, li b e r t y , and the pursuit of happiness,” I shall st r e n u o u s l y contend for the immediate en f ra n c hisement of our slave popula- ti o n . In Par k Street Church on the Fourth of Jul y, 18 2 9 , in an address on sl a ve r y , I unreflectingly assented to the popular but pernicious doctrine of grad - ual abolition. I seize this opportunity to ma k e a full and unequivocal recanta- ti o n , and thus publicly to ask pardon of my God, of my country, and of my br e t h r e n , the poor slaves , for having uttered a sentiment so full of timidity, in j u s t i c e , and absurdity. . . . I am awar e , that many object to the se v erity of my language; but is there not cause for severity? I will be as harsh as tr u t h , and as uncompromising as jus- ti c e . On this subject, I do not wish to th i n k , or speak, or write, with modera- ti o n . No! No! Tell a man whose house is on fire, to give a moderate alarm; tell A Durable Memento: Portraits by Augustus Washington, 7 African American Daguerreotypist

Voices from the Past—Suggested Activities for Students

William Lloyd Garrison from The Liberator, January 1, 1831

1. Ga r rison not only advocated the abolition 5. The tone of Garri s o n ’ s writing is not one of slavery, but also the enfranchisement of black seen often in newspapers today. Have the stu- people. Have the students discuss and res e a rc h dents search the editorial pages of a curren t other rights of citizenship that were denied to newspaper and select an issue on which to write black Americans at the time. When did these an editorial using a tone similar to that of rights, such as the right to vote or the right to William Lloyd Garri s o n . hold elected office, finally come about?

2. Ga rr i s o n ’ s position is uncompromising, but he does not say what specific means should be used to achieve his goals. Have the students dis- cuss and write about ways in which individuals or organizations can bring about changes in laws. Research what kinds of methods Garri s o n and other abolitionists used. Was violence the only solution?

3. Have the students res e a r ch other viewpoints on the issue of slavery and civil rights for black Americans. What would a pro- s l a v e r y individ- ual say about Garri s o n ’ s editorial? Garri s o n uses the Declaration of Independence to support his views. Is it possible for a pro- s l a v e r y writer to use the same document or other documents like the Constitution to support slavery?

4. Have the students res e a r ch the “moderate” abolitionist viewpoint that Garrison claims to have once had, but now denounces. Who were those espousing this viewpoint, and what sorts of measures did they advocate to bring about an end to slavery? Have the students write an editorial from a moderate viewpoint res p o n d - ing to Garri s o n ’ s stand. A Durable Memento: Portraits by Augustus Washington, 8 African American Daguerreotypist

Voices from the Past—Primary Source Material

American Colonization Society: A Memorial to the United States Congress, 1820

During a time in the North when the public an d , th e r e f o r e , can never be likel y to was growing increasingly wary of free blacks re a c h in this country. and their place in society, the American The two last reports of the Society, to Colonization Society petitioned Congress on wh i c h your memorialists beg leave to Fe b ru a r y 1, 1820. The members of the society re f e r , show the success of your mission used their influence to promote the goals of the to A f r i c a , and the result of their or ganization under the appearance of quelling inquiries upon that continent. Fr o m the illegal slave trade and “civilizing” Africa: those it is manifest that a situation can be readily obtained, favo r able to com- The last census shows the number of merce and agriculture, in a healthy and free people of color in the United States, fertile country, and that the natives are and their rapid increase. S u p p o s i n g well disposed to give every encourag e - them to increase in the same rat i o , it ment to the establishment of such a set- will appear how large a proportion of tlement among them. Th u s , it appears, our population will, in the course of that an object of great national concern, ev en a few yea rs , consist of persons of al r e a d y expressly desired by some of the that description. St a t e s , and truly desirable to all, re c e i v- No argument is necessary to show in g , al s o , the approbation of those upon that this is very far indeed from consti- whom it is more immediately to oper- tuting an increase of our phy s i c a l at e , is brought within our reach. strength; nor can there be a population, in any country, ne u t r al as to its effects upon society. The least observa t i o n shows that this description of perso n s are not, and cannot be, either useful or ha p p y among us; and many considera- ti o n s , wh i c h need not be mentioned, pr o ve , be yond dispute, that it is best, fo r all the parties interested, that there should be a separation; that those who are now free may . . . be provided with the means of attaining to a state of respectability and happiness, wh i c h it is ce r t a i n , th e y have never yet reache d , A Durable Memento: Portraits by Augustus Washington, 9 African American Daguerreotypist

Voices from the Past—Suggested Activities for Students

American Colonization Society: A Memorial to the United States Congress, 1820

1. This passage makes the assumption that Washington and his family. Did these changes black and white people cannot live together in have a lasting effect that can still be seen in the an integrated nation. Ask the students to co u n t r y today? examine what might be the societal fears in h e r ent in this viewpoint. What aspects of 4. Ask the students to predict what someone society would be changed by this grow i n g like William Lloyd Garrison would say about population of free blacks that might frighten the American Colonization Movement’s peti- the members of the American Colonization tion. What would free blacks living in the Society? Ask the students to think about things No r th say about it? What aspects of the plan like employment, housing, and education. would be seen as positive to free blacks and what aspects would seem negative? Organize a 2. As a res e a r ch assignment, ask students to debate between two factions of free blacks: find out the United States census numbers for those opposing colonization and those in favor. the black and white populations in the years prior to the Civil War . What was the actual pe r centage of increase in the overall black population versus the white population? What was the diffe r ence in the population of free black people versus slaves? Have the students ch a r t or graph these figures to compare them. Ask them to look at where the population in c r eased and why. In parti c u l a r , why might the population of free blacks in some states be gr eater than in others?

3. What assumptions do the authors of this document make about Africa versus America? What kinds of things do the students think black colonists might bring to Africa—i.e., te c h n o l o g y , religion, agricultural knowledge. Would all of these things really be improv e - ments? Have the students res e a r ch the early hi s t o r y of Liberia to specifically look at what changes were brought by settlers like Augustus A Durable Memento: Portraits by Augustus Washington, 10 African American Daguerreotypist

Voices from the Past—Primary Source Material

Thoughts on the American Colonization Society, by Augustus Washington, 1851

Washington had originally rejected the idea of institutions the world had ever seen. colonization, but changed his mind mainly for And now this powerful republic, by her two reasons. The first was the changing politi- op p r ession and injustice to one class of cal climate in the United States. Not only were this people, will plant in Africa a rel i - mo r e laws being passed restricting the rights of gion and morality more pure, and liber- fr ee black people in politics and education, but ty more universal, than it has yet been the passage of the Compromise of 1850, with the lot of my people to enjoy. its strict Fugitive Slave Law, made things even mo r e intolerable. Secondly, when Liberia was established as a republic in 1847 and rep o rt s fr om friends and others began coming back saying how livable the country actually was, he began to have a change of heart:

What is Colonization? For the benefit of those who treat it with contempt, and think that no good can come out of it, I may merely remark that the thir- teen original States, previous to the Declaration of Independence, were called the colonies of Great Britain, the inhabitants colonists. The companies and individuals in England that assisted in planting these colonies were called Colonizationists. These colonists came fr om the land of their birth, and for- sook their homes, their firesides, their fo r mer altars, and the graves of their fathers, to seek civil and religious liber- ty among the wild beasts and Indians on a foreign, bleak, and desolate shore. . . . That very persecution and oppres - sion of the mother country planted in America the purest civil and rel i g i o u s A Durable Memento: Portraits by Augustus Washington, 11 African American Daguerreotypist

Voices from the Past—Suggested Activities for Students

Thoughts on the American Colonization Society, by Augustus Washington, 1851

1. Washington draws a comparison between 4. Have the students make a list of rea s o n s black Americans colonizing Africa and the pil- why people decide to immigrate to other coun- grims who colonized America. Is this a valid tries. Economics? Religion? Politics? Have comparison? Ask the students to list the simi- them res e a r ch other groups who immigrated to larities and the diffe r ences between the two. the United States during this period, such as the Irish and Eastern Europeans. Do people today 2. Imagining themselves as Augustus Was h i n g t o n still immigrate for the same reasons? Do the and his family, ask the students to make a list of students think that people in the world tend to things they would want to take with them to immigrate more or less than they once did? Africa. Would they need diffe r ent clothing, for example? Research the climate of Liberia ver- sus that of New England. What kind of crop s would they grow? What type of housing would they build? What natural res o u r ces might they find there? What about transportation? Was th e r e a railroad system? Are there navigable rivers? What diseases were they in danger of co n t r a c t i n g ?

3. Have the students res e a r ch the Fugitive Slave Law and the Compromise of 1850. Besides colonization, what other actions were advocated by abolitionists and free blacks in the North to deal with this issue? How many blacks actually chose colonization as an option? Ask the students why they think more people did not immigrate to Liberia. A Durable Memento: Portraits by Augustus Washington, 12 African American Daguerreotypist

For Discussion and Writing after the Tour and the Performance of Augustus Washington: An Image of Liberty

1. Have the students pay careful attention to of ways he may have made a significant contri- the people in the daguerreotypes in the bution to American life and culture, both Augustus Washington exhibition. They should th r ough his art and his other accomplishments pay particular attention to the way the people in life. Does someone have to be famous to ar e dressed, what objects they are holding or have a significant impact on their country? In standing or sitting on in the portraits. The iden- what ways could the students imitate Augustus tities of many of these sitters are unknown. Was h i n g t o n ’ s life today? Have them think Have the students draw conclusions about the about ways in which they can get involved in people based on their observations of their por- im p o r tant social and political issues. Do they traits. Is it possible to tell the income level of have their own means of artistic expres s i o n each person? Is it possible to tell things about that might one day be the subject of a museum the person’s personality or mood at the exhibition? If so, what would the exhibition tell moment the picture was taken? Compare these people 150 years from now about the person po r traits with contemporary portraits. What and the time period in which they lived? does the style of a portrait say about the values of that historical time period? 4. Ask the students to write their impres s i o n s of the play Augustus Washington: An Image of 2. Have the students res e a r ch the history of Li b e rt y . Specifically, what events in the charac- da g u e r reotypes, how the process was devel- te r ’s life do they think had the most significant oped, and how it evolved into photography. impact? Which people were most influential in Have the students think about how this new either a positive or negative way? Do they invention revolutionized so many aspects of think the actor, direc t o r , and playwright accu- life. Have them analyze its impact on politics, rately portrayed the character? What kinds of wa r , business, and fashion, to name a few. Do challenges did they face in presenting a play they think photography is still evolving? In like this about a real character? Is this a useful what ways? What twentieth-century inventions tool for teaching people about an individual’s do the students think had the greatest impact life and work? Encourage the students to think on life in our century? Television? Computer? of a person from history they would like to see Airplane? a play about and have them res e a r ch and write a short play or skit about that person. 3. Do the students think that the work of a man like Augustus Washington is wort h exhibiting at the Smithsonian? They prob a b l y had not heard of him before. Ask them to think