All About History 33

Charlie Chaplin: Communist spy? Why the Tramp was banned from the US

OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE

The Slave Trade English Civil War Winston Churchill Life in the trenches

How a family photo shoot turned into a massacre Roots of the Russian Revolution Rasputin’s aff air with the tsarina exposed Did Anastasia survive?

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PEN AND SWORD BOOKS LTD • 47 CHURCH STREET BARNSLEY • SOUTH YORKSHIRE • S70 2AS FREE postage on UK orders Was Chaplin really a communist sympathiser? Find out on page 62

Welcome Editor’s picks In September, the world heard that the previously unavailable evidence will be used Capture a 38 Medieval castle Romanov murder case was to be reopened, to determine whether there is any truth in From choosing your the bodies of Tsar Nicholas II and his wife the conspiracy theories. Before the results are weaponstotaking prisoners, learn how to take exhumed, and the remains of their children published, we asked Will Lawrence to weigh acastlewithourstep-by- DNA tested in an attempt to get to the bottom up the evidence to paint as clear a picture as step guide to siege warfare. of one of history’s greatest mysteries. Ever since possible of those final days in the Ipatiev House. Winston Churchill: their execution in 1918, speculation has been Might one of the Anastasia impostors have 46 Hero or villain? rife that some or all of the family had survived, been telling the truth? On p28, we reveal all. He’s remembered today as the man who won World namely the youngest daughter Anastasia, with War II for Britain, but was many coming forward claiming to be the lost there a darker side to Winston Churchill? princess. It wasn’t until 1991 that the bones of five of the royal family were unearthed, and A brief history of 52 underwear those of the remaining two were found in 2007… Ten of the scantiest and or so we believed. Now,under the orders of the scariest undergarments Alicea Francis to have ever existed Russian Orthodox Church, who have refused laid bare in this issue’s to accept that the remains are the Romanovs, Editor Through History.

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28 Inside the final days of the Russian royal family and the truth behind the tales of survival TRAD 14 Timeline From thriving ancient tra 28 to the crash of the 1930s, turbulent history of trade 16 Dayintheli Avoiding sand storms and while selling on the Silk R 18 5shockingf Terribleandtragictalesfr Trade Triangle 20 Inside histo See how Mr Selfridge rev shopping with his depart 22 Hall of fame Theexcitinglivesoftent trailblazers laid bare 24 How to Create an international br Coca-Cola’s success 26 Anatomy of A13th-centuryVenetian merchant S 38 Howtocapturea 62 Thefallof Medieval castle Charlie Chaplin From choosing weapons to taking Howthesilentmoviestarbecamea prisoners, follow our step-by-step guide subjectofscandal 54 Cyrus: the real 76 AtoZofthe prince of Persia British Empire Discover how Cyrus the Great founded The people and places who made up 38 themightyAchaemenidEmpire the largest empire on earth

4 Be part of history www.historyanswers.co.uk /AllAboutHistory @AboutHistoryMag EVERY ISSUE 06 History in pictures Three incredible photographs to bring history to life 36 Bluffers’ guide All the need-to-know facts about the Cherokee Trail of Tears 46 Hero or villain? War hero or criminal? Uncover the 72 dark side of Winston Churchill 52 Through history See how underwear fashions and 46 fetishes have evolved 60 Time traveller’s handbook Learn the dos and don’ts of World War I trench warfare 54 72 Greatest battles How the Battle of Naseby decided the outcome of the English Civil War 86 Reviews The latest history book releases rated or slated 90 Competition Your chance to win a selection of books worth more than £50 92 History answers What happened to Trotsky? Find out 62 this and much more 94 Your history A reader shares the story of his grandfather’s life on the high seas 76 98 History vs Hollywood Is Suffragette a fair retelling of the fight for women’s rights? ENJOYED THE MAGAZINE? UBSCRI E & 10 6 HISTORY IN PICTURES

SCOTT’S GROTTO T Griffith Taylor and Charles Wright of the British Antarctic Expedition stand inside an ice grotto; the ship that carried them there, Terra Nova, is visible in the background. The expedition was led by Captain Robert Falcon Scott, who reached the South Pole with his four companions only to discover that their Norwegian opponents had beaten them to it. Tragically, the entire team died on the return leg. 1911 © Getty Images 7 HISTORY IN PICTURES

OPERATION BABYLIFT At the end of the Vietnam War, with Saigon under attack, more than 3,000 children were evacuated from the country and adopted by families around the world. This attracted controversy, as questions were raised as to whether it was in the children’s best interests, and not all of them were orphans. Further controversy was raised when one plane crashed, killing all 78 children on board. 1975

8 © Getty Images 9 1918 ever returned. and told him he would be hanged if he where they covered him in tar and feathers They drove him to the South Dakota border, TARRED AND FEATHERED TARRED being disloyal by not supporting war bond drives. Anti-German sentiment was widespread in the US during WWI. John Meints, a German American, was kidnapped by a group of men after being accused of

10 © Mads Madsen Mads © 11 On a typical weekday, A man sells 50,000 people worked in his wares at a the Twin Towers of the bazaar stall in World Trade Center Afghanistan

TradeDiscover the & history Commerce of buying, selling and bartering

Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama was the first European to reach India by sea the government on enterprise issues enterprise on government the Alan Sugar was businessmen, made successful most UK’s the of One a peer in 2009 to advise Zhang Qian’s missions during the China to other parts of the world the of parts toother China second century BCE opened up up opened BCE century second Europe’s busiest shopping Europe’s shopping busiest London’s Oxford Street is London’s is Street Oxford 500,000 visitors daily street, with about with street, residents wait in a soup line asoup in wait residents of the 1930s, Washington Depression Great the During DC circulationon11March1988 from withdrawn was note The Bank of England £1 Atlantic as part of the transatlantic slave trade slave transatlantic the of part as Atlantic the across transported and homes their from More than 11 million Africans were forcibly removed William Money, an early director director early Money, an William The Money Brothers, the sons of of sons the Brothers, Money The of the East India Company the US in 1907, it sparked 1907, USin itsparked the a panic in New York New in City a panic When financial crisis hit 13 © Alamy, Rex Features, Getty Images Trade Trade and commerce across history Alexander the Great’s Persian conquest GREECE 336 BCE Known for his tireless military campaigns, Alexander the Great conquered far and wide until he commandedanempirestretching from Greece to Egypt and into The sea route (in blue) Northwest India. While he set helped spread the Silk Road aboutfoundingmorethan70 further than ever, extending to central Europe and cities in the lands he had acquired, Australia in recent times Alexander also implemented the first form of multinational trade. SILK ROAD ESTABLISHED IN ASIA WORLDWIDE 138 BCE He linked lands thousands of miles The Silk Road is a hugely important historical trading route that provided a apart with a common language cultural bridge between China, India, Persia, Rome and Greece. It was named and culture, helping them to the Silk Road in 1877 due to the popularity of Chinese silk at the time. The route trade among themselves fairly. was used for about 1,600 years, and was mapped by Zhang Qian during the Han The man himself also adopted Dynasty. It not only helped the spread of international trade, but also helped foreign customs so he could better spread art and religion throughout the world and established peace between Alexander is renowned for his understand the needs of each part many of the nations that traded on it. military prowess, but also helped to of his empire. establish multinational trade

O London’s O Edward III bankrupts O First modern trading centre Florentine bankers bank opens Trade timeline By this point in time, Edward III of England In this year, Venice O Firstcurrencyinuse O Concept of banking London has established decides he will refuse opens the first Theoldestcurrency introduced itself as a prosperous to pay back his debts modern bank (the known to man comes in In Babylon, which is known as trading centre at the to Bardi and Peruzzi, Banco della Piazza the form of gold bars. Iraq today, priests make loans hubofthe Roman road which drives the two di Rialto) for credit These are known to from the temple treasure to network in Britain. 150 Florentine banking transfers and safe be very valuable, and people outside of the church. families into bankruptcy. deposits. are used in Egypt and This introduces the concept of 1345 1587 Mesopotamia. banking to the world. King of England for 50 years, 3000 BCE 1750 BCE Edward III restored royal authority and saw the beginning of the Hundred Years War 3000 BCE 1500 BCE 0 500 1000 1300 1550

O Busy trading O Ancient Egyptians O China develops O Italy develops O England economy in Ebla establish trade routes paper currency accountancy introduces coins A busy trading Hatshepsut, the fifth The Chinese begin to Northern Italian bankers For the first economy had already pharaoh of the 18th develop paper money to develop a simple method of time in England, been founded in a Dynasty of Egypt, replace their coin system. accountancy, then known as milled coins are country we now call restores trade routes This aspect of Chinese double-entry book keeping, produced. Syria. It is reinforced to buy frankincense and life hugely impresses which would eventually 1562 by strict military myrrh. 1478 BCE Hatshepsut sent soldiers Marco Polo when he The Song Dynasty introduced developintomodern-day policies. 2400 BCE on trading exhibitions to visits. 900 the first paper money, which accountancy. 1300 the Land of Punt they called Jiaozis

Portugal uses slaves on Britain’sEastIndia Brazilian sugar plantations Company founded BRAZIL 1510 CE UNITED KINGDOM 31 DECEMBER 1600 The Portuguese were the first nation to In 1600, Queen Elizabeth I granted a Royal introduce the new world to modern slavery. Ship Charter to the newly founded East India owners desperately transported as many slaves Company, giving them a monopoly on trade as they could to South America, particularly with the East Indies. Although it started out as a Brazil, where they could be sold on as labour in trading organisation, it quickly grew to become coffee, tobacco, cocoa and sugar plantations and involved in Indian politics, helping to enforce gold mines. By the middle of the 17th century, British rule. By the 19th century, the company slavery had become a racial caste; the children was operating in China, helping to expand British of slaves automatically became slaves, to work influence in this part of the world. During its reign for free for the rest of their lives. The slave trade In 1601, James Lancaster of more than 200 years, it faced competition from commanded the first voyage, in Britain continued until 1807, when William visiting a number of locations a number of rival companies, but managed to Both men and women were Wilberforce abolished it. including the Nicobah islands maintain its monopoly on the area until 1813. traded at slave markets in Southeast Asia 14 Trade

Fuelled with coal, the Watt Opening of the steam engine became Panama Canal a stalwart during the PANAMA 15 AUGUST 1914 Industrial Revolution Before the Panama Canal was built, ships sailing between the ports of New York and San Francisco had to undertake a 12,000-mile journey, which would take them about 67 days to complete. Once the canal was opened after 33 years of construction, roughly 8,000 miles were eliminated from THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION WORLDWIDE 1760 the trip. This helped increase the number of ships making Although its exact date is still hotly contested, the Industrial Revolution the journey to San Francisco isknowntohavebroughtabouthugeimprovementsinagriculture, exponentially, massively transport, communications and (of course) industry. It was spearheaded boosting trade in the area by by various scientific breakthroughs and technological innovations that saving time and money. Today, changed society forever. This helped rapidly increase iron and coal more than 280 million tons production, which fuelled economic growth in more ways than one. of cargo passes through the Factorieswereabletoboosttheirproduction,whilenewtraderoutes canal each year, which is set werequicklyputinplaceasroads,railwaysandcanalsgrewinnumber. Enormous ships are able to pass through the canal, benefitting from a to increase once the current ThiswashugelysignificantintheUK,helpingitamassaworldwide much shorter journey than without it renovations are complete. trading empire covering a fifth of the globe by 1914.

O Income Tax is O First British O Bretton Woods O Shipping introduced in the UK train runs system introduced containers At the suggestion of Thefirsttrainruns Planned since 1944, invented DrBeeke,theDeanof between London this system provides An American named Bristol, Prime Minister and Birmingham an international Malcolm McLean William Pitt the on the railway economic structure to invents the shipping Younger introduces designed by Robert help prevent further container, drastically IncomeTaxtopayfor Stephenson, wars and depressions, reducingthecostof transporting goods weapons and other After only three years, helping to transport andalsoaimstostop Today, the average container internationally. equipment for the Pitt’s Income Tax was goodsfromthe national trade barriers. ship carries about 3,500 Many of the early trains were 1956 French Revolutionary abolished by his successor, capital. 1837 1946 containers on each voyage War. 1799 builtinamanufacturing Henry Addington plantinCamden

1600 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2015

O Gold found in O Jefferson embargoes O The Cobden-Chevalier O US introduces paper money O The Euro becomes available Brazil US exports Treaty is finalised After discontinuing Demand On this day, the Euro becomes As soon as gold is Thomas Jefferson This represents the first Notes, which had been used to the sole legal tender in 12 EU discovered in this decidestoembargoall international trade agreement, finance the civil war, Congress member countries, leaving large South American USexportsinanattempt andissignedbetweenFrance issues Legal Tender Notes, currencies that had been country, the first great to damage the economy and the United Kingdom. It which are the first notes to be established for hundreds of American gold rush is of France and Britain. sparks a number of similar used nationally as legal tender. years worthless. launched. 1807 agreements between other 25 February 1862 These notes were known as 1 January 2002 1693 European countries. 1860 ‘greenbacks’, a name they inherited from the earlier green Demand Notes

Wall Street Crash World Trade Organisation USA 24 OCTOBER 1929 is created SWITZERLAND 1 JANUARY 1995 On this day in 1929, the United States Although the World Trade Organisation (WTO) suffered the most devastating stock wasn’t established until 1995, its trading system market crash in its history. It plunged the has existed since the 1940s. Put simply, the WTO world’s economy into the Great Depression, monitors the rules of trade between nations heavily affecting all Western industrialised at a global level. It aims to liberalise trade and countries. It brought a period of economic help governments negotiate an agreement that wealth known as the roaring twenties is fair for both countries. Another role of the to an abrupt end. The United States had WTO is to maintain trade barriers, which can be essentially manufactured more goods important when there is risk of disease spreading than they required, and there was too or illegal items being smuggled across borders. much being risked on the stock market by By ensuring that trade flows as freely as possible, When Wall Street crashed, the middle class. It left 13 million people Pictured here in the Palace of the WTO helps small economies to grow and hundreds of workers poured unemployed, many of whom went hungry. Nations in Geneva, the WTO now established economies to remain healthy. out onto the street in protest has over 160 member states © Thinkstock 15 Trade

Day in the life ASILKROADTRADER MAKING MONEY ON THE MOVE ALONG THE ANCIENT TRADE ROUTE, TAKLAMAKAN DESERT, CHINA, 629

Stretching from the East’s opulent city of Chang’an, China, far beyond the horizon to Kashgar, then further west to India, Iran, Constantinople, Damascus and, ultimately, Rome, the Silk Road remains one of the greatest trade routes in history. Despite the name, silk made up only a small portion of the goods traded along the route, where magnificent caravans of merchants walked parched deserts and snow-capped mountains. Gemstones, precious metals, spices and incense were all staples of the trade route. Well-travelled sellers risked attack by bandits, the elements and even demons along their way. WORSHIP YOUR CHOSEN GOD Valuable goods were not all that was traded on the Silk Road. Religions and belief systems also travelled, and Buddhism, Judaism and Christianity, as well as Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism and Nestorianism, all expanded along the route. Religion was central to life Each prescribed different methods of worship, for many Silk Road traders, and some travellers that met along the way would as seen in the Buddhist art at Mogao caves, Dunhuang preach the virtues of their own beliefs. LOAD UP THE CAMELS Success on the Silk Road meant trading goods bought cheaply in your home country with merchants from other lands, where your goods were rare and expensive. Before the caravan set off for the day, the animals would be loaded with the cargo. Rolls of silk, bags of spices and whichever other precious commodities were being transported were all hauled onto the animals’ backs. SEE OFF BANDIT ATTACKS Bandits sought the precious cargo coursing through the route and, as such, many merchants carried weapons to defend themselves. Bronze weapons were often traded and so could also have been carried by the merchants themselves. The threat of attack meant that the route branched out across different roads of the main track over time, created in the hope of avoiding bandits. 16 Trade

LEAVE YOUR MARK Silk Road traders made their mark on the land as they travelled with different forms of art. Indo- European Sogdians carved rocks in Pakistan, travellers painted on cave walls in Mogao, and magnificent cave temples were built in Subei County. Many of these caves contained statues or paintings of Buddha, and the imagery was intricate This ninth-century fresco is from and colourful. the walls of Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves, near Turfan, China FACE THE SAND DEMONS Desert storms made an already inhospitable environment even more dangerous. Sand dunes were whipped into storms by high winds, making it impossible to see, so markers were set in the sand showing the direction of approach to avoid disorientation once the storm had ended. The sound of the wind was often thought to be famed desert demons that plagued unlucky travellers. MERCHANTS’ MEETING Throughout the desert were oasis towns like Dunhuang, home to Mogao caves, as well as landmarks like Tashkurgan’s stone tower, providing places for groups of merchants to congregate – similar to modern service stations. Important information was exchanged here, like whether trades could be made with nearby groups, and any hazards to watch out for on the road ahead. MAKE A SALE Having heard at the meeting stop that a group travelling from the west may be willing to trade and are located nearby, the direction could be changed and a meeting arranged. The groups met in an open space, with the goods then placed between them for inspection. If the transaction was beneficial, goods were traded – silk might be exchanged for gold, silver and jewels. TIME FOR BED After a long day’s travelling, a resting spot was picked and fires made to warm the caravan as they slept. Simple meals of meat and rice were eaten, and water, if in short supply, was rationed (the camels were last to drink, needing it less than their human leaders). The traders slept with half an eye on their cargo and their weapons in case of attack.

The ruins of Tashkurgan Fort can be seen today, and would have been a key © Corbis meeting point for Silk Road caravans 17 © Alamy 18 02 02 MAKE ITASHORE eight-week voyage. of space on the to six only had about metres 1.2 slave Each conditions. spread in the squalid Old World that diseases slaves were to exposed ship’s hold, the in together Crammed off. it made never many that atrocious slave boats were so The conditions on the TRIANGLE, RIGHTS VIOLATION OFHUMAN THE EVILANDHORRIFYING destinations for slaves. for slaves. destinations common more much were Caribbean the and America South USA. in the were taken to 1866 work and 1525 slaves between arrived million who 10.7 ofthe However, 450,000 only USA. the especially and America North in based primarily slave asbeing trade the portray accounts Many modern TRADE THE TRANSATLANTIC SLAVE facts about…5 shocking outside oftheUSA 01 ONEINFIVEDIDN’T Trade went tocountries 80% ofslaves THE SLAVE TRADE 1540-1888 03 cut off. The worst of scientific racism. racism. of scientific worst cut off. The were toes big their often from fleeing, To slaves’for black laziness. slaves stop reason asthe forward put condition invented wasanother aethiopica’ ‘drapetomania’.disorder ‘Dysaesthesia to have mental the was believed to escape slave tried who every A cruel example of pseudoscience, prevent themescaping toes cut offto Slaves hadtheir 04 and shelter.and for food search along faced attempts intheir succeeded who before. Those than treated poorly evenwhip and more from a oflashes withhundreds punished be would escapees caught, Once them. apprehend to and track used be would dogs If aslave to escape, managed ones lives thanimprisoned often hadharder Escaped slaves 05 for profit. for away ownpeople their tohappy send were rulers African Some as slaves. from their homeland and sent overseas were forcibly refused Africans 17 million upto Intotal, wasaffected. continent allof the almost but to Angola, Senegal from of Africa, coast western the on primarily wasbased trade The their peoplefor profit leaders sentleaders away Some tribe COMMEMORATIVE GUERNSEY STAMPS ORDER Stories from the Great War: Part 2 NOW

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Your community, your University Trade

Roof terrace From the 1920s, the roof hosted terraced gardens, cafes, a mini golf course and an all-girl gun club. With its spectacular views across London, it became a popular place for relaxing after a shopping trip.

EARLY Pianoforte department DEPARTMENTSTORE TRANSFORMING SHOPPING FROM NECESSITY TO LEISURE ACTIVITY, EARLY-20TH CENTURY

Umbrella department

The Industrial Revolution saw factories, coal mines and shipyards spring up across the countryside and coast, but this era also ushered in the dawn of a very different kind of establishment: the department store. With the booming economy came a new consumer society and the rise of the middle class, with disposable incomes and plenty of leisure time. The department store Costume department provided an easy way for affluent women to shop safely and decorously away from the Shop assistants company of men. These employees were taught to be on hand to assist customers, but never pushy. The The first was Harding Howell & Co’s shifts were long and gruelling. During busy Grand Fashionable Magazine in Pall Mall, periods, employees were expected to be on London, which opened in 1796. It was the shop floor between 8am and 10pm when divided into four departments: furs and the shop closed, and would then have to stay fans, haberdashery, jewellery and clocks, to restock. One described it as ‘the lowest form of animal life’. and millinery (hats). By the end of the 19th century, all major British cities had flourishing department stores, including Kendals (now House of Fraser) in Manchester and Bainbridge’s (now owned by John Lewis) in Newcastle. Harrods opened in 1834 and became the world’s most famous luxury department store. However, it was another store that changed the way we shop forever. Selfridges on Oxford Street opened its doors in 1909. Founded by American entrepreneur Harry Gordon Selfridge, his aim was to transform shopping from a chore into a source of pleasure and entertainment. It offered 100 departments in which ‘everyone was welcome’, and his innovative marketing campaigns were mimicked the world over. 20 Tailoring Blouses Jewellery Linen department Linen and sugar bowls. bowls. sugar and including teapots, cups, saucers related, tea things forall demand boom in popularity its with and Musker, John came a new tycoon tea the by provided store was forthe Funding success. forits to thank of tea love British the had Selfridges department China Ladies’ boots Gentlemen’s outfitting Gentlemen’s Book shop examined freely.examined that they could be tested and was placed on display so call for customers. Merchandise of port first the be it would that centre on the ground and front located was counter floor, so perfume profitable highly The counter Perfume customers in the store for as long as possible. possible. as long store foras the in customers to keep was aim The chairs. deep and lights soft with room asilence and customers, French, German, American and ‘colonial’ for rooms reception special rooms, writing Other departments included reading and shop one-stop A doing this. doing seen as a less aggressive were windows dressed beautifully way of but the in, to come people encourage and door the in stand job, whowould shopkeeper’s the was this store. Previously, entice customers into the to atool as windows its to use Britain in shops first was oneSelfridges of the windows Dressed Trade 21 © Adrian Mann Trade TRADINGTRAILBLAZERSHall of Fame From the dawn of mankind, humanity has been concerned with improving its lot, with trade and commerce being its means for this. From setting up trade routes to making the internet profitable, here are ten pivotal pioneers ELON MUSK JOHN MAYNARD KEYNES SOUTH AFRICAN 1971-PRESENT BRITISH 1883-1946 Although he is responsible for a great many Widely recognised business ventures going beyond trade and as one of the commerce – such as Space Exploration most influential Technologies Corp, responsible for resupplying the economists of International Space Station – his relevance here the 20th century, is because of his invention of the PayPal online Keynes – alongside payment system in 1999 (originally known as his American X.com, renamed PayPal in 2001). Ultimately, after Zhang Qian is best counterpart Harry being purchased by eBay for $1.5 billion, it would remembered for Dexter White – go on to become the standard for online payment mapping the Silk Road played a pivotal around the world. ZHANG QIAN role in establishing Musk is responsible for setting up the PayPal CHINESE 200 BCE – 114 BCE the Bretton Woods payment system It was under Keynes’ A diplomat and official during the time of China’s guidance that the Bretton system in 1946. Han dynasty, Qian was largely responsible for Woods system was This was put mapping the routes of the Silk Road, a huge trade implemented into place as a network that connected the country with India, reaction to World War II in an attempt to avoid Africa and parts of Europe. Having been sent any more depressions like the ones that had out in 138 BCE by Emperor Wudi to map central played a role in the lead up to the conflict. In the Asia, he achieved his mission despite being Bretton Woods Conference of 1944, the outcome imprisoned for ten years. In the years following included the establishment of the International this, he documented much information on India Bank For Reconstruction And Development – as well as doing so second hand with places like (which offers loans to developing countries) and Uzbekistan and Afghanistan – all of which greatly the International Monetary Fund (IMF). contributed to China’s future prosperity. JOHN CABOT Cabot was the first European to explore ITALIAN 1450-99/1500 North America since the Vikings Also known as Giovanni Caboto, Cabot’s explorationofNorthAmericahasledtohimbeing recognised as the first European to do so since the Vikings hundreds of years earlier. Having reached Newfoundland in 1497, he subsequently mapped the island and large parts Musk has of the continent’s coast. His discovery declared his paved the way admiration for British for many more PM Margaret Thatcher, to follow his lead and set up various describing her as trade routes, as well “tough but sensible as establishing the viabilityofsettling and fair” in America. 22 Trade Adam Smith’s AnInquiryIntoThe Nature And Causes ADAM SMITH OfTheWealthOfThe BRITISH 1723-90 Nations sold out in Aworld-renowned philosopher and economist just six months –indeed,heiscredited with founding economics as a discipline – Smith is perhaps best recognised for penning An Inquiry Into The Nature AndCausesOfTheWealthOfTheNations,which looked into the division of labour and free markets It was Omidyar’s in advanced nations, and in turn influences a founding of eBay that greatmanypeopleintheirdecision-making. propelled him to wealth Smith himself argued in favour of free trade over regulationoftradeandcommerce,sayingthatit PIERRE OMIDYAR would produce increased prosperity for individuals. FRENCH-BORN AMERICAN-IRANIAN 1967-PRESENT Although his theories have polarised many Best known today as the founder of online overtheyears,hisnamelivesontodayviathe auction site eBay, Omidyar revolutionised the influential Adam Smith Institute. waywebuyandsellthingsonline,helping toenticethepubliconlinewhenitwasstill relatively young. After graduating from Tufts “What makes eBay successful… is the Universityin1988withadegreeincomputer community. It’s the buyers and sellers coming science, he worked at Macintosh and Apple beforefoundingeBayin1995.By1998,ithad together and forming a marketplace” 2.1 million members and generated revenues of $750 million, and has since spawned Pierre Omidyar numerous similar auction sites. Omidyar is the57thrichestmanintheworld,witha JACQUES COEU ELI HECKSCHER real-time net worth of $8.4 billion. FRENCH 1395-1456 SWEDISH 1879-1952 An enterprising and wealthy The name Eli Heckscher merchant, Coeur was one will forever be of the founders of the trade remembered in tandem route between France and with that of his pupil, fellow the Levant, which helped Coeur’s founding of trade economist Bertil Ohlin, with Together with Bertil Ohlin, furnish the country with routes greatly contributed whom he proposed evidence- Eli Heckscher put forward cloth, silks, jewels, armour to France’s prosperity based arguments in favour of the Heckscher-Ohlin Theory andspices.Acharismaticindividual,hewonthe free trade. Their hypothesis stated Vasco da Gama established the first favour of Charles VII, being given a number of that certain countries’ trading advantages were maritime trade route important roles – such as master of the mint and due to productive factors being different, which between Europe steward of the royal expenditure – through which subsequently became known as the Heckscher- and Asia he greatly enhanced the prosperity of the country. Ohlin Theory. In turn, their work would go While on to be referenced by a number of free securing trading GERTRUDE trade-advocating economists. routes, Vasco da Gama also successfully BELL VASCO DA GAMA defended ports from PORTUGUESE 1460-1524 BRITISH 1868-1926 Arab-Muslim As well as working The first man to mark down a sea-based as a traveller, trade route between Europe and India, Vasco attackers administrator, da Gama’s discovery would prove to be an archaeologist and influentialone.In1497,hewasappointedby Bell has been the Portuguese government to command described as the even as a spy, female Lawrence of Gertrude Bell is anexhibitiontodiscoveramaritimetrade Arabia best remembered route to the east – which he managed by for travelling through areas of Asia and helping sailing round the west coast of Africa, build up the modern state of Iraq post-World docking on the south coast of the War I, establishing trade links and assisting the continent before circling the Cape of governance of the country. She was memorably GoodHopeandheadingontoIndia. described as “one of the few representatives of In addition, he personally secured a His Majesty’s Government remembered by the trading post at Calicut, establishing Arabs with anything resembling affection”. ports in Mozambique. His trade routes are still used today. 23 Trade CREATEANINTERNATIONALBRANDHow to TAKING ON THE WORLD WITH THE PERFECT GETTING THE PRODUCT RIGHT Concept PRODUCT USA, 20TH CENTURY The winning concept must be affordable and meet all the strict regulations every new product has Asthe20thcenturydawnedontheNew Taste to adhere to. World, the continent from the Atlantic The taste of an upcoming product is to the Pacific was populated by white essential. A secret recipe is a popular settlers. With the advent of the American option in the beverage trade. railroads, firms rapidly sprang up, and the USA became the ideal environment for up and coming entrepreneurs. Constant Label streams of supply and demand were Theconsumerbuyswhatappeals readily available, but to really corner the to them and looks good on the eye. market, companies needed to create a Make it bright, lively, inoffensive and accessible. product that hadn’t been seen before and would appeal to a mass audience. Getting these right meant global domination was Design there for the taking. Softdrinkcansneedtobemass- produced.Theyalsohavetobe WHAT YOU’LL made with a material that doesn’t NEED react with the liquid. Variations When a product isn’t flavour of the month anymore, consumer SLICK MARKETING DEPARTMENT boredom can set in. Variations and spin-offs are a must.

THIRSTYCONSUMERS PLENTY OF START-UP MONEY

EFFICIENT TRANSPORT NETWORK

Scout out your audience Choose a catchy name 01 As the old adage goes, the customer is always right. Get 02 The name needs to be quirky yet friendly and stand out a good sense of the market first before you go straight on the high street. Coca-Cola, for instance, successfully in with a new killer creation. There will always be a gap in the moved itself away from its alcohol and cocaine origins before TOP NOTCH market – a gap that a new release can exploit. Also ensure that it became an international behemoth. A label must stick in the your supply lines are safe before launch – you don’t want to be consumer’s mind and make them want to buy it again and again. SECRET RECIPE running out of product. It must also look good in your upcoming advertisement.

24 Trade

4 FAMOUS… How not to… react to competition In1985,Coca-Colawasincreasingly recentgrowthofPepsithathad ENTREPRENEURS waryofcompetitionfromrivals. takenontheoldtimerCoca-Cola Despitesolidsales,itsresponsewas atitsowngameandwasclosing toceaseproductiononitscurrent thesalesgap.Thedriveforanew brandandrelease‘NewCoke’. flavourseemedlikealogicalidea, Designed to usher the company especially as Pepsi began to corner intoanewage,thereleaseflopped the youth market, but the firm had asthepublicbecameoutragedat underestimated the strong and thedemiseoftheoriginalflavour. even emotional attachment the US Bowing to popular demand, New population had to the original brand. Cokewasscrappedandtheoriginal Today,thecompanysellsnearly1.8 flavourreinstated.Thedisastrous billion beverages worldwide every decision was motivated by the single day. If it ain’t broke… JOHNDROCKEFELLER 1839-1937, USA The founder of Standard Oil, Rockefeller became one of theworld’srichestmenand revolutionised the petroleum industry in the USA.

ASAGRIGGS CANDLER 1851-1929, USA Advertiseyourproduct Take on commercial partners Born on a farm, Candler turned his 03$3.5 billion was spent by Coca-Cola on advertising in 04 As well as other companies, consider getting local hand to business and purchased 2012alone.Inthecompany’searlydays,itputahuge government on your side. Coca-Cola managed to get the Coca-Cola formula, building it emphasisonpatrioticimagery,whichwasaragingsuccess both independent businesses and local governments to help into an empire. and keytogettingtheAmericanaudienceonitsside.Italways getthecompanyoffitskneesandspreadoutaroundtheUSA. helpstogetenvironmentalconcernssortedearlyon.Coca-Cola Getting a major name, whether it be in sports, entertainment or benefitedfromapublic-financedrecyclingprogramme. music, to sign up to the brand is always a plus.

MADAM CJ WALKER 1867-1919, USA Walker was the first African- American woman to become a self-made millionaire due to her successful beauty industry.

Get trendy Go global Free samples are a good way to get the public on your Onceyourcountryhasbeenconquered,thenextstepisto CATERINAFAKE 05 06 1969/70-PRESENT, USA side,asisthemysteryofasecretformula.Bewaryof takeontheworld.Bynowyoushouldhaveenoughfunds ‘selling out’, but, especially at the start of your beverage’s career, to spread out your web of contacts and infrastructure. Your rivals The US businesswoman co-founded the photo hosting emblazon the product on everything from calendars to clocks. should have also been eliminated, so there will be nothing to stop service Flickr and is now in By throwingeverythingyoucanatmarketing,yourempirecan the juggernaut. Either that or you might overreach and go bankrupt. varioustop100mostinfluential begin to grow. Even Coca-Cola stumbled from time to time. Remember New Coke? people lists. © Ed Crooks 25 Trade

FRIENDSINHIGHPLACES COMPASS INFLUENTIAL ALLIES FOR WHEN A SWORD ALWAYSINTHERIGHTPLACEATTHERIGHTTIME ISN’T PROTECTION ENOUGH Agoodmerchantknewthebesttraderoutes. It was probably wise to stay clear of family Venicewasthecityofchoiceformanymerchants politics but if dragged into it, it was best to whoutiliseditsEuropeanandAsiantradeinthe befriend the powerful. Italy was a collection HolyRomanandByzantineEmpires.Competition of independent city-states all vying for power, wasfierceandamerchantwouldhavetobeonhis and securing a deal with a powerful family or toestogethisnoseaheadofrivals. political party could set a merchant up for life.

CRUSADERCONTACTS MAKINGMONEYOUTINTHEHOLYLAND SAVINGS The Crusades were still raging in the 13th centuryandItalianmerchantsdidtheirbest PREPARINGFORTHEWORST toexploittheconflictfortheirowngain.The sheeramountofsoldiersandhorsesgoingeast Badharvestsandthespreadofdisease required many ships, so each merchant would couldstrikeatanytime,soawisemerchant driveahardbargainfortransportandsupplies. wouldmakesurehisearningsweresafe. Also,traderswouldbereadytoupsticksat anytimeascentresoftradeshiftedbetween city-statesandexpeditionswentfurther into Asia.

THE MERCHANTFASHION LOOKING SHARP FOR BUSINESS A trusted and successful merchant would dress Anatomy the best he could when in the company of clients. The wealthy aside, 13th century fashion was very of plain and very simple. Men and women dressed similarly and would wear tunics and linen shirts AVENETIAN with braies (trousers) or leggings.

MERCHANT SWORD DEFENCEWASAPRIORITYIN ITALY, 13TH CENTURY 13TH-CENTURY ITALY Italywasdividedintofactionssoitwas imperativethatatraderprotectedhimself fromanyrivalsthatwouldtryandstealhis bootyortakehisship.Daggersandswords wereusuallythebestwaytokeep amerchantinonepiece.

SPICES AVOID BLACK DEATH LIKE THE PLAGUE IDEAL FOR TRADE WITH OTHER REALMS DISEASE COULD BE JUST AROUND THE CORNER VenicehadgreatlinkstotheIslamicworld,whichwaskeento Due to its trade, Venice became one of the largest cities in tradewithitsWesterncounterparts.Textiles,spices,grain,wine Europe. However, a high population with a continuous influx of andsaltwerepopularcommodities.Thisindustrywasoneof oversees traders meant the threat of plague was never far away. themostimportantonthewholeoftheItalianpeninsulaand Plague constantly affected Europe throughout the Middle Ages onlybecamemoreprosperouswiththeMarcoPoloSilkRoute. and would cripple many industries. © Kevin McGivern 26 Discover the latest and greatest gadgets and explore the tech inside

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Shotandstabbedbydrunkenrevolutionaries,themurderof theRussianroyalfamilystillreverberatestoday WrittenbyWillLawrence

hen they awoke on the morning of Tuesday 16 July 1918, were accustomed and treating them with increasing disdain. The it was just another day in captivity for the Romanovs. tsar’s four daughters, Olga, Tatiana, Maria and Anastasia, were TheformertsarofalltheRussias,NicholasAlexandrovich harassed; graffiti appeared on the walls making lewd suggestions W Romanov, his wife Alexandra and their five children had about Alexandra and her murdered favourite, the peasant holy man spent the last 16 months in captivity, Nicholas having Rasputin.Still,thefamilylivedinhope.ThearrivalinearlyJulyof abdicatedinMarch1917,bringingtoanend300yearsofRomanov Yakov Yurovsky had brought the Romanovs some relief. A close rule over the Russian empire. friend of Lenin’s, Yurovsky introduced more disciplined guards to the Tobeginwith,thefamilywasheldunderarrestatthepalace house who treated Nicholas’s daughters with respect. at Tsarskoye Selo, enjoying a life of relative luxury. Some say that The tsarina Alexandra, meanwhile, was boosted by an upturn Nicholas,neveraconfidentorcomfortableruler,hadneverbeen inherson’sconstitution;Alexei,thecouple’syoungestchild,was happier, revelling in the trappings of rule without the responsibilities. afflicted by haemophilia and had often suffered ill health. When InlateApril1918,however,thefamilyweretransferredtothebleak she went to bed at about 10.30pm on 16 July, Alexandra penned a Urals and settled in the town of Ekaterinburg. positivenoteinherdairy.Itwascool,shewrote,about15degrees. Here, at Ipatiev House, their lives became monotonous, their Maybethefamily’sordeal,sufferingamidtheheatandtediumof Bolshevik captors depriving them of the luxuries to which they Ekaterinburg, would soon abate. 28 Murder In The House Of Romanov

“Asthegunsmoke cleared, groans from the blood-spattered floor testified to a bungled execution”

29 Murder In The House Of Romanov THE MAD MONK Few figures from the early 20th century arouse as much curiosity as the peasant holy man Grigori Rasputin

Tsar Nicholas in captivity at Tsarskoye Selo

Ipatiev House, where in 1918 Nicholas and his family were executed, was destroyed during the reconstruction of the city THE ROAD TO REVOLUTION

November 1894 February 1904 January 1905 January 1905 October 1905 November 1905 Nicholas II accedes to The Russo-Japanese Revolution breaks out Bloody Sunday unfolds The October Manifesto The peasant holy man the throne after the War erupts. The results across the Russian as the Imperial Guard sees Nicholas guarantee Grigori Rasputin arrives death of his father, Alex- will be devastating empire amid a wave fi res upon unarmed civil liberties to all at court. His infl uence ander III, who was a far for Russia, Nicholas’s of political and social demonstrators, who are Russian citizens. By there alienates many, more open-minded and signing of the Treaty unrest. Workers go attempting to present signing, he creates especially after the able monarch than his of Portsmouth ceding on strike and military a petition to the tsar at the duma, an elected outbreak of World War son will prove to be. power in East Asia. units mutiny. the Winter Palace. legislature. I in 1914. 30 Murder In The House Of Romanov

A few hours later, she was tripod,butafiringsquad.There woken from her slumber. “It took 20 weresixHungariansandfive Yurovsky, it transpired, was not Russians. As the men crowded a harbinger of hope. He roused minutes for intotheroomandconfusionran the family and their servants at the Bolsheviks across the faces of the family, about midnight, reporting that Yurovsky stood in the front of the anti-Bolshevik White Army to murder the Nicholas holding a small piece of was approaching and that the royal family paper from which he read their family might be in danger from death sentence. heavy shelling. They were urged and toss their “Inviewofthefactthat to dress as quickly as possible. your relatives are continuing The women wrapped themselves mangled bodies theirattackonSovietRussia, in clothes sewn full of precious into a truck” theUralExecutiveCommittee stones, hoping, perhaps, that this has decided to execute you.” night might yet end in liberation. Nicholas’sjawdropped.He At 2.15am on 17 July, the seven couldn’t believe what he was Romanovs along with their hearing. “What?” he said to doctor, Eugene Botkin, and three Yurovsky. ”What?” other servants – the valet, a maid and the cook – Yurovsky repeated the statement and pulled a hurried into the cool night air. Yurovsky led them pistol from his pocket. He shot Nicholas at point- from the main house across a courtyard to a small blank range. The tsar crumpled to the floor. The basement room at the far corner of the house. firing squad then opened fire. Each man had been According to one source, Nicholas was heard assigned a target but, in the constrained space, and to say to his daughters reassuringly: “Well, we’re with plenty of vodka running through the shooters’ going to get out of this place.” Some believe he veins, a melee ensued. was simply acting as a comforting father knowing The men shot poorly. Alexandra and her eldest full well the fate that lay ahead. Others believe daughter Olga each tried to make the sign of the he was speaking what he perceived as the truth. cross but they did not have time. The tsarina After all, if the approaching White Army were to took a bullet in the left side of her skull and died take the town, perhaps they could be returned to immediately. The doctor and two of the servants more favourable circumstances. There were some also died swiftly. monarchists among the White ranks. As the gun smoke cleared, groans from the The room into which the Romanovs were blood-spattered floor testified to a bungled ushered was a tight space, less than 13 square feet, execution. It was the tsar’s children who suffered with iron bars covering the one window. There was most horribly. They had not died quickly. Some of no furniture. A single bulb hanging overhead cast the executioners had been temporarily deafened a weak light. “What, no chairs?” asked Alexandra. by the gunfire and their clothing streaked with “May we not sit?” powder burns from where their comrades had shot Two chairs were brought in and Alexandra and over their shoulders. Alexei sat down. Yurovsky told the 11 captives that Alexei, at least three of the daughters and the he needed a photograph of the group to send to maid all remained alive. Their clothes stuffed with Moscow, where there were concerns that the family jewels had, apparently, acted like bulletproof vests. might have escaped. He set them up in two rows, According to the scholar Robert Massie, “barely Nicholas standing front and centre with his son visible through the smoke, Marie and Anastasia seated next to him. Alexandra sat in her chair close pressed against the wall, squatting, covering their to the wall and her daughters gathered around her. heads with their arms until bullets cut them down.” The servants, meanwhile, lined up behind Nicholas Another scholar, Helen Rappaport, writing more and Alexei. recently, contends that the sisters were finished off Yakov Yurovsky, a close friend The family was then left in peace for 30 minutes with bayonets, Olga having been shot in the jaw, of Lenin’s, was charged with the as they awaited the photographer. When Yurovsky and Tatiana in the back of the head as she tried execution of the royal family returned, however, he brought not a camera and to escape. Last of the women to die, she says, was

June 1907 January 1912 July 1914 November 1915 February 1917 March 1917 October 1917 As unrest abates, Social Democrats World War I breaks Nicholas takes Workers and Nicholas abdicates Vladimir Ilyich Lenin Prime Minister split into two out and Russia, personal command soldiers in the throne in favour leads the Bolshevik Stolypin launches a camps, the entering the war in of the armed forces, Petrograd take to of his brother, coup, which topples coup against the duma, relatively moderate support of Serbia, a task for which he the streets and the Michael. Aware it is the Provisional limiting its power Menshiviks and suff ers a string is ill suited. Infl ation duma establishes a poisoned chalice, Government and reducing peasant the more radical of demoralising rises and food the Provisional Michael renounces and leads to the representation. Bolsheviks. defeats. shortages ensue. Government. his claim the next day. outbreak of civil war. 31 Murder In The House Of Romanov

Anastasia, stabbed in the chest by news of the tsar’s death and adrunkenguardbeforeYurovsky “When evidence rumours about the fate of his finished the job with his pistol. for the death family elicited little response 13-year-old Alexei, it seems, was from the populace. Many TH thelastfamilymembertodie. of the entire historians, meanwhile, regarded Lyingonthefloor,saysMassie,he the execution as little more than raised his arm to shield himself family began a footnote in a much larger story. before clutching at his father’s to leak, legends After all, the revolution claimed shirt.“Oneoftheexecutioners millions of lives. Why should the kicked the tsarevich in the head sprung up that death of this one family deserve with his heavy boot,” Massie particular attention? writes. “Alexei moaned. Yurovsky perhaps some The answer, says Figes, lies steppedupandfiredtwoshots had survived” in the fact that these murders into the boy’s ear.” were ”a declaration of the Terror. What scholars do agree upon It was a statement that from is that what was planned as a now on individuals would count quick and clean execution played for nothing in the civil war.” He out as a grim slaughter. They also points to the words of the Red 10 agree on the time frame. It took 20 minutes for Army founder Leon Trotsky: “We must put an the Bolsheviks to murder the royal family and toss end once and for all to the papist-Quaker babble their mangled bodies into a truck. about the sanctity of human life.” Certainly, as “Given all the evidence that has come to the Russian Revolution unfolded, it showed little 11 light,” writes the historian Orlando Figes, “it is consideration for human life. inconceivable that any of the Romanovs survived The Russian Revolution is, in fact, a collective this ordeal.” The only certain survivor, he says, was name for two separate revolutions, the first coming Alexei’s pet King Charles spaniel, Joy. in February 1917 and sparking the dismantling of The official announcement appeared two days the tsarist autocracy and the founding of a new later on 19 July, an editorial in the newspaper of Provisional Government. The second came in record, Izvestia, claiming that Nicholas had been October of the same year when the Bolsheviks executed and the family sent to a safe place. News overthrew the Provisional Government and stirred of the murder, they believed, could incite public a civil war against the anti-socialist White Army. sympathy. The truth remained largely unknown Some scholars put the number of deaths in this until the publication in 1924 of a book by Nikolai conflict in the region of 12 million. The terror Sokolov, which revealed much of the horror. wrought by the Bolshevik state security service, the Even when evidence for the death of the entire Cheka, meanwhile, accounted for thousands more. family began to leak, legends sprung up that It began with the February Revolution of 1917, perhaps some had survived. The legend still lives which erupted upon the streets of the Russian today, notes Figes, ”which merely goes to show that capital city Petrograd (formerly Saint Petersburg), there is more currency – and more profit – in fiction as food shortages took hold. On 22 February, than in history.” thousands of metal and textile workers took to The murder of the Romanovs has emerged as the streets. By 27 February, more than 200,000 a story of huge significance in the history of the workers went on strike, marching in the streets and Russian Revolution, even though, at the time, hurling missiles at the police.

01 02 Nicholas Alexandra Alexandrovich Feodorovna Romanov AGE AT DEATH: AGE AT DEATH: 50 46 The last tsar of Russia A pious and spiritual oversaw a disastrous woman, Alexandra war with Japan and was a devoted the establishment of mother. She fell the duma. He took under the infl uence command of the army of Rasputin during 1915 and was and meddled in Duma messengers protected asked to abdicate two governmental by armed guards during the years later. policy during WWI. Russian Revolution, 1917 32 Murder In The House Of Romanov

HE MA E Posedforafamilyphotograph,the Romanovs were slaughtered instead

09 03 05

02 07 04

03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 Grand Grand Grand Grand Tsarevich Anna Dr Eugene Alexei Trupp Ivan Duchess Olga Duchess Duchess Duchess Alexei Demidova Botkin AGE AT DEATH: Kharitonov Nikolaevna Tatiana Maria Anastasia Nikolaevich AGE AT DEATH: AGE AT DEATH: 59-60 AGE AT DEATH: AGE AT DEATH: Nikolaevna Nikolaevna Nikolaevna AGE AT DEATH: 40 53 Trupp was born 45-46 22 AGE AT DEATH: AGE AT DEATH: AGE AT DEATH: 13 Demidova Dr Botkin was in modern-day The cook at the As a youngster, 21 19 17 Alexei’s travelled with the said to have felt it Latvia and became royal court, he too Olga was devoted Tatiana was said Maria was not as The youngest haemophilia was tsarina as her maid his duty to follow a footman in the shared the family’s to her father but to be practical lively as her three daughter was severe and it was when the family the Romanovs royal household. captivity and, like often quarrelled with a knack for sisters, and though energetic though the tsarina’s bid went into captivity. into exile to help Serving as Trupp and Botkin, with her mother. leadership, her usually sweet sometimes in poor to help him that The executioners Alexei. He shared Nicholas’s valet, he is thought to have She was said to be sisters calling natured, she could health. She had a allowed Rasputin bayoneted her the Romanovs’ shared the family’s died quickly during a generous and her the ‘The also be stubborn close relationship into the family more than 30 16 months of captivity and died the executioners’ charitable woman. Governess’. and lazy. with Rasputin. fold. times. captivity. quickly. initial salvo.

33 Murder In The House Of Romanov

THE LAST SECRET The final resting place of the Romanovs remained unconfirmed formorethan70years

Talk of the Romanov murders was a taboo subject in the Soviet Union. Still, in 1976, movie producer Geli Ryabov and the ethnographer Alexander Avdonin set out to find the graves. They had spoken to Yakov Yurovsky’s son, Alexander, who passed on an essay that his father had written on his execution of the family and the subsequent disposal of the bodies. They had also read the findings of Nicholas Sokolov, who was commissioned to investigate the Romanovs’ fate in 1919, and a diary written by a local Bolshevik official, Pavel Bykov, published in 1926 under the title The Last Days Of Tsardom. In May 1979, Ryabov and Avdonin found human bones in the Koptyaki forest, near the Isetsk factory, about 12 miles from Ekaterinburg. They removed three skulls. Fearing the consequences of their discovery, however, they kept their findings quiet and in the following year Striking workers in Saint they re-interred the skulls. Ryabov eventually admitted Petersburg on the first day of their secret in 1989. the February Revolution, 1917 Two years later, with the support of Boris Yeltsin, a group of archaeologists began working on the site and nine bodies were exhumed. The archaeologist Dr This torrent became a flood, and by the start Koryakova had exhumed bodies from many sites but, she of March, 170,000 soldiers were mingling with told the Sunday Times, she had never seen remains ”so badly damaged, so violated.” The executioners had used the insurgents and clamouring for change. The acid on the bodies to try and hide their identities. revolution was in full swing. The members of the There should have been 11 bodies, however, but only duma, the elected legislature, then established a nine were found, and forensic investigations concluded that Alexei and Maria’s bodies were missing. For a while, temporary government having already persuaded some argued that the missing female was Anastasia, the army generals that the tsar must abdicate. fuelling rumours of her survival. In July 2007, the final two He duly obliged. Two forces brought about his bodies were discovered 70 metres away from the mass downfall: the mass mobilisation of the workers and grave, and DNA testing concluded that they were indeed Alexei and Maria. soldiers, and the political machinations of a middle- The Russian Orthodox Church never recognised the class parliamentary opposition. remains as those of the royal family, and when they were “The collapse of the autocracy,” says buried in Saint Petersburg’s Peter and Paul Cathedral in 1998, the priest avoided speaking their names as historian Steve Smith, “was rooted in a crisis of he read the funeral rites. In September 2015, Russia’s modernisation.” During the latter half of the 19th investigative committee reopened the murder case after century, the Russian state worked tirelessly to keep the church demanded further testing of the remains. The up with the military and economic development of reasons for the church’s scepticism remain a perennial source of debate. the western powers. “The government hoped that it could carry out modernisation while maintaining tight control over society,” writes Smith. “Yet the effect of industrialisation, urbanisation, internal migration and the emergence of new social classes was to set in train forces that served to erode the foundations of the autocratic state.” This erosion was concentrated in the emergence of an industrial proletariat “snatched from the plough and hurled into the factory furnace,” in Trotsky’s famous words. Concentrated in large numbers for the first time, they emerged as a collective with considerable political clout. As Smith points out, the workers’ new urban lives offered them education and cultural diversity while also exposing them to the “subversive political ideas of Social Democrats and Socialist Tsar Nicholas and Revolutionaries. The wretched conditions in members of his family which workers lived, the drudgery of their work shortly before their murder and their pitiful wages heightened their sense of 34 Murder In The House Of Romanov

THE ANASTASIA IMPOSTERS WiththefateoftheRomanovs Revolutionary soldiers in Moscow at the outbreak shroudedinmystery,ahostof of revolution in 1917 imposters emerged. The most notable claimed to be Anastasia separatenessnotonlyfromthegovernmentbut governmental business on the home front while from privileged society in general.” herrelationshipwithherfavourite,Rasputin, In addition, a new social group had emerged caused outrage among common folk and officials NADEZHDA VASILYEVA during the 19th century, defined less by its alike.Storiesofsexualrelationsbetweenthe socioeconomicpositionthanbyitsattitudetowards peasant and the tsarina, though unfounded, were Vasilyeva appeared in Siberia in 1920 while travelling to China and was imperial power. This ‘intelligentsia’ filtered through rife. Nicholas, meanwhile, was forced to raise taxes arrested by the authorities. She sent different strata of Russian society as time went topayforthewar.Foreigndebtincreased,asdid letters to the British King George V on, seepingintothenewmiddle inflation. When food shortages asking him to help her. In 1971, she died in an insane asylum in the city classes, andeventheupper setin,thepopulacecouldtake of Kazan, the head of the hospital classes as the aristocrats became “Foreign debt nomore.Thetsar’sdayswere claiming that ”except for her claim more commercially aware. numbered. Indeed, Figes points that she was Anastasia, she was These social groups united to increased, as to a popular Russian joke that completely sane.” ignite the flames of revolution did inflation. says the tsar himself should that burned during the 1905 have been awarded the Order of EUGENIA SMITH uprising. This the tsar survived, When food theRedBannerforservicesto having in the October Manifesto the revolution. shortages set Though not as famous as Anderson, agreed to the formation of an Once Nicholas abdicated and Smith wrote the Autobiography elected legislature, the duma, in, the populace the Bolsheviks under Lenin took Of HIH Anastasia Nicholaevna and the concession of many control of the country later in Of Russia in 1963, in which she couldtakeno recounts in great detail her life in civil rights. Though autocratic the year, they pledged to put the Russian Imperial family up until power was weakened, it was not more” ‘Bloody Nicholas’ on trial. Yet their execution. She eventually necessarily doomed. both he and his family were distanced herself from the claim It took theoutbreakofWorld murdered. Was this because the and is said to have refused a DNA test shortly before her death in 1997. War I to finally bring down the Bolsheviks were worried that tsar. The firstyearofconflict the White Army would take proved disastrous for Russia, Ekaterinburg, liberate Nicholas ANNAANDERSON and in November1915,Nicholastookcommandof andusehimasatotem?AsFigesnotes,itis the armed forces. This was a misguided decision. highly unlikely that the Whites would want such During the 1920s, Anna (a Pole called Hundreds of thousands died in the trenches. anunpopularanddiscreditedfigureastheir‘live Franziska Schanzkowska) appeared in Germany claiming to be Anastasia. “Throughout his reign,” writes Orlando Figes, banner’.Rather,hesays,itwastheideaofatrial Her lack of Russian and rebuttals “Nicholas gavetheimpressionofbeingunableto that became problematic. by Romanov relatives undermined cope with thetaskofrulingavastempireinthe ToputNicholasinthedock,Figessays,wasto her case but she received support grips of a deepening revolutionary crisis.” presupposethepossibilityofhisinnocence.“And from Rasputin’s daughter. The most famous of the imposters, her He certainly could not cope with commanding inthatcase,themorallegitimacyoftherevolution story inspired a 1956 film, Anastasia, the armed forces, a task for which he was poorly woulditselfbeopentoquestion.Nicholashadto starring Ingrid Bergman.

qualified. Alexandra, meanwhile, interfered in diesothatSovietpowercouldlive.” © Joe Cummings, Alamy 35 1838 Bluffer’s Guide USA, The Trail of Tears Did you know? TheNativeAmerican population halved within afewyearsofEuropean colonisers arriving on their soil

Timeline 1829 MAY 1830 SEPTEMBER 1830 DECEMBER 1835

Gold is discovered The Indian Removal The Treaty of Dancing The Treaty of New in Cherokee land in Act is passed, Rabbit Creek is Echota is signed. Georgia, resulting in which authorises signed. 11 million Despite not being a gold rush. Pressure the president to acres of the approved by the on the Georgia negotiate with Choctaw Nation are Cherokee National government to Native American ceded for 15 million Council, it becomes remove Indian rights to tribes for their acres in the Indian the basis for their land begins to mount. relocation. territory. forcible removal. 36 Bluffer’s Guide THE TRAIL OF TEARS

What was it? In the bitter cold winter of 1838, a Native American tribe called the Cherokee were forced off their homeland and made to walk 1,000 miles across the Deep South. Earlier that year, they had been rounded up and taken to concentration camps, while their homes were burned, their property plundered, and their farms put into a lottery to be won by white settlers. With the tribe now removed from their land, the US military was able to force them to march to a new location west of the Mississippi River. Many were scantily clothed and bare foot, and half of the party were children. An estimated 4,000 Cherokee out of 15,000 died on the march that was to become known as the Trail of Tears as a result of starvation, disease, exposure and exhaustion. Why did it happen? Prior to the 19th century, relations between white settlers and Native Americans had been relatively friendly. As it struggled to expand its empire, the US knew that it was important for political and trading reasons to have the Natives as their allies. But when relations with the UK and Spain settled, it was the tribes, not the ‘civilised’ foes, who were considered an obstacle to expansion. With rapid population growth, the discovery of gold and the expansion of slave-operated plantations in the Deep South, the demand for more land was greater than ever. In 1830, the Indian Removal Act was passed, which called for the voluntary relocation of tribes living east of the Mississippi River, but often resulted in forced removals. In 1835, the Treaty of New Echota was negotiated and signed by a small fraction of Cherokee tribal members, not the tribal leaders. Despite objecting to Washington, the tribe was forced to relocate, with disastrous outcomes. By 1837, 46,000 Native Americans had been removed from their homelands, 10,000 of which died before reaching their Visitors to the Deep South can destination. follow the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail Who was involved? Andrew Jackson 1767-1845 Elected president of the United States in 1829, Jackson signed and enforced the controversial Indian Removal Act.

John Ross 1790-1866 RosswastheprincipalchiefoftheCherokee SPRING 1838 WINTER 1838 nation and campaigned fiercely against their removal. His wife died on the trail. Military operations The Cherokee begin to round up the the 1,000-mile- Cherokee begin. long march to Winfield Scott Thousands are the new Indian 1786-1866 held at Fort Cass, territory. More than USArmygeneralScottwasinchargeof a concentration 4,000 die from camp, over the disease, exposure or rounding up the Cherokee, who he then held

summer. starvation. in rat-infested stockades with little food. © Topfoto 37

HO VILLOR IN? Winston Churchill Was Winston Churchill a Great Briton who saved a nation or a narcissist whose policies echoed those of Hitler himself? Written by Catherine Curzon

ir Winston Churchill occupies a unique from the army and into a new battleground: the position in the history of Great Britain and House of Commons. his place in the pantheon of fame is assured. In 1900, Churchill took his seat as Conservative SSoldier, author, artist, and the statesman who member of parliament for Oldham, yet he wasn’t steered a beleaguered country to victory in quite settled, and within four years he had crossed World War II, his name has become a byword for the floor to the Liberal Party. As he had impressed dedication, defiance and unbending patriotism. But in the military, so too did he advance swiftly was he really the hero who saved Britain from the in government, climbing the ranks seemingly Nazi regime, or was he a villain who harboured effortlessly. There are few careers that can turn sour ideals that Adolf Hitler himself would have been more quickly than those of a politician, though, proud to put his name to? and Churchill suffered a jarring setback when he Churchill was born in Blenheim Palace on 30 presided over the catastrophic Gallipoli campaign, a November 1874 to a family of rich aristocratic lineage. disaster that resulted in his resignation from office His childhood was one of privilege, and although he and a return to the military career that had served did not shine academically, when he joined the army, him so well. he truly found his calling. Churchill saw the world as When Churchill returned to cabinet as chancellor a soldier, supplementing his income by journalism of the exchequer in 1924, he was once again a and writing. However, even as he advanced steadily Conservative. His own finest hour was yet to come, through the ranks of the army, Churchill was and as Adolf Hitler rose to power in Germany, the planning his next move, and it would take him away seeds of his reputation were already being sown. He 46 Hero or Villain? WINSTON CHURCHILL

Churchill was voted The Greatest Briton of Them All in 2002 by more than 1 million BBC viewers

47 Hero or Villain? WINSTON CHURCHILL

The wholesale bombingofDresden killed more than 20,000; the target wascivilian,not military

More than 90 per cent of Dresden was destroyed in the Allied bombing raid

fiercely opposed appeasement and believed that, far from “peace in our time,” Neville Chamberlain’s “The plain fact is that, in his absence, Britain efforts could only end in disaster. As history has since proved, he was absolutely would have made terms with Hitler” right, and when Chamberlain resigned, it was Churchill who assumed the office of prime with Hitler.” This claim is difficult to deny. Behind the heart of the British Empire, and these opinions minister. He is familiar now as the immovable, the scenes, the government seriously considered echoed those of his contemporaries and the world cigar-chomping statesman, a leader who defiantly appeasement, convinced that Britain’s forces were in which he was forged. stated “we shall never surrender,” and never did, no match for those of Germany. Yet Churchill Surely one of the darkest moments in Churchill’s who battled with the “black dog” of his depression would not hear of it. He was, as Isaiah Berlin administration occurred with his handling of the to the end and shouldered the burden of a nation, stated, a man who believed in “the battle between Bengal famine in 1943. Millions died, and as the but there were two sides to this complex figure, a simple good and simple evil,” and when Churchill people begged for wheat to feed those who were darkness that belies his colossal reputation. addressed the cabinet, who were faced with the starving, Churchill continued to export rice out of In the raging fires of the war that claimed more unthinkable task of committing a nation to war, his India even as Allied ships laden with grain sailed than 60 million lives, it is not hard to see how take on the situation boiled down to one simple on by. Leo Amery, secretary of state for India, wrote Churchill’s heroic reputation was forged. A master thing: the country must at least try to fight. that “on the subject of India, Winston is not quite orator, he gave the nation the figurehead it needed; Yet this single-minded, unshakeable conviction sane,” and today historians continue to disagree on unbending as granite, strong as steel and possessed in his own opinion was not always a good thing. Churchill’s part in the famine. Some argue that he of a self-assurance that could lurch all too easily Just as he spoke freely on the matter of defending was focused on the broader canvas and the world into arrogance. When he became prime minister, Britain, so too was he vocal on issues that to our war in which he was engaged, and that once he there were few outside of his own party who eyes are indefensible. His belief that indigenous became aware of the extent of the catastrophe, cheered him into the job. American and Australian people were displaced by he did take action to alleviate it. Others point out Churchill’s status as a national hero rests, of “a stronger race, a higher-grade race, a more worldly Amery’s recollection of Churchill’s anti-Indian course, on his masterful leadership of the nation wise race,” leaves the modern reader with a queasy diatribes in which he blamed the people for their during wartime. Historian Max Hastings left little sense that this should not be how a hero sees the own famine as “they breed like rabbits,” and the fact room for doubt when he stated: “The plain fact is world. Yet we cannot read statements such as these that he ignored reports of the famine as long as he that, in his absence, Britain would have made terms in a vacuum: Churchill was a Victorian, a soldier in possibly could, choosing simply to do nothing. 48 Hero or Villain? WINSTON CHURCHILL

Churchill and Roosevelt meet aboard the USS Augusta

Churchill waves to crowds in Whitehall on the day he broadcast to the nation that the war Leo Amery, Secretary of with Germany had been won, 8 May 1945 State for India and Burma

Ironically for a man whose Although he had no objection to It is a fallacy to say that Churchill won the war reputation rests on his resistance labour camps, Churchill’s favoured – no man could have – yet when Chamberlain to the Nazi threat, Amery In 1943, approach was to sterilise rather urged a softly-softly approach, he spoke up loudly commented in 1944 that than confine those who were about the Nazi threat, and when the country went he “couldn’t help telling Churchill considered “feeble minded” to war, Churchill was the leader that the people him that I didn’t see outlined plans to and had not been convicted of Great Britain could believe in and rally around. much difference between establish the National of any crime. It was cheaper, He remains the hero of a nation, the man who his outlook and Hitler’s, for a start, and he considered spoke stirringly of its “finest hour,” who said he which annoyed him no Health Service, for the protection of the bloodline would “never yield to the apparently overwhelming little.” Although Amery was “cradletograve” as paramount, but when the might of the enemy,” and who continues to serve speaking of the famine, more care Mental Deficiency Act went as the symbol of wartime Britain. Yet like all than three decades earlier, through Parliament in 1913, iconic figures, he is undoubtedly painted from there were other elements of it advocated only confinement, shades of grey. Forged in the cultural melting pot Churchill’s beliefs that would later with no quarter given to sterilisation. and politically charged fires of the British Empire, be echoed by those of Hitler. Again, such a policy is abhorrent to our Churchill was a product of a bygone Victorian An enthusiastic champion of eugenics, as early as 21st-century sensibilities, yet the Mental Deficiency age and his personality held up a mirror to his 1910 Churchill informed Herbert Asquith that “the Act was passed by the overwhelming majority formative years. multiplication of the feeble-minded is a very terrible of MPs and remained on the statute books for Winston Churchill will likely forever enjoy a danger to the race.” In 1911, he addressed the House more than 40 years. By the time the 1945 General reputation as a Great Briton and deservedly so. He of Commons and announced plans to introduce Election rolled around, the war was over and the was indeed the man of the hour, but when that compulsory labour camps for those judged as people of Britain were hungry for social reform. hour ended, shadows still remained. “mental defectives,” while those considered as such Despite Churchill remaining personally popular and convicted of a crime would be transported to with the public and retaining leadership of his Was Winston Churchill a hero or a villain? labour colonies. It was a political hot topic, and in party, the Conservatives were voted out of power. Let us know what you think 1912, Churchill was once again publicly discussing Churchill returned to Downing Street in 1951, eugenics at a major conference in London, in the but ill health blighted his final term, and in 1955, Facebook Twitter company of some illustrious colleagues. following a series of strokes, he resigned. /AllAboutHistory @AboutHistoryMag © Alamy 49 SAVE UP TO CHRISTMASON A GIFT SUBSCRIPTION THIS

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Men and women’s drawers often had an opening at the CODPIECE 14TH CENTURY crotch to make going to the The common codpiece has celebrated toilet easier a long and illustrious history in the fashions of underwear, with nobles such as King Henry VIII himself among the ranks of wearers. Initially invented to cover the modesty of men in their open drawers, the codpiece experienced a surge in popularity thanks to its most famous patron. As codpieces evolved to emphasise the shape of men’s genitals, King Henry VIII began the popular trend of stuffing it for a DRAWERS 1840S more well-endowed appearance. Little did many of

Historically, the Along with Christmas trees and white weddings, his contemporaries realise that this trendsetter was THONG thong was underwear Queen Victoria is thought to have inspired her attempting to calm the sores caused by syphilis UNKNOWN exclusively for men nation to wear undergarments as a matter of norm. with cool, wet cloths. Mentioning it may bring to mind modern Variants on drawers had existed for centuries women’s underwear, but the thong actually before, but it was only during Victoria’s reign that has a history steeped in masculinity. Like the they became an essential to every social class. loincloth, it was an early form of underwear, but Drawers often reached below the knees for both it had a few perks that its hanging counterpart male and female wearers, and most people wore couldn’t provide. With a stretch of material open drawers that featured a large opening in the to hold the genitals in place, it supported and crotch area, which facilitated bathroom-going and protected active men. Sumo wrestlers wear a apparently kept the nether regions variant of the thong, known as the mawashi, The codpiece fresh and well ventilated. rose in popularity and the thong’s supportive capabilities inspired Wallace during the 15th the creation of the jockstrap. Carothers and 16th centuries AMERICAN 1896-1937 Chemist Carothers revolutionised underwear with the invention of HOOP SKIRT 16TH CENTURY nylon. Cheaper and more durable than LOINCLOTH Much like corsets, the popularity of hoop skirts is cotton and silk counterparts, nylon stockings became a necessity. When 1330 BCE one that somehow endured centuries despite their the production of nylon stockings The most rudimentary uncomfortable and restrictive nature. With different ceased during World War II, a form of underwear – styles and sizes available, the desire for hoop skirts demand for them appeared on the black market. and probably the most waned towards the end of the 18th century, yet comfortable from this they experienced something of a renaissance in list – the loincloth the mid-19th century. The first of these skirt The crinoline was The most rudimentary of all harksbackmillenniato cages was the voluptuous farthingale. mass produced, underwear, the loincloth was making it accessible thetimeoftheAncient Later, the pannier style took often just a piece of material to to most social shade the wearer’s nether regions Egyptians. Upon off – it exaggerated the classes, but wearers excavating his tomb, it had to be careful wearer’s hips, creating a in factories and was discovered that among many other treasures, saddlebag look. Thankfully, workplaces Tutankhamun was buried with 145 loincloths – these cumbersome garments presumably to see him through his afterlife. King eventually underwent a Tut wasn’t the only one to cover his modesty – the dramatic overhaul, with the Romans were also renowned for their loincloths. crinoline skirts of the The loincloth could be worn as outer or underwear, mid-19th century mass mainly depending on the climate, but it’s known produced and made of that Ancient Egyptians wore theirs underneath hard-wearing steel. kilt-like dress. 52 Through History

CORSET 1300 Mary Perhaps the most recognisable of all Phelps Jac underwear, the corset’s history is one AMERICAN 1891-19 that stretches back millennia, though The first ever brass it only really became the height of patented in 1914 by American, Mary Phelps fashion in the 1600s. Bodices lined formed the foundation o with whalebone and metal strained bras. As the story goes, women’s figures into fashionable stitched together two ha and a ribbon to form shapes, with heaving breasts and support, much to t waspish waists all the rage. The narrower of her corset-we thewaist,thebetter–somedressmakers friends. considereda16-inchwaistideal;toachieve thiswouldtakeabouttwoyearsoftraining. Before elastic was in underwear, stoc Corsets posed plenty of health problems for were held up with g theirwearers,includingbonefractures,bruised usually below the organs and a proneness to fainting. Corsets may have been horrifically uncomfortable, but it GART took centuries for them Synonymous now with traditional weddings, to fall out of fashion garters historically served a very practical purpose for women of the 1930s. Before the use of elastic in women’s undergarments, garters were used to hold up stockings. They were usually affixed at the narrowest part of the leg to ensure that the Sara stockings didn’t slip, but they also provided Blakely women with a handy way to carry small AMERICAN 1971 - PRESENT necessities, such as purses, valuables and Going on to become the biggest hip flasks. The suspender, or garter belt, name in control underwear, Spanx was later caught on, particularly as skirts founded by Sara Blakely in 2000. In its first year, the company made more than became shorter and more revealing. $8 million in retail sales. Popular though they were, Blakely’s control underwear Knickers and didn’t properly take off until Oprah a vest in one, CHEMISE 1300 Winfrey named them as her the camiknicker “favourite product.” was ideal for Both men and women wearing under embracedthechemise,athin the fashionable shorter dresses shirt that was worn underneath of the 1920s otherclothing.Purelypracticalinpurpose–and with its own modern-day deviations still commonly worn–thechemiseabsorbedtheskin’ssweatand body oils, protecting the finer clothes that covered it. Men tended to wear theirs underneath their robes and women often wore corsets and petticoats While female chastity belts prevented over theirs. infidelity and rape, male chastity belts intended to discourage masturbation, which many physicians claimed caused insanity

Both men and women CHASTITY BELT 1896 wore a chemise, though women’s Not underwear in the strictest sense, but who were usually worn can resist the charms of a chastity belt? While underneath the corset it was first referred to in the early 15th century, thechastitybeltmay have been around for CAMIKNICKER 1910S considerably longer than history lets on. Cast in metal, chastity belts protected the virtues of Now known as a teddy, the history of this sultry its wearer – usually female – from the perils of one-piece dates back to the 1920s, when fashion temptation and adultery. It’s said that during got friskier and hems got higher. Not only did the the Crusades, wives would wear the belts to camiknicker accommodate for the shorter dresses safeguard them until their husbands’ return. of the flapper era, it also provided a seamless fit, Chastity belts really took off in the Victorian which meant unsightly underwear creases couldn’t era, when physicians deemed masturbation to be seen through dresses. The camiknicker was so be the cause of insanity, and it was – and still versatile, in fact, that women wore it during World is – possible to get hold of belts for both men War II as they took on working roles while the men and women. were at war. © Alamy, Corbis, Getty Images 53 54 Cyrus the Great

Cyrus was much more than a ruthless conqueror who founded the Persian Empire – he was a brilliant and original administrator whose government actually worked

Written by John Man

yrus the Great was the founder of one of Cyrus’s homeland, Persia, had been founded by the most impressive regimes of the ancient his ancestor Achaemenes when his tribe emerged world, the Persian Empire, which lasted for from inner Asia two centuries earlier. Cyrus, the Ctwo centuries (550-330 BCE) until it was seventh king of the Achaemenid Dynasty, was destroyed by Alexander the Great. Despite born either in about 600 or 575 BCE – a 25-year its significance, undisputed facts about Cyrus’s difference that points to the unreliability of the conquests are thin on the ground. Scholars available sources. When Cyrus was a child, Persia tease what they can from legend, from scattered was an unremarkable dependency of the closely cuneiform tablets, from brief, one-sided accounts related Medes. in the Biblical Old Testament, and from Cyrus’s Herodotus, Greece’s great historian and traveller, own statement justifying his conquests. writing 100 years later, told of Cyrus’s rise. His Before Cyrus’s time, Turkey and the rest of the grandfather, Astyages, king of the Medes, dreamt Middle East was divided between three empires: of a vine growing out of his genitals. Priests Lydia in western Turkey; Media, which spread told him its meaning – that a descendant would across to today’s Central Asia; and Babylonia, overthrow him. His daughter, Mandane, was spanning Iraq, Iran and the Mediterranean coast. pregnant. So the king told a noble to kill the The ancient Assyrian empire had recently been child. The noble delegated the task to a humble divided between the Medes and the Babylonians. shepherd, who disobeyed, and raised the child as Away to the east and north, in the unknown heart his own. The truth came out when the boy play- of Asia, were the Scythians (also known as Saka), acted being a king so convincingly that he came nomadic horsemen who lived in a shadowy world to Astyages’ attention. Astyages recognised his beyond the horizons of civilisation. grandson, who was, of course, Cyrus. 55 King Astyages sending A statue of Cyrus the Harpagus to kill the Great in Germany young Cyrus

Queen Tomyris receiving the head of Cyrus, king of Persia The Cyrus Cylinder It’s been called the first ever human rights charter, but what did it promise? The Cyrus Cylinder, only ten inches long, is a major source shrines, angry that he had made them enter into Babylon. for the king’s achievements, though an unreliable one. Enlil-of-the-gods inspected and checked all the countries, For one thing, it is damaged, and the text is incomplete. seeking for the upright king of his choice. He took the hand For another, it is in effect propaganda justifying Cyrus’s of Cyrus, and called him by name, proclaiming him aloud for conquests and rule. The Babylonian king, Nabonidus, the kingship over all of everything. Marduk, the great lord, is denigrated and Cyrus is praised as the protector of who nurtures his people, saw with pleasure his fine deeds Babylonian interests. The cuneiform text, here selected and true heart, and ordered that he should go to Babylon. from the British Museum translation, reads in part: He had him enter without fighting or battle. He handed “Rites inappropriate to [the cult-cities] were daily over to him Nabonidus, the king who did not fear him. All gabbled, and as an insult, he (Nabonidus) brought the daily the people, nobles and governors bowed down before him offerings to a halt. In his mind, reverential fear ofMarduk, and kissed his feet, rejoicing over his kingship, and their king of the gods, came to an end. He did more evil to his faces shone. I am Cyrus, king of the universe, the great city every day, and to his people. Enlil-of-the-gods became king, the powerful king, king of Babylon, king of Sumer and extremely angry at their complaints. The gods left their Akkad, king of the four quarters of the world.”

The Cyrus Cylinder was found broken into several fragments and is now housed at the British Museum

56 Cyrus the Great

“Cyrus had ruled forsome30years, and created an empire more than 2,500 kilometres across, the largestinthe worldtodate”

resistance.AccordingtoHerodotus,thePersians didthisbydivertingtheEuphrates,loweringthe water-level until they could march across the river- bed. Nabonidus was captured, and vanished from history, his fate unknown. Cyrus recorded his conquest in the clay document known as the Cyrus Cylinder, a blatant pieceofPRdesignedtojustifyhisconquests.It claims that Nabonidus had been unstable and impious,andthatthegreatgodEnlilhadchosen Cyrus as his instrument to bring peace by restoring the shrines, allowing refugees to return and The tomb of Cyrus the rebuilding the capital. The cylinder declares: “I Great in Pasargadae in returnedtheimagesofthegods,whohadresided modern-day Iran there, to their places and I let them dwell in eternal abodes.Igatheredalltheirinhabitantsandreturned TheboyspenthischildhoodwithAstyages, Next in line was Lydia, which fell a few years to them their dwellings.” As a result, “all nobles and being trained and educated. According to the Greek later. No details are recorded, though Herodotus has governorsboweddownbeforehim(Cyrus)and historiananddiaristXenophon,hewasaboyof astorytofillthegap.TheLydiankingwasCroesus, kissedhisfeet,andtheirfacesshone.” rare intelligence and charm: “[He] was something oflegendarywealth.Croesusconsultedthegreat His generosity did not apply only to the local toomuchofatalker,inpart,maybe,becauseof oracle at Delphi and was told that if he attacked religions. The Jews, too, were allowed to return hisbringing-up.Hehadbeentrainedbyhismaster, thePersianshewoulddestroy“agreatempire.” from their captivity to Israel. Possibly (as the Bible wheneverhesatinjudgment,togiveareasonfor He attacked, and Cyrus, strengthened by Median says), Cyrus actually funded the rebuilding of whathedid,andtolookforthelikereasonfrom troops,droveCroesusbackinsidehiscapital, thetempleinJerusalem.Infact,therebuilding others. And moreover, his curiosity and thirst for Sardis. Persian troops then scaled a supposedly occurred under Cyrus’s grandson, Darius, but knowledgeweresuchthathemustneedsinquire unscaleablewall,andthecityfell.Thegreatempire Cyrus’srolebecameacceptedasafact.Thefirst- from every one he met the explanation of this, that Croesus destroyed was his own. century Jewish historian Josephus claimed to quote that, and the other… talkativeness had become, as In540BCE,Cyrusturnedonhisnexttarget, aletterfromCyrus:“I have given leave to as many it were, his second nature. But… the impression Babylon. Famous as the capital of a great empire oftheJewsthatdwellinmycountryaspleaseto leftonthelistenerwasnotofarrogance,butof for more than 1,000 years, Babylon had fallen return to their own country, and to rebuild their simplicityandwarmheartedness…However,ashe on hard times until its fortunes revived under city, and to build the temple of God at Jerusalem grew in stature and the years led him to the time Nebuchadnezzar in the early 500s BCE, during onthesameplacewhereitwasbefore,”(though when childhood passes into youth he became more whichhesackedJerusalem(587-586BCE)and Josephus was writing 500 years later, and presents charyofhiswords…buthiscompanywasstillmost captured numerous Jews, an event vividly recorded no evidence for this). fascinating,andlittlewonder:forwheneveritcame intheBible.ByCyrus’stime,though,Babylonhad In any event, the Jews developed huge toatrialofskillbetweenhimselfandhiscomrades becomeasofttargetbecauseitsking,Nabonidus, admiration for Cyrus. The prophet Isaiah called he would never challenge his mates to those hadbeenabsentfortenyears(553BCE–543BCE), CyrusGod’s‘anointed’–ineffecttheMessiah–and featsinwhichhehimselfexcelled:hewouldstart leavingthecityinthehandsofhisson,Belshazzar. prophesied God-given victories over all nations. precisely one where he felt his own inferiority… and His unexplained absence – perhaps trying to extend Another prophet, Ezra, has Cyrus saying that God then,whenhewasworsted,hewouldbethefirstto traderoutesinArabia–seemstohavemadehim “hathgivenmeallthekingdomsoftheEarth.” laughathisowndiscomfiture.” unpopular. Or perhaps he was unpopular because AfterBabylon,wherenow?Tothenorthand Eventually,asayoungman,Cyrusreturnedto onhisreturnhehadalltheimagesofBabylonian eastlayanotherworldtoconquer,thelandof his father’s court in Persia, where he acceded to the gods brought from their sanctuaries into the capital the nomadic horsemen, the Scythians. Having throne in about 559 BCE. Herodotus picked up the for safekeeping. Whatever the reason, it gave Cyrus appointed governors and officials to rule the story. To prevent his dream coming true, Astyages achancetopresenthimselfastheprotectorof differentprovincesandpeoplesofhisempire, invaded Persia. But Cyrus defeated him, and in Babylonian religion. Cyrus probably died fighting the Scythians in 530 about 550 BCE, took Media. In revenge, Astyages Inautumn539BCE–oneofthefewfirmdatesin BCE. Again, we have no firm records, just stories, summoned the son of the disobedient noble and the history of the time – Cyrus invaded Babylonia, thebestofwhichistoldbyHerodotus. hadhimchopped,roastedandboiled,andthen wonabattleatOpis,tothenorthofthecapital,and OneoftheScythiantribeswascalled trickedthenobleintoeatingtheboy. then entered Babylon, seemingly without further Massagetae, known for drinking fermented mares’ 57 Cyrus the Great

milkandfortheoutlandishequalityofthesexes. Armouredinhelmetsandwarbelts,theyfought The onhorsebackwithbattleaxesandbows,menand womenalike.Atthetime,theywereruledbya queen named Tomyris. Persian Nomadic horse-archers were almost impossible to defeat, because they vanished like mist across Empire The scope of the Persian Empire was so large that thesteppe.So(inHerodotus’stale)Cyrusresorted it soon became known as the Universal Empire. totrickery.Hesetoutabanquetwithmuchwine, Its frontiers were in a constant state of fl ux as which was unfamiliar to the milk-drinking nomads. the political and administrative effi ciency of ThePersianswithdrew,thenomadsadvanced, the diff erent imperial dynasties changed. found the banquet, ate, drank and fell into a stupor. Despite this, the Persian infl uence spread ThePersiansreturned,killedmostofthemand from the Mediterranean to India and took Tomyris’s son prisoner. When he awoke, its features are recorded in most BLACK SEA he committed suicide. Tomyris swore to get her cultures. revenge: “Leave my land now... or I will give you morebloodthanyoucandrink.”Inthenextbattle, MACEDONIA thenomadsdestroyedthePersiansandkilled Cyrus.Tomyrisfoundtheking’scorpse,filledaskin Sardis containerwithblood,cutoffhisheadandthrust it into the blood with these words: “Although I am GREECE MEDITERRANE alive and gained victory over you in battle, you SEA have destroyed me because you took my son by trickery.NowIshalldojustasIthreatened,and Seat of the empire give you your fill of blood.” It is believed that Cyrus Itisavividtale,butitstruthforHerodotuswas the Great chose the site of probably less in the details than the moral: great the Achaemenid Empire’s capital, Persepolis, but it was leadersshouldnotresorttotrickery. Darius I who built the terrace Cyrus had ruled for some 30 years, and created and palaces, the ruins of an empire more than 2,500 kilometres across, the which still stand today. largestintheworldtodate,reachingfromtheBlack Seatopresent-dayAfghanistan.Hisson,Cambyses andanotherdescendant,Darius,extendedthe empire into Egypt, the Libyan and India. It was nottolast.Inthe330sBCE,AlexandertheGreat defeated the Persians, and the Achaemenids came to an ignominious end. However,Cyrus’screationsentechoesdownthe corridorsoftime.Scholarsagreethathissuccess as an imperial ruler owed much to his form of government, balancing central administration withlocalfreedom.Hissystemwasretainedby subsequent dynasties, and served for more than 1,000yearsuntiltheArabconquestofPersiainthe seventh century. TheCyrusCylinderevenproclaimssucha modern-sounding commitment to religious freedomandjusticethat,inthe1970s,theShah PERSEPOLIS of Iran called it “thefirsthumanrightscharter in history.” More likely, according to others, it resembles modernity in a different form, as a puffed-up piece of propaganda. But Iran still sees it as a foundation stone of national identity. ThememoryofCyruslivesonathissupposed burial site near Shiraz, in southern Iran. The tomb, standingonarockplinth,isclosetotheruinsof Pasargadae, Cyrus’s capital until his son Cambyses changedittoSusa.Thereisnohardevidencethat itishistomb,butifitis–andthesameasthe Architecture onehonouredtwocenturiesafterhisburialby The quintessential feature of Persian architecture was its eclectic nature, with Alexander–itborealong-goneinscription,which elements of Assyrian, Egyptian, Median and raninoneversion:“Passer-by,IamCyrus,who Asiatic Greek all incorporated. Despite this, its gavethePersiansanempire,andwaskingofAsia. buildings had a unique Persian identity that is recognisable the world over. Grudge me not therefore this monument.” 58 Cyrus the Great

The birthplace of Persia The Persians were originally nomadic pastoral people in the western Iranian plateau. By 850 BCE, they were calling themselves the Parsa and had begun to develop infrastructure to support their growing influence. Pasargadae was the capital of the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great.

CASPIAN SEA

INDIA

PERSIA ASSYRIA Susa Pasargadae Assur Persepolis ARABIAN SEA Babylon PERSIAN GULF Expanding its borders The walls of Babylon had been considered impenetrable, but EAN Cyrus devised a plan to take it via water. The city fell in 539 BCE, EGYPT and the Neo-Babylonian Empire became part of Cyrus’s kingdom.

RED SEA

Diversity The history of the Persian Empire is full of cultural AFRICA exchanges. They assimilated peoples’ traditions from Egypt to below the Caspian sea and the Persian Gulf. The incorporation of tradition was one of its constant characteristics.

Pottery was one Religion of the first artistic Persian people were tolerant of expressions of the other regions’ religions. Their ancient empire. Later offi cial religion was Mazdaism. on, goldsmithing and With the Muslim conquest, silversmithing became Islam became the offi cial and more important. state religion.

troops in Greece in 4 9 BC under Mardonius.

59 © Look & Learn, Sol 90 Entente trenches, the Western Front, 1914-18

FIG.01

Did You Know?

Firing trenches zigzag so that f you find yourself sinking calf-deep into enemies can’t shoot muddy sludge and look around to see you down their length Iare standing in a narrow open-air corridor formed of walls of compacted mud, you are, unmistakably, in a World War I trenc Despite the incredibly basic conditions he constant gunfire and shells to and from t other side of the battlefield, and the threa of no man’s land just over the walls, alm Pull your weight. Even rest time Take off your helmet. If you are nine out of every ten soldiers posted to t is occupied with maintenance lucky enough to have a steel trenches will survive. However, millions duties, as labour is in short supply helmet, keep it on at all times to will die on Europe’s Western Front, and at the front. Shirking these duties will lead lessen the impact of shrapnel and other there will be particularly immense losses to punishment. things falling from above into the trench. violent days such as the beginning of th Battle of the Somme. However, if you are Prepare for the worst. If the call Get nibbled by rats. Rats are rife lucky enough to avoid these life-threaten comes to go over the top, you in the trenches, and any food left situations, you could just make it back to must be psychologically and unattended will be snatched. Blighty in one piece. physically ready. Ensure your fitness is at a While shooting rats is prohibited (it wastes high level and your weapons are in full ammunition), you can use a bayonet if you’re fast enough. WHERE TO STAY working order. Arriving in the trenches, one thing goes Brush up on card games. Neglect your weapons. Part of without saying: for the best chance of Although downtime is in short the daily chores in the trench, making it out alive, avoid going ‘over the supply, card games are a popular rifles need to be cleaned using There are three levels of trench: the fron way to pass the time. Gambling games like ‘pull-throughs’ – a device that is used like a support and reserve trench. Ideally, you’l ‘Crown and Anchor’, though officially pipe-cleaner, made of cord and weighted havearrivedinthereserve,butevenify banned, are played often. on one end. have been lucky, you could find yourself thefrontlineverysoon;eachtrenchish Holdontothatdebris.‘Trench Forget to write home. Write to to soldiers for about a week at a time. If art’ is an unusual phenomenon your loved ones as often as you want to get some sleep, it’s safest during that helps occupy soldiers and can; their replies will only take day, down in one of the shelter dugouts. gives a creative outlet. Pick up that shell two days to reach you. You could also nightisusedforobservingtheenemyu caseandturnitintoavaseortobaccojar. receive parcels, with food and provisions. coverofdarkness. 60 Time Traveller’s HandbookWWI TRENCHES

O TO WHO T RIEND fficer you are unlikely to FIG.03 sh e sheer size of the ar ndser part of, a senior office fights impress if you happ de of e. Although many of behind ior figures, such as Ge e, for as Haig and Major Ge 20 and Hutton Davies, will be milar petent in the years aft of the are some of the very h military experience. M nches are inexperienc s, so the advice and go senior officers will help the threats you face he

: As well as command enior officers are rine to be seen mixing wi gainst which could make th asy. Try to make this e and , whether that is engag tin light but respectful oss ation or completing you ing the highest standard. can.

ipline and obedience the short three-month training given to Whether you’re on the front WI recruit aims to instil discipline and or helping behind the scenes ith Filt b d ll

Medical know If you are female, you’ Courage find yourself nursing t Many medals, the most wounded. Both men a mous being the Victoria women populate the m ross, will be awarded for services for the troops lour, which might mean you’ll treat injuries fro looking after wounded severed limbs and mo oldiers on the battlefield fighting on despite your own injuries. 1 ThefallofCharlieChaplin

“Chaplin became increasingly beset by comment, reaction and endeavours to diminish him” 62 The fall of

This is the story of the controversies that surrounded screen legendCharlieChaplininhislateryears;hisgoldenage morphing into something more tarnished

WrittenbyJamesClarke

fanyoneneededproofthatthere’snosuch ‘just’ entertainment, but what a powerful force thing as ‘just’ entertainment, they need look entertainment is. nofurtherthansouth-Londonboyturned Whenthelate,greatfilmcomposerJohnBarry global pop-culture icon Charlie Chaplin. His scored the movie Chaplin (1992),hewroteamain career has been the subject of an immense musicalthemethat,ratherthanemphasisingthe rangeofresearchandreflectionthathas fun and laughter of the man’s movies, picked up explored his movie-making achievements; onamelancholymood.It’samelancholythatwe theinfluenceofhisLondonchildhoodon can identify in Chaplin’s beginnings and in his I his imaginative life; his political sympathies; lateryears,too.Thisisthestoryofsomeofthekey andhispersonallife.Foraslightlybuiltman, eventsthatdefinedthatlaterpartofhispersonal he has made for an immense cinema presence andprofessionallife.Wemightsaythatitwasa andanequallyimmenseculturalforce.Like professional life that ended in tragedy; in a fall Shakespeare and Dickens, people may very well from grace. know the Chaplin name even though they have Discovering the fallibility of those who seem never directly encountered any of his work. The blessedwithsomesortofgeniusandwhose imageofthemanhassupersededallelse.The workhasastoundedus–it’sasthoughtheyare image of his creation The Tramp is as much a part imbued with a superhuman facility of thought, of a worldwide lexicon of film character images feelingandperception–canshockusbyvirtue thatcansitrightalongsideMickeyMouse,ET: of how it reminds us of the necessarily flawed The Extra Terrestrial and C3P0. The American humanity of that person. In Charlie Chaplin we cinema might largely be characterised by being haveafilmmakerandactorwhowasastarinboth 63 ThefallofCharlieChaplin

Hat Thebowlerisjusttoosmallfor Charlie’s head, and so it only enhances The Tramp’s misfit status and tells us that this is the best he can do.

Moustache OnestoryhasitthatChaplin,in1914, when working at the Keystone Comedy Studio in the US, and waiting for the rain to stop so they could resume filming, found the moustache as part of makeup intended for a villain. Chaplin holds a doll version of his famous character The Tramp

Jacket Thejacketthat’stoo Anatomy of tight accentuates The Tramp’s physically slight AlongsideThe a Tramp handful of other presence in a modern movie characters, Chaplin’s worldthat’softenall-too personaofTheTramp daunting, but which he became globally recognised; alwaysfindsawayto recognisable,even,justasa survive and outwit. silhouette. Chaplin designed thecostumeanditremained iconicthrough22yearsof work.TheTramp’soutfit istheunderdog’ssuitof armour against a crazy world. Trousers With his way-too- big trousers, The Tramp’s legs get lost in the shuffle and subsequently he moves withaparticulargrace as though not quite anchored to the ground.

Stick Chaplin’sstickisan integral, character- enhancing prop. Critically, the stick is a tip of the metaphorical hattothe19th-century musichallcostuming traditions that Chaplin knew so well.

Shoes Thesize14shoesarefartoobig and helpfully distort Charlie’s physicality. This results in visual comedy even when Chaplin is motionless. The shoes are always worn on the wrong feet.

64 The fall of Charlie Chaplin

spheres of his work. That’s rare air that the south- Modern Times (1936), which had criticised modern London visionary breathed. work life in an increasingly, rapidly mechanising The story of Charlie Chaplin’s life has often been world. Indeed, with that film, Chaplin took framed as an ever-appealing rags-to-riches story, the idea of being a cog in the machine of work and suffice to say at this point that Chaplin’s life and pretty much makes it literal. Tellingly, his became something of a lens through which to character’s name in the film is simply A Factory view poverty in early 20th-century south London. Worker. It’s certainly the case that, in Chaplin, we have, Rightly concerned by the rise of fascism in what film scholar Richard Dyer might identify as a Europe and the particular event of the Spanish powerful example of the film star’s fascination to Civil War, Chaplin was committed to deploying his audiences as the embodiment of behaviour, and work as a filmmaker to a very pertinent, timely perhaps appearance, that appeals and complex subject. In this way, to many. he made good on something he From very early in his had reflected on in essays that professional life as an he had written early in his entertainer, Chaplin was very career. In his essay We Have much considered a wunderkind: Come To Stay (1922), Chaplin someone whose creative reflected on how cinema invention, energy and popularity could function as a form was tangible in one way and capable of exploring serious unfathomable in another. As themes. Making the broadest of 1913, Chaplin had become a of statements here, the vast global movie star, constructing richness of Chaplin’s career, and an image of The Tramp as an diverse reflections on it, finds innocent making his way in the a home in the BFI’s extensive perilous modern world. It was a online Chaplin archive: a must- As well as starring in role that, in part, owed a creative visit online resource. them, Chaplin wrote and debt to the Dickens novel Oliver The premise of The Great directed most of his films Twist that Chaplin read many Charlie’s Dictator turnsonahumble times over. Inevitably, though, barber, from the country of Chaplin in The Kid, to invoke the words of the poet troubled Tomania, who is injured during his first full-length Robert Frost: “Nothing gold can World War I. Experiencing film as a director stay.”Inthelatterhalfofhis Raisedchildhood in south London, memoryloss,heiskeptina life, Charlie Chaplin became Chaplin encountered hospitalfor20years.Whenhe increasingly beset by comment, much that would inspire isreleased,hefindsthataman reaction and endeavours his movie magic named Adenoid Hynkel has to diminish him either become dictator of Tomania, and Born on 16 April 1889 on East Street, professionally or personally. Walworth, Charlie Chaplin was the son hehassetaboutpersecuting of Hannah and Charles, professional theJews.Thefilmdramatises singers. Charlie’s dad would quite andsatirisesanumberofkey The Great Dictator often be away from home in touring reference points that relate (1940) vaudeville shows. Eventually, Hannah In an edition of Sight And Sound and Charles’s marriage came to an eerily to what Hitler would go magazine, published in October end. Charles died at just 37 years of on to do through World War II. 2003,apieceaboutChaplin age. Hannah battled with delicate Viaaseriesofconfusionsand mental health and was placed in a observed that: “He made movies mental institution. Charlie and his mistaken identities, the humble that danced to the rhythms of step-brother Sydney knew starvation barber is mistaken for Hynkel modernityandcapturedthe on the south London streets. Charlie and uses it to humanitarian was taken into care at the Central anxieties of changing political District Poor Laws School at Hanwell advantage,givingaspeechthat times.”Thedescriptioncould in Middlesex. The school had first runs counter to all that Hynkel notbemoretrueofThe Great been sited at Norwood in south has been espousing. Where Dictator,thefilmthatmarkeda London and Charles Dickens had Hynkel’s vision was based on written about it in his periodical, watershedofsortsinChaplin’s Household Words. These vivid hate and distrust and racial professional life. experiences from Chaplin’s childhood prejudice, the barber’s vision Movies are political; not party would eventually inform films such as embraces shared humanity. Even his Hollywood movie The Kid. political, but ideological and, as in this brief précis, we can see such,theywillalwaysexpressa how this comedy touches on particular view of the world. You may or may not theverytensionsthathavealwayscharacterised agreewiththeperspectiveonoffer,butthere’s somuchhumanconflict.Assuch,thisisafilm alwaysonelurkingatvaryingdepthsbelowthe thatworkssowelltoday;it’sa‘classic’,which, surface. With The Great Dictator, Chaplin wrote to borrow an idea from the Italian writer Italo anddirectedperhapshismostovertlypolitical Calvino,meansthatit’sastorythathasn’tfinished filmusingittomakeasharplyhumorousand with what it has to say. unforgiving critique of the rise of fascism. The film In The Great Dictator, Chaplin focuses on a vivid sits well right alongside another of Chaplin’s films, parody of Hitler and the film concludes with a 65 ThefallofCharlieChaplin

Paulette Goddard and Charlie Chaplin

speechbeinggivenbythecharacterofTheBarber, ThecamerapushesinonHynkelashelooks film received a cooler reception and, as Chaplin’s performed by Chaplin, in which he includes the spellboundattheglobe,whichwethenseeis career became evermore successful and well followingstatement:“Greedhaspoisonedmen’s justabigballoonthatheplayswithlikeadancer. regarded, forces came into play that sought to souls,hasbarricadedtheworldwithhate,has Atthispoint,asenseofrealismgiveswayto neutralise his cultural and political resonance. goose-steppedusintomiseryandbloodshed.We something more fanciful, allowing Chaplin to use Like Modern Times, The Great Dictator reminds have developed speed, but we have shut ourselves us that often comedy is the best route to saying in.Machinerythatgivesabundancehasleftusin something ‘meaningful’ about a subject. The want.” In this moment of the film, Chaplin’s movie “Anti-communists in film made Chaplin lots of friends and plenty of is no longer a fiction but instead functions more enemies, crating new tensions for Chaplin and as an overt piece of propaganda, stating clearly the the US pointed to what renewing and reigniting others. In Germany, it need for a culture that’s empathetic to difference was an unpopular film release, a fact that may ratherthanfearfulofitorviolenttowardsit. they considered hard not surprise. That said, in the 1920s, a number Oneofthemostresonantscenesinthefilm evidence of Chaplin’s of German intellectuals had found much to runsaboutsevenminutesindurationandcentres appreciate in Chaplin’s movies. aroundHynkelinitiallytalkingabouthisideasfor left-wing politics” In concert with Chaplin’s professional angst a perfect race, before then becoming entranced around the reception of his film and the attacks byaglobeshowingamapoftheworldwrapped a playful metaphor to express his repulsion at how on his political sympathies, he also had to contend aroundit.Hynkel’sgesturesandhisperformance therealworldcanbetoyedwithbythosewho with a volley of personal dilemmas; notably a arecampandsilly–notthegestureswemight abuse power. paternity suit. As part of their written assault expectofamanhell-bentonworlddomination. While The Great Dictator was hugely popular in to diminish Chaplin, a cultural icon in his own How can we take such a figure seriously? Britain,intheUSA(whereithadbeenmade),the lifetime, the FBI exploited the paternity suit Charlie on the big screen

The Kid 1921 The Gold Rush 1925 The Circus 1928 City Lights 1931 Modern Times 1936 The Tramp Lone Prospector The Tramp The Tramp A Factory Worker 66 ThefallofCharlieChaplin

Chaplin in a publicity shot for Modern Times, in which he plays a factory worker court case that was brought against Chaplin by a mentally fragile young actress named Joan Barry with whom Chaplin had had a relationship. A certain mob mentality fuelled the interest in the case, the American Legion supporting the paternity claim. Chaplin was duly declared the father of Barry’s baby and was ordered to pay child support until the child became 21. In a review of Simon Louvish’s relatively recent biography of Chaplin, entitled Chaplin: The Tramp’s Odyssey (a title suggesting a journey home after conflict), Simon Callow noted that: “The ever-increasing gap between the Little Fellow and his creator was lost on neither Chaplin nor the commentators: the Tramp, impotent; Chaplin…, hugely potent, both as artist and as male…” Chaplin’s personal life, then, offered up a number of opportunities to address broader social issues. Indeed, the ‘fantasy’ of the film star has often been a way for the culture to address very real issues that play on its mind. In one of his most famous roles, Chaplin eschewed The Tramp to satirise Hitler

The Great Dictator Monsieur Verdoux Limelight 1952 King In New York 1957 A Countess From 1940 1947 Calvero King Shahdov Hong Kong 1967 Adenoid Hynkel and The Monsieur Henri Verdoux An old steward Barber 67 ThefallofCharlieChaplin

ChaplinWives married & four times.lovers His first, second and third marriages were all short lived. His fourth and final marriage, however, lasted 44 years

MildredDATES OF MARRIAGE: Harris 1918-20 When actress Mildred thought she was pregnant, she and Charlie married. She wasn’t pregnant, but later they did have a baby, who died at three days of age. The pair divorced.

ClaireDATES OF RELATIONSHIP: Sheridan C.1920-21 British writer and aristocrat Sheridan went to Hollywood to interview Chaplin, after which they had a brief romance. Chaplin encouraged her to focus on art, not politics.

SigridDATES OF RELATIONSHIP Holmquist 1922 Swedish Holmquist was a successful Hollywood actress. One story relates that she held a gun to Charlie’s head until he pledged his eternal faithfulness to her.

LitaDATES OF Gray MARRIAGE: 1924-27 Gray appeared as the angel in The Kid and almost starred in The Gold Rush. By then, she was involved with Charlie and they had a baby on the way. The marriage ended in court.

VirginiaDATES OF RELATIONSHIP: Cherrill1928-29 After appearing in Chaplin’s City Chaplin (left) attends the Lights (1931) as the Blind Girl, premiere of A Countess Cherrill became widely recognisable. In Hong Kong in 1967 She is perhaps best regarded as a muse to Chaplin.

PauletteDATES OF MARRIAGE: Goddard1936-42 Goddard starred in Modern Times,in which she made a dazzling entrance into the action. She went on to star in The Great Dictator. While the marriage did not last, their divorce was amicable.

JoanDATES OF RELATIONSHIP: Berry 1942-43 This fraught relationship culminated in a paternity suit and fraught court cases for Chaplin, in which the judge referred to Chaplin’s “moral turpitude.”

OonaDATES OF MARRIAGE: O’Neill1943-77 Chaplin met Oona when she auditioned for a role in an unproduced film in 1942. Oona and Charlie were the parents to eight children and lived most of their family live ‘in exile’ from the US at Lake Geneva. © Alamy 68 The fall of Charlie Chaplin

Charges against Charlie Charlie’s dream of a career was countered by a number of forays into courtrooms and a host of media-fuelled accusations about his political sympathies Paternity suit Anti-capitalist Sympathiser Eloquent Un-American Joan Barry, after The story of Monsieur Chaplin was friends protester Chaplin’s choice to separating from Verdoux offers a with suspected Chaplin made a public never naturalise as Charlie in 1943, came critique of capitalism communists and declaration of protest an American citizen back on to the scene and the military- attended events about the House Un- despite spending claiming she was industrial complex, hosted by Soviet American Activities much of his career pregnant by him. and it received diplomats. In 1947 the Committee, which had there was enough for Chaplin denied this. a controversial FBI investigated him, been established to some to consider him The incident was reception. The film and continued to for identify communists in a threat who should exploited by the press. was a flop in America. the next five years. America. be deported. GUILTY GUILTY GUILTY GUILTY GUILTY

On 27 September 1991, Oona O’Neill died. She filmmaker found a way to give expression to the had been married to Charlie Chaplin. Her obituary complicated relationship with the country where in the New York Times described her as “…wife his career had flourished. Chaplin biographer of one of the screen’s greatest comic geniuses.” In Simon Louvish has made the point that with this 1943, Oona O’Neill had married Chaplin. He was film, in which Chaplin portrays King Shahdov, 54 years old. So appalled was Oona’s father, the “Chaplin knows well, as we do, that Shahdov is playwright Eugene O’Neill (also aged 54), that he still Charlie the Tramp, grown older, shorn of his disinherited his 18-year-old daughter. When asked old clothes and toothbrush moustache, the mask once about the age difference between her and of the eternal vagrant who had last been seen in Charlie, Oona had once replied that: “He is my the traditional from Modern Times in 1936.” world. I’ve never seen or lived anything else.” In the promotional programme accompanying For most of their marriage, Chaplin and Oona the film’s UK premiere of Modern Times, an lived at Lake Geneva, extract from the film’s and the New York Times final speech is included, obituary said that: “Their “Chaplin’s later life and tellingly it is home became a kind not described as the of intellectual watering encapsulates the character’s speech in hole; Pablo Casals, Nikita the film but as Charlie Khrushchev, Jawarhal tensions that can Chaplin’s. As such, it Nehru and Zhou Enlai emerge between art distils so much of what were among those who Chaplin was committed visited the Chaplins.” and commerce” to, deploying his popular Every life has it critical appeal to wake people days and dates: for Chaplin, 17 September 1952 up to the dangers inherent in the world. With was especially so. Charlie and Oona, with their his talent, he sought to enliven the audience; a four children, sailed from the US to London for heroic ambition for sure. Was it a form of heroism the premiere of Chaplin’s movie Limelight. En without a home, though? route, Chaplin’s re-entry visa to the US (he was Chaplin’s later life encapsulates the tensions that always a British citizen working in the States) can emerge between art and commerce in the film was rescinded. It was the summation of the industry (that latter word tells you so much that unease around Chaplin’s political sympathies, you need to know as a place to start from); cultural and after this date he would only set foot in the values around marriage and parenting and the US once more. Since 1923, the FBI had monitored ease with which a widely recognised figure can Chaplin and Chief of the FBI J Edgar Hoover had a be used as a scapegoat in terms of a bigger picture particular focus on him. The FBI’s mission was to around certain kinds of paranoia. prove that Chaplin was a communist. Let’s end, then, with an anecdote that speaks to In the 1940s and 1950s, the anti-communists the immutable power of comedy and playfulness in the US pointed to what they considered hard to subvert authority: when the House Un-American evidence of Chaplin’s left-wing politics: his WWII Activities Committee were due to call Chaplin to speeches supporting the American ally Russia. testify, they made a last-minute decision not to. Of the communist ‘witch hunt’, Hollywood film Chaplin had planned to attend dressed as The star Burt Lancaster noted: “Can anything be more Tramp. Chaplin was a trickster figure, seeking to un-American than the Un-American Committee?” puncture the self-aggrandising aura of those with a The emotional strain on Chaplin of his ejection lust for power. In The Tramp, Chaplin’s hero stood from the US in 1952 was immense, and in his late for the powerless, and that was his power. There is film A King In New York, this hugely accomplished no tragedy in making that stand. 69 Want more? Go to GreatDigitalMags.com and get great deals on brilliant back issues & exclusive special editions Instant access to back issu

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All available today on greatdigitalmags.com Greatest Battles

The war rages on Prior to Naseby, the war between the Get in line! Royalists and the Parliamentarians Both sides took different approaches to battle had been raging for three years. With formations. The Royal Army incorporated three neither side ever quite taking complete lines of musketeers in the centre with cavalry on control of the conflict, there needed the flanks. The Parliamentarians had two lines to be an encounter that decided the rather than three with musketeers out at the front. war before both sides ran out of steam. Naseby would be that battle.

Cavaliers Lacking the discipline of their adversaries, the Royalist cavalry often attacked Lobster pots individual targets rather than staying Nicknamed ‘lobster pots’ or ‘ironsides’, in rank. Although they were fighting a the soldiers of the New Model Army Parliamentarian army, about half of the were recognisable due to their metal MPs fought for the king. In contrast to the helmets. They would traditionally cut Roundheads, they would often wear fancy their hair very short and wear plain clothes with long hair and beards. clothes as well as a cuirass breastplate. 72 THE BATTLE OF NASEBY VILLAGE OF NASEBY, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE SATURDAY 14 JUNE 1645

aseby may only be a tiny English village Naseby. Next came Charles’s infantry and remaining in the Midlands, but on the morning of 14 mounted units, who engaged in a full frontal assault June, it played host to a pivotal battle in the on the reeling Parliamentarians. The sheer ferocity NEnglish Civil War. The bloody nationwide of the attack drove the Roundheads back but could conflict had been drawn out for more than not maintain its momentum, and the Royalists failed three years, with neither side managing to assert to strike a crippling blow as the Parliamentarians any clear authority. The Parliamentarian forces slowly but surely began to regroup. were now more determined than ever to finally Rupert’s decision to concentrate on the baggage bring down the Royalist cause, and on this day, train was a timely reprieve for Fairfax, who the New Model Army, a modernised professional responded by directing his mounted troops, led by fighting force, would prove its supremacy. Cromwell, to attack the opposing flank. This attack The Roundheads’ influential leader, Oliver became a key part of the battle. Sir Marmaduke Cromwell, was present but would not be leading his Langdale’s Royalist troops wilted in the face of the forces, so the task fell to the talented commander rapid cavalry attack and the Royalist infantry were Thomas Fairfax. The Royalist army would be led by sucked into a perfectly executed pincer movement the king, Charles I, and supported by his loyal band before completely breaking. If Langdale’s flank of subjects. had held out, the Royalists could have potentially As the clock ticked past 9am, battle began on the recovered, but it wasn’t to be. Charles and his forces misty open fields of Northamptonshire. Overlooking were now wide open to attack left, right and centre. the village from a ridge, the 12 regiments of the New Surrender was not far away. Model Army made the first move and marched into Prince Rupert returned from the baggage train soon Naseby. The opposing armies now lined up face after but was now too late to bail out his allies. As the to face, with the cavalry regiments on the flanks dust settled, it became clear that the Royalists had lost and the infantry occupying the centre ground. The the battle and more than 1,000 men had died in only Royalists had a German commander in their ranks, three hours of fighting. In contrast, the ruthless New and it was Prince Rupert of the Rhine who began Model Army only recorded casualties of about 200 proceedings with a rapid cavalry charge through the men. Many of the king’s best officers lay dead and fog after he spotted enemy dragoon movement on his artillery abandoned as the remaining Royalists Fairfax’s tactics the battlefield’s western edge. The charge crashed fled the scene. The battle was a hammerblow to the The New Model Army based its strategy into the Roundhead ranks, sweeping aside the king, and within a year, the final pockets of royal around its lightly armed cavalry. Their attacks were built on speed and surprise stunned Parliamentarian horsemen, but instead of resistance were taken care of. Cromwell was now the and would aim for the flanks to avoid and attacking the now exposed infantry, they pressed undisputed leader of his country and the age of the outmanoeuvre the strong centre of the on to assault a baggage wagon in the centre of Lord Protectors was begun. Royal Army. 73 Greatest Battles

The road to Naseby The Royal Army 01 June 1645 and the civil war is reaching fever pitch. King Charles is persuaded to march from his stronghold INFANTRY 6,000 in Oxford to relieve Chester, which is being besieged by Parliamentarian forces. Away from the siege, the main crux CAVALRY 5,500 of Oliver Cromwell’s New Model Army is assembling and evading any confrontation as it moves north. This delay allows it to reach maximum strength on the road to Naseby.

Leaving the ridge 02Fresh from sacking Leicester, the king’s men arrive atop a ridge but soon make their descent to the battlefield. Cromwell and Fairfax meanwhile move their dismounted dragoons (musket-armed horsemen) along the Sulby Hedge, positioning them to fire into the Royalist flanks. KINGCHARLESI The small skirmish works as Prince Rupert gives up LEADER his superior position on the high ground to charge at the New Model Army. The battle has begun. Dismissive of parliament’s role in governing the country, Charles preferred absolute rule, which led to tension and eventually civil war. Strengths Unshakable belief in his God-given right to rule. Weakness Declining support base duetohisactionswhileinpower. Initial 03Royalist success Rupert’s cavalry attacks with 05 intense ferocity and the Parliamentarian line buckles under the pressure. Instead of turning in to harass the infantry, they decide to

focus on the Parliamentarian

baggage train. 03 CAVALIER KEY UNIT The iconic mounted units were key to Charles’s military strength. Strengths Experience of a long and hard civil war. Weakness Position was based on status, not fighting ability. 07 02

Fairfax’s master plan By 11am, the Royalist infantry has engaged the MATCHLOCK 04Parliamentarians and is also enjoying some early successes. However, with a significant amount of the Royalist mounted troops now occupied KEY WEAPON with the baggage train, Fairfax seizes the initiative. Cromwell, who is A type of musket, it was wielded by marshalling the left flank, moves against the right side of the Royalist both the cavalry and infantry. ranks, which are led by Langdale. The Ironside left wing is unleashed to Strengths Power and range of shot. devastating effect. Weakness Slow reload time and poor aim.

74 Greatest Battles

Aftermath Flight of the king New 08Naseby is a critical loss for the Royalists, who are 07Quickly evaluating the rapidly Model Army chased down for 12 miles. Cromwell and Fairfax now have deteriorating situation, Charles declines to commit control of the jettisoned Royalist artillery and supplies. Charles any more men and flees the battlefield. The INFANTRY 7,000 and his supporters do not recover from this dire defeat and his remains of Rupert’s cavalry return, but at this late military machine breaks completely at Oxford in 1646. stage, their efforts are futile. CAVALRY 8,000

Roundheads in 06the ascendency The superior number of Roundheads now begins to tell. Cromwell’s cavalry bolsters the Parliamentarian left, which in turn boosts their flagging centre. Now under attack on all three fronts, the Royalist infantry gets sucked into the pincer. Unable to mobilise their reserve troops, there is now no way out. SIR THOMAS FAIRFAX LEADER Appointed captain general of the The tide New Model Army in 1645, Fairfax 05turns ranked above Cromwell due to the As Rupert’s cavalry makes rule of Self-denying Ordinance. almost no gains at the bravely Strengths Long career in the defended baggage train, the Parliamentarian Northern Army. New Model Army begins to tip Weakness Nasebywouldbehisfirst the balance in its own favour. major engagement as captain general. Langdale’s forces are swiftly eradicated, leaving the Royalist soft underbelly vulnerable. Cromwell does not repeat Rupert’s earlier mistake and turns inside to create a deadly pincer movement against Charles’s infantry. The situation has been reversed and the Royalists are now struggling.

ROUNDHEAD DRAGOON 06 KEY UNIT Led by Colonel John Okey, the dragoon units numbered at more 08 than 1,000 strong. Strengths Armour could deflect pistol fire and sword strokes. Weakness Vulnerable to mounted cavalier attacks. 04

01 SABRE FORMOREGREATBATTLESSEE KEY WEAPON Firearms were often slow and inaccurate so cold steel still had a big part to play in the battles of the civil war. Strengths Unmatched weapon at close quarters. ISSUE 23 ON SALE NOW! Weakness No defence against ranged attacks. © Edward Crooks, Alamy 75 OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE A26-letterrundown on an empire that ruled the waves and upon which the sun never set WrittenbyJackGriffiths

he British Empire began to assert itself ThestrengthoftheRoyalNavyallowedBritain TheempirehelpedspreadBritishcultureacross upontheworldinthelateTudorperiod to expand significantly, and by the 18th century, theglobe.TheEnglishlanguageaswellasfeatures during the reign of Elizabeth I. A queen colonieshadbeensetupallovertheworld.The of its religion, economy, society and politics were T who openly encouraged exploration and abundanceoflandputBritaintopofthepilein incorporated into other cultures. At the end of trade, Britons began to make trips to lands theworldoftrade,andthismonopolyhelped WorldWarII,itbecameclearthattheempire farbeyondtheirownnation’sborders.After expand the economy while the military became had outstayed its welcome in many colonies, and the spectacular defeat of the Spanish Armada, oneofthestrongestonEarth.Theempirewould began to decline. The British Empire may have Britanniaruledthewavesandwasreadytostart expandandcontractovertime,butsuccessfully crumbled,butthememoryofitssuccessesand itsempirebuilding. maintained its supremacy for centuries. failures will last for centuries to come. 76 A-Z of the British Empire

TheLife OfRobert Baden-

England’s Powell Test match Born O 1857 against Australia Robert Stephenson in 1939 lasted for Smyth Baden- Powell is born amammothten in London on 22 days and ended February. inadraw Childhood O 1860 An Australian team pictured at Niagara Falls Knownas‘BP’or touring Africa in 1878. By the late-19th century, ‘Stephe’ he had cricket had already become an international sport nine siblings. Sadly, his father dies when he is just Australia Cricket three years old. From convict colony to Thegameoftheempire Charterhouse O 1870 independent settler haven had sinister origins Baden-Powell is educated at ThelossofAmerica Now commonly played in one of the most presented Britain many Commonwealth prestigious schools with many problems, countries, cricket’s in the country. not least what to do popularity spread quickly Army career with the huge through the colonies of O 1876 numbersofconvicts the British Empire. The After failing to now not welcome in 1787foundingoftheMCC get in to college, he joins the army, the New World. Where would the (MaryleboneCricketClub)andpassingof becoming captain prisonersgonow?Theanswerwas Robert Baden-Powell the1788CodeofLawskickstartedthe at 26. pictured in 1896 during Australia. Convict colonies were first set professionalisation of the sport, which his military career Siege survival up in 1788 when 11 ships from the ‘First was first played in Barbados in 1806 and O 1899-1900 Fleet’ arrived. In the 1800s, the country SouthAfricain1808.Cricketwasalso Baden-Powell’s became appealing to settlers, and when Baden-Powell embraced elsewhere in the empire and unit holds out for gold was found in the 1850s, immigration thesoundofleatheronwillowwasheard 217 days in the “Life without adventure siege of Mafeking steppedupaspeoplemadethemostof in Australia, New Zealand, India and the during the Second the ‘Australian gold rush’. The Aboriginal wouldbedeadlydull” Caribbean.Cricketwasn’tjustasport, Boer War. Australians saw their numbers dwindle Amanwhoalways though–itwasusedasapoliticaltoolby Scouting duetofactorslikeoldworlddiseasesand preferred the great theBritish.Therulesandregulations O 1907-08 annexation of their land. outdoors to the confines were used to remind the indigenous Leaving the army Naturally, Britain now saw the country oftheclassroom,Robert people of the hierarchy between them behind, he forms the Scouting asausefuleconomictool.Thegold Baden-Powell was and the white settlers. It reinforced racial Movement and andwooltradeboomedbuttherewere obsessed with stereotypesandwasasymbolofsocial publishes the frequentconflictsbetweenthesettlers adventure. The colonel’s control. It was seen as a crude way of bestselling book andrulersovertaxesandland.Inreturn, finest hour would come in Africa during spreading civilised values to those who Scouting For Boys. the Royal Navy protected Australia the1899-1900SiegeofMafeking.The the British Empire deemed uncivil. The Married fromtheGermanandFrenchEmpires, siegewasduringtheSecondBoerWar,a empirealwaysbaseditselfonanauraof O 1912 butthiswasnotenough,andbythe vicious conflict that pitted the British superiority, and this control continued He meets Olave Soames, who has 1880s, the communities began to think Empire against the Orange Free State. 20 even after the abolition of slavery. three children with of themselves as ‘Australian’ and the special service officers, including Baden- Cricket remained a popular pastime Baden-Powell and empire’s grip loosened. The population Powell, were sent to defend the frontier. evenaftermanyofthecoloniesgained helps set up the wasgrowingatthreepercentayear They were surrounded in the town but independence. Now it was the sport Guides. whilenationalwealthwasincreasing managedtoholdoutagainst7,000Boers ofthepeopleratherthanasymbolof Death at double the rate of Britain’s. Despite for 217 days. The now Major-General oppression. The most famous contest O 1941 an economic slump in 1890, Australia Baden-Powellwasahero,butwithina between Australia and England was held After years of travelling and became independent in 1901. However, fewyearshehadturnedhisattention in 1882. The former colony recorded a promoting the Australia still rushed to help Britain in from military to scouting. The first book shock victory causing the Sporting Times Scouts, Baden- WorldWarIasthebraveAnzacsfought of the movement, Scouting For Boys,was to remark that “English Cricket had died.” Powelldieson8 January in Kenya. with distinction at Gallipoli and on the written in 1908 and from here, the TheAsheswerebornandthesport Western Front. organisation developed rapidly. became even more popular than before. 77 A-Z of the British Empire The Argentineans laid 25,000minesonthe Falklands. Many are still Decolonisation activeandposeathreat ThesunsetsontheBritishEmpire to the islanders and Despite emerging victorious from World War also the penguins II,theconflicthadadverseeffectsonwhat wholivethere wasnowafailingempire.Britainmaystill havehadthelargestempireofall,butas twonewworldpowerblocs,theUSSRand theUSA,arose,thecountrybecameaweak linkand,financiallycrippled,wasforcedto abandon its treasured possessions. The road to oblivion began with the 1947 partition of India, just five years after the suppressionoftheQuitIndiamovementin1942.Ahugeloss, the empire’s military muscle was quickly diminishing. Worse wasstilltocomewiththeSuezCrisisof1956.Losingcontrol oftheeconomicallyimportantSuezCanal,thiseventwrecked Britain’s finances, military and international standing further. Falklands As Britain began to rebuild its fractured cities and towns War afterwar,ithadnoresourcestomaintainanempirethathad been experiencing a wave of nationalism for a long time. The nation’s Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika were all independent by 1963 determined cling and the White Settler Revolt in Southern Rhodesia in 1965 to territory wasanotherexampleofthedeclineofBritishmilitarypower. Thefragmentationoftheempirewasdowntoalackoffunds and British weakness, but also due to many of the colonies’ profoundeffortsontheAlliedsideinthewar.Britain’sentryto theEECin1973effectivelyendeditsimperialambitions,and AfterWorldWarII,Britainowedmore theideaofempirecouldnowonlybeseenintraditionsand in war debts than any other country and theempiresufferedasaconsequence culture, not frontiers and firearms.

East India Company ships unload inLondondockswithanotherfull East India Company cargooftheprecioustea Thecompanythatevolvedfromminor By the 1980s, the empire trader to outright ruler was no more but Britain was still determined to One of the empire’s major institutions, the protectwhatwasleftof EastIndiaCompanywasabusiness itslegacy.TheFalkland juggernaut at its peak. The organisation’s Islands, a remote colony rootsoriginatein1601whenBritishshipsfirst in the South Atlantic, was setsailtothe‘EastIndies’.Hearingofthe one of the few remaining wealth of spices and materials available, more territories. Neighbouring and more ships made the journey and the Argentina’s military trade links began to grow. The British weren’t the first dictatorship, under Europeanpowertomakethejourney,buttheypumped Leopoldo Galtieri, decided resources into the business venture, and by 1690, had trading to invade on 2 April 1982, centres all over the west and east coasts of India. As British citing its inheritance from influenceincreasedandtheIndianMughalEmpireweakened, Spain and geographical The fall of Tipu Sultan, ruler of the trade began to turn into occupation. The company could now location as reasons for kingdom of Mysore and long time chargehightaxesanddefenditsinterestwithforce.Thishada its occupation. Going enemy of the East India Company disastrous effect on the local Indian communities who saw against advice from their economy and society effectively taken over. other nations, Margaret TheEastIndiaCompanywasatitsmostprofitableinthe Thatcher’s government firsthalfofthe18thcenturyasIndiancottonwasbeingmass decided the UK had to exported,providingtheBritishconsumerwithcheap,good- fight back. The conflict quality clothing. The company soon began to take more than lasted for two months it was giving as it started to meddle in Indian politics. This and649Argentineand caught the attention of the British government, who took 255 British servicemen thedecisiontoputthefirmundergovernmentcontrolin lost their lives along 1783.TheEastIndiaCompanyisanexampleofBritishtrade with three islanders. The outstaying its welcome, and its harsh affect on India helped Argentinean surrender develop a nationalist feeling within the country. By 1858, it came on 13 July. wasabolishedcompletelyandtheBritishRajwascreated. 78 A-Z of the British Empire

British ships monitor their possessions and patrol the coast off Hong Kong in 1800

BritainevenexpandedasfarasTibetinthe lastfewyearsoftheGreatGameunderthe Younghusband expedition of 1903-04 Great Game TheColdWarofthe19thcenturythatput BritainandRussiaonthebrinkofwar The signing of the Russo-Persian Treaty in 1813 alarmed the British. Concerned at therecentexpansionofRussianinterests inAsia,theBritishCrownmovedto protect India by expanding its own Hong Kong empire northwards. The battleground Animportanttradingcentrethatwasalmostconstantly between the two blocs ended up being ravagedbywarandconflict Afghanistan,whichactedasabufferzonebetweenthetwo powers. Britain wanted to use Afghanistan for its own The East India Company Afterthewarswereover,Britainsigned imperial desires, resulting in three Anglo-Afghan wars. The arrived in Hong Kong in a lease in 1898 that gave it ownership over mostprominentwastheSecondAnglo-Afghanwar,inwhich 1635 keen to trade with both theislandfor99years.DuringWorldWar aBritishvictorygainedanewprotectoratefortheempire. theChineseandthe II, the island was completely taken over by The Great Game also played out in Persia. Originally an Portuguese, who had major theJapanese.Theoccupationlasteduntil allyoftheBritish,PersiaswitcheditssupporttoRussia cartelsinthearea.Silk, 1945,butafterwards,HongKongwasforced in1825andwaspersuadedin1837toattack spices and tea were essential toadapttothenewcommunistChina.It Herat,aBritishterritoryinAfghanistan. commoditiesfortheBritish,buttrade adjustedwell,withaneconomicrevival Theattackwasbeatenbackbythe The was restricted by the Chinese in the 1950s that helped it develop into a British but Persia stayed Russian until phrase government, who insisted that financialpowerhousebythe1970s.In1997, theCrimeanWarin1853.TheGreat ‘Great Game’ was all trade went through the port theBritishleaseonHongKongexpired Game officially ceased with the coined by British ofCantonandselectChinese andChinademandeditsreturn.TheBritish Anglo-RussianConventionof1907, Intelligence officer merchants. By the 1800s, government initially tried to negotiate but endingalmost100yearsoftension opium had become the major soon realised the potential administrative and conflict. Persia was divided Arthur Conolly and product in the region and in and economic difficulties, and backed between the two superpowers popularised by an effort to end the first Opium down.HongKong’slossrepresentedthe and Afghanistan remained a Rudyard Kipling War, Hong Kong was ceded to last economically viable colony to leave the British protectorate until it gained the British in 1841. empire. The imperial adventure was over. independence after World War I.

Thefaminewasbelieved bysomeBritishtobea Irish famine divineactfromGod More than 1 million people died in a disaster that the British governmentfailedtoactuponandimprove

Theeffectsofthepotatofaminewere fromtheproblemsofthefamine.Irelanddid devastating for the Emerald Isle. An have supplies of corn sent over, but it was estimated 1 million (a staggering eighth either not distributed efficiently, there was no of the country’s population) died and 1 machinerytoturnitintoflouroritwastoo million more emigrated elsewhere to priceyfortheaverageIrishpersontoafford. avoid the famine. Potatoes had been Also critical was the cancellation of the soup- thestaplefoodofIreland,butbecame kitchenschemeafteronlysixmonths,which inedible as a late blight disease spread around was an efficient system that fed 3 million thecropsturningthemintoblackgooey peopleonadailybasis.Theideaoffeeding messes.A50percentlossincropscrippled Ireland was simply not on the Whig or Tory the country for three successive harvests agendaandwasnotconsideredanimperial from 1845-47. responsibility. A few public works were The British Whig and Tory governments attempted to relieve the situation but, overall, decided to be as laissez-faire as possible over the British government’s ideology of free the issue of Ireland. Preventing the export trade prevented any sort of structured aid. For of Irish grain to elsewhere would have been many,emigrationwastheonlyoptionandthe aneffectivepolicy,butitwasnotenactedas population of Ireland headed to the harbours the government virtually disengaged itself as America and the New World beckoned. 79 A-Z of the British Empire

The Boer Wars followed the Anglo- Zulu Wars and was a bloody yet successful two-year conflict

Livingstone Amanwhodevotedhis life to exploring many David new countries Livingstone David Livingstone was one of wasborninto the first to link working-class mosquitoes to the Glaswegian life and deadly disease wastaughttoread and write by his malaria father. Studying at Anderson’s University, he had soon Jingoism gathered enough funds to move to Theaggressiveforeign London. By 1841, his dream of policy and the stubborn exploration was realised and he was imperialism of the empire postedtoAfricaasamissionary doctor.Livingstonewasamanof Jingoism – the God,anduponreachingtheKalahari nationalistic and patriotic Desert region of Africa, he began belief that your country Kitchener converting many of the locals to is best – was rife within The British military leader who was immortalised Christianity.Aswellashisreligious the empire, especially at inthefamousarmyrecruitmentposter values, he learned about the true its peak in the late-19th extent of the horrors of the slave century. The aggressive Born in Ireland waspromotedtosecretaryof trade and explored Botswana and shows of force by Britain to maintain andeducatedin stateforwarattheoutbreak lake Nagmi. and expand its empire were naturally Switzerland, of war in 1914. Unlike many of Livingstone made several trips to exaggeratedbythepressandclever Horatio Kitchener his contemporaries, Kitchener Africaandwhetheronfoot,canoe propaganda spin put almost anything (and his instantly foresaw a long conflict and acted or ox-back, he regularly diced with theempiredidinapositivelight. recognisable accordingly, creating the New deathfromwildanimalattackor Theriseofothersuperpowers moustache) are Army.However,itwasherethathis disease. Meeting many local tribes, such as Germany and Russia only nowiconicimagesofBritainand careertookaturnfortheworse.He Livingstone’s writings helped advance helped fuel jingoism, resulting in its empire. Kitchener’s military was notoriously difficult to work knowledge of the slave trade and arrogant ideology such as splendid career was extensive and lasted with and his support for the poorly thedangersofmalariaandscurvy. isolationandthenavalarmsrace. from1871untilhisdeathin1916. planned Dardanelles campaign Governmentfundingranoutinthe Invasion literature of the era such as Beginning as a royal engineer, wasaturningpoint;thentheshell late 1850s, but by 1866, the Scot had HG Wells’s The War Of The Worlds Kitchener’s career soon took off, crisis of 1915 damaged his stock accumulatedenoughfundsofhis also stoked the fires of Russophobia andby1886hewasappointed even further. own to finance another trip. This and paranoia. Jingoism wasn’t a new governor general of Eastern Sudan. Kitchenerdidn’tsurvivethe time, the destination was the source phenomenon (Britain had always This upward trajectory continued war and was killed when aboard of the River Nile, and it would end hadfiercerivalrieswithSpainand and his efforts in the Mahdist War, the HMS Hampshire, which up being his final expedition. With France, for instance) but politicians andinparticularthevictoryatthe was sunk on 5 June 1916 by a almost no crew left and suffering wereworriedthataworking-class battle of Omdurman, made him a German mine while on a mission from pneumonia, Livingstone electorate was dangerous to British national hero back in Britain. to encourage Russian resistance wentmissingandwasonlyfound politics. Both the Conservatives Kitchener’s methods were not all againstGermany.Kitchenerhad in October 1871 in Ujiji, Tanzania. and Liberals came to realise that an popularthough,andhisuseof questionable methods when it Physically exhausted but always assertive foreign policy was the best concentration camps in the Boer came to war but he is remembered dedicated to his job, Livingstone died waytoappealtothepublic.Thewave War was severely criticised. forthesheernumberofmenhe in May 1873. The British Empire owes of jingoism lasted up until World Nevertheless, Kitchener was organisedatthestartofWorldWar him greatly for mapping out vast WarI,whentheGreatWarchanged madeaviscountin1902and Iand,ofcourse,thatposter. swathes of the previously uncharted people’s perception of conflict forever. African continent. 80 A-Z of the British Empire

Mau Mau Abloodyuprisingthatshookthefoundationsofan already failing empire In the post- A state of emergency was declared World War II in Kenya as hostilities continued. world, a wave 40 people, both white settlers and of nationalism black non-Mau Mau followers, were spread over murdered in the space of just four Africa. The weeksastheMauMauwasofficially rule of the declared a terrorist organisation. European powers was coming to an Britishsoldiersrespondedby endasdecolonisationtookplace.The arresting thousands of insurgents BritishEmpirewasoneofthenations and cordoning off tribal lands to to take the brunt of this nationalistic restrict Mau Mau movement. By drive, especially in Kenya. Known as 1954, the rebellion was lessening theMauMauRebellion,theaimof as more leaders were captured and The revolt the revolt was to completely eradicate interrogated. An offer of amnesty is controversial allformsofBritishruleinKenya.The was tendered by the British, but to this day, and first anti-British secret meetings were this was blankly rejected and the held in August 1951 in the capital killings continued. By 1955 70,000 in 2013 the British Nairobi,andtheMauMauoathwas suspected Mau Mau were imprisoned, government formally takenbyeverymember.ByOctober slowing the uprising which led to apologised for its 1952, the frequent arson attacks and the state of emergency finally ending brutal strategy assassinations carried out by the Mau in 1959. The uprising was a bloody Mauhadfinallycaughttheattention episodethatdemonstratedthe of the British government, who sent wane of European power in Africa A policeman stands guard over a group troops over immediately. The uprising andwasacatalysttowardsKenya’s of Mau Mau tribesmen suspected of had escalated. independence in 1963. plotting and acting against British rule Nelson Opium Wars The naval genius that expe Twoconflictsthathadalasting every man to do his duty effect on the Far East Horatio Nelson was Opium was big business for the one of the greatest British Empire. A commodity military minds to ev thatsoldbiginChina,itstrade gracetheRoyalNavy helped finance the British Raised in a small vil demand for tea and silk. in Norfolk, he began However,thedownsidetothe navy career at the ag business was the nasty effects 12 as an apprentice midshipman. The yo opiumhad,withaddictiontothedrugbecominga man’s talents shone through and he wa problem. When the Chinese government realised trackedthroughtheranks,makingcapt what was happening to their people, they imposed 1779. Prior to Trafalgar, Nelson served in restrictions on the trade, denting British profits. The Americas and the Caribbean. The Battle result was war. Vincentin1797wasoneofhisearliestv The first war began after the Chinese destroyed astheRoyalNavystruckadevastating 20,000 chests of opium. To support their interests criticalblowtotheArmadaEspañola.N the British government sent an expeditionary force reveredathome,Nelsononceagainutil tooccupythecityofCantoninMay1841,andthe hisgeniuswithastunningvictoryover captureofNankinginAugustendedthewarwith FrenchattheBattleoftheNilein1798. a British victory. The second war was larger in scale admiral, Nelson found time to defeat a s as the French waded into the conflict. Military forceatCopenhagenin1801.WhatNels operations began in late 1856 and by 1858 British be remembered for, and what the British gunboat diplomacy had forced the Chinese into Empire is forever grateful to him for, however, is negotiations. A number of treaties legalised the Trafalgar. The War of the Third Coalition was importation of opium once again but hostilities ragingonmainlandEurope,butNelsonhelped resumed when the Chinese shelled the British in thenavyscoreanimpressivevictory.The June1859.Angered,theBritishandFrenchreturned victorycosthimhislifebutconfirmedhisplace withahugeforceinAugust1860andcaptured in history. Beijing, ending the war once and for all. 81 A-Z of the British Empire

Penal Colonies Queen Victoria Raj Theempirehadmanyprisoners Thelong-standingqueenwhowas Thesuccessortocompanyrule, thatallneededtobelockedup famous for being not amused theRajwasaneweraforIndia Perhapsoneofthemostefficient QueenVictoriaruledBritaininan In1858,thefalteringEastIndia usesofAmericafortheBritish eraofprosperityandrelative Company was relieved of its Empirewasitsroleasahugeprison. peace. Her rule coincided with a political duties after the Indian An estimated, 50,000 of the empire’s long period named ‘Pax Rebellion and British India convicts were sent to the New World, Britannica’, where Britain became came into the hands of the making up a quarter of all British theleadingempireoftheworld. BritishCrown.TheRajdidn’t settlers during the 1700s. The first Victoria married her German coverthewholeofIndiaand convicts were sent over in 1718 under the cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in instead ruled over approximately two-fifths of the government’snewTransportationAct,which 1840 and the couple went on to reign over an subcontinent. A succession of British viceroys ruled introduced mass penal transportation to what are immensely popular monarchy. The Victorian age is India,asthearearemainedaneconomicand now the states of Virginia and Maryland. When the remembered for industrial expansion and military asset to Britain. 20 per cent of Britain’s 13 colonies were lost after the American Revolution, economic progress, but also development in the exportswenttoIndiaandmanyIndianswere Britainneededtocreatemorepenalcoloniestolock artsandscience,suchastheGreatExhibitionof assumed into the British Army. 20,000 troops and awayitscriminals.Initially,manyoftheconvicts 1851.Britainfunctionedasaconstitutional officials ruled over 300 million Indians. Eventually were held upon ships (prison hulks) on the River monarchy with the queen occasionally having an thelocalpopulationbegantoresentBritishrule,as Thamesandforcedtocleantheriver,butthiswas input in politics. itoftenleftthempoorandunfedwithempire notalong-termsolution.In1786,ananswerwas Conflictbrokeoutin1854intheformofthe profitsandambitionputfirst.TheIndianNational found,andpenalcoloniesweresetupinAustralia, Crimean War. The conflict saw the first awarding Congresswasformedin1885,givingthenativesan the Caribbean, India and Singapore. oftheVictoriaCrossin1856,amedal intellectual and centralised voice. The TheBritishEmpirewasbynomeanstheonly that would become the pinnacle of organisation helped aid the rise of Mahatma empiretoutilisepenalcolonies,butitdidoversee military achievement in Britain. Gandhi in the early 20th century and get some of the most extensive. The theory was Domestically, Britain advanced Seven thenationontheroadto that criminals could provide cheap labour on rapidlywiththeindustrial assassination independence, which was eventually plantations and workhouses while being totally revolution in full flow. In 100 achieved in 1947. disconnectedfromtherestofthepopulace.Itall years, the population grew attempts were changedin1779asthePenitentiaryActauthorised from 16 to 41 million. made on Victoria’s theopeningofstateprisonsthataimedatending life between 1840 corruption in jails. The introduction of penal and 1882 colonieswasanambitiousprojectbuteasedthe pressureontheempireandwasasustainable solution to Britain’s huge amount of convicts.

ViceroyLordCanningmeets MaharajaRanbirSinghin1860 as talks are held to extend British progress through upper India

82 A-Z of the British Empire

The Boston Tea Party was the most famous act of defiance against tax and contributed to the Slavery outbreak of the American Ashamefulblotontheempire’slegacy WarofIndependence With the empire ever expanding, shortages of labour in British territories were common. To remedy this, Britain (along with many other Europeanpowers)decideduponaterrible solution: the slave trade. The first trip was undertaken by John Hawkins in 1562 and the transatlantic slave trade was born. A triangle between Europe, the Americas and Africa, millions of Africans were removed from their homes and forced to work on plantations in the New World. This free workforce greatly benefited the economies of the European powers. In 1807, the AbolitionoftheSlaveTradeActwaspassed,finallybringing an end to the vile practice, but it continued in some colonies until 1838. Up until the 20th century, a Royal Navy fleet of shipsknownastheWestAfricaSquadronscouredAfrica’s coast,freeingalltheslavestheycouldasattitudeschanged.

UgandawaspartofBritishEast- Africa and many local men were hiredtobuildthetracks

The entirety of Tea the railway was Thedrinkthatbecameamajor actually located in commodityintheempire Kenya and helped OneofthefinestresultsofBritain’s buildupthecity expansion into Asia was the tea trade. of Nairobi Primarily a drink for the wealthy due Uganda Railway toitshighprice,thefirstorderwas The‘LunaticExpress’thatblazedatrail takenin1664.Tealeavessoon throughbothUgandaandKenya became big business and the East 1,062 kilometres of track, most dangerous part of the job, however, was IndiaCompanyquicklysteppedup theUgandanrailwaybegan theso-called‘man-eatersofTsavo’.Whenthe tea production, especially in Assam, India. Hiring cheap itslifeon30May1896 railwaywasbeingconstructedovertheTsavo tea-pickinglabourers,itbecameaprofitableindustryanda when the first plate was River, the workers were preyed upon by a cultural phenomenon back in Britain, rivalling coffee for laid.Thefirsttrainwould number of lions that killed about 20 men. the nation’s favourite drink. Each crossing from China or leave Mombasa station two Thereweremanyperilsalongtheway, IndiatoBritainwouldtakemonthsandtaxationonteawas yearslater.Thetrackwas but the railway was finally completed in veryhigh,whichoftenresultedintaxavoidancethrough thebrainchildofGeorgeWhitehouse,a 1901. The Lunatic Express helped the British smuggling.AfterthedemiseoftheEastIndiaCompany, veteran of railway construction in England, prevent German influence in the area and theteatradebecameafree-for-alland South Africa and India. Many of the first was an effective political move to control the merchants chartered fast ships known engines to hit the tracks were NileandaccesstotheeastAfricancoast.The as clippers to get a piece of the second-hand imports from India. railwaywasn’tpopularwiththenativesand action.Sinceitwasfirsttraded,it 31,983 Indians were sent to Africa wasknownasthe‘IronSnake’.TheKedong hasundoubtedlybecomethedrink to construct the railroad along Massacre of 1895 resulted in 500 deaths of Britain and the drink of empire. with a few thousand East Africans. afteraworker’scaravanwasattackedbythe The conditions were harsh for the Maasai people who were incensed after two Right: Tea bags weren’t invented yet, so the precious tea leaves were transported back to workers and they would sometimes girls were allegedly raped. Parts of the track Britain in wooden chests known as caddies go for days without water due to are open today and have been incorporated late or derailed water trains. The into the Kenya Railways Corporation. 83 A-Z of the British Empire

Vimy Ridge AdefiningmomentforCanadiantroopsfightingon thesideoftheempireinWorldWarI Vimy Ridge was down while the Canadians charged the WWI battle in through subterranean tunnels which the bravery towards enemy lines. The battle and effectiveness beganat5.30amon9Aprilwiththe of Canadian thunderof1,000artillerypiecesas soldiers came to 15,000 Canadian infantrymen thefore.Thetroops stormed the German trenches while wereorderedtoseizetheheavily under heavy machine-gun fire. By Thelossoflifewashighbutthevictoryat defended ridge, which had a theendoftheday,10,000werekilled VimyRidgewasthesinglemostsuccessful advancebytheTripleEntenteuptothatdate commandingviewovertheBritish or wounded, but Hill 145, the highest lines and was strategically important point of the ridge, was successfully for the Central Powers. A French captured by a bayonet charge on the attack had already failed, so the final machine-gun nests. A Westminster system assault was carefully prepared. The monument now stands at this spot to Howlegislationandgovernancemadeitswayfrom planofattackwasanartillerybarrage commemorate the immense acts of Britaintotheouterreachesoftheempire thatwouldkeeptheGermanspinned courage and sacrifice. The loss of decisions for all the lands it governed the USA but still gave it supreme rule over the resulted in a colonies.Itbenefitedthecoloniesasit political gave them the ability to rule with a rejig in the sense of independence and freedom. empire. The Most colonies took on what is Durham known as the ‘Westminster System’. Report, written in 1839, has been Formanyofthesecountriestoday, describedas“thebookthatsavedthe the political system is a final remnant empire”andputforwardtheideaof ofBritishruleand,withsome colonies governing themselves. adaptation, has served their politics Britain ruled a fifth of the world’s well. For example, India, despite population at its peak, and as time huge rebellions and a successful progressed, could not keep all the drive for independence, still utilises political institutions of its sprawling the system. It has, however, become empire in check. A two-party system unpopular in some former colonies. evolvedinmanyoftheBritish Riots in the Solomon Islands in 2006 dominionswithCanadaalloweda weremotivatedbytheApril2006 responsible government in 1848 and election and many have criticised Australia in 1855. The system the Westminster system as it can fail benefited Britain as it reduced the toreflectwhotheelectoratevotefor pressure on its parliament to make with its first-past-the-post system. PrinceAlbertiscreditedwith bringing over the first Christmas trees, but they were actually The Westminster system helped brought over in the Georgian period maintain a Commonwealth even after decolonisation Xmas Tree TheinvasionofevergreensintoBritishhouseholds They may be a Their popularity only soared further stapleofChristmas when the royal family were pictured traditionnow,but with their own tree and companies prior to the first got in on the Christmas act in Victorian age, 1880 when Woolworths began selling Christmastrees,as Christmastreeornaments.Originally, we know them theGermanSpringelbaumwasthe today,wereararity.Thefirsttrees tree of choice, but they began to be werebroughtovertoBritainin1800 replaced by the Norwegian spruce as by George III’s German wife Queen demand grew in the 1880s. By the Charlotte, but they only achieved any endofthe19thcentury,Christmasin sort of popularity in the 1840s thanks the British Empire had transformed toQueenVictoria’sGermanhusband fromabarelyrecogniseddatetoa Prince Albert. national holiday. 84 A-Z of the British Empire

TheAnglo-ZuluWarwasprimarily Yorktown caused by British aggression andiswellknownfortheheroic Theimportantsiegethatbroughtanendtomajor defence at Rorke’s Drift hostilities in the American War of Independence Perhaps one of and French coalition army to the most preventCornwallis’sescapefrom pivotal battles Yorktown.Aseablockadewasput in the history in place and shortly after land of empire, troops advanced on the British Yorktown positions. After the British lost signified the naval superiority at the Battle of endoftheBritishgriponAmerica. Virginia Capes, Cornwallis and his The British commander, Lord men were isolated. After 20 days, Cornwallis, had moved his troops to the situation was hopeless and Yorktown, Virginia, in hope of Yorktown was surrendered with maintaining communication with 8,000 British prisoners taken. The themainBritisharmyinNewYork. defeatitselfwasn’tahugelossbutit George Washington ordered French startedtopersuadetheBritish GeneralLafayetteandanAmerican government to consider peace.

The British wanted to surrender to the French but were forced to admitdefeattotheAmericans

Zulu PriortotheBoerWar,theBritishfoundanothergreat threattotheirdesiretorulesouthernAfrica In the early years of The first major conflict was at the19thcentury,the Isandlwana, where 806 British Zulus were the major soldiers died in what became an holders of power in emphatic victory for the Zulus. southern Africa. Thesameday,asmallBritish However, with settlers encampment called Rorke’s Drift was arriving from assaulted by huge numbers of Zulus, overseas, it wasn’t long until violence but the garrison of just 145 men brokeoutbetweenthemand remarkably held out. the new Boer and British As the war progressed, colonists who had The thetideturnedagainst discovered gold and disastrous the Zulus, who diamonds in Zulu and embarrassing were no match for Cornwallis’s surrender depicted by John lands. Back in British tactics and Trumbull,anartisthiredbytheUSgovernment loss at Isandlwana specifically to produce patriotic paintings London, the firepower. British wascoveredup;many A telling government of the Victorian exampleofthis weren’t keen on public never heard came at Kambula war, but High in March 1879, Commissioner for thetruestory when 2,000 Zulus South Africa Bartle perished while the Frerehadotherideas;he Britishonlylost18men. issued an ultimatum to the This defeat broke the Zulu Zulus. The harsh conditions imposed nation and effectively handed their were not adhered to and predictably landsovertotheBritish. led to war. Britishimperialismhadconquered The Anglo-Zulu War began in SouthAfricaandtheareawould January1879.TheZulushada become an important part of empire numerical advantage with King until war broke out again 1880, this Cetawayo boasting forces of 40,000. time against the Boers. 85 REVIEWS All About History on the books, TV shows and filmscausingastirinthehistoryworld REPORTING THE SECOND WORLD WAR The pen vs the sword Author Brian Best Publisher Pen & Sword Price £19.99 Released Out now

henweseesomeofthefirst- righttofreedomofspeechareattacked handreportsofwhatwenton from the outset, this book does a good during World War II, it’s easy jobinmakingusappreciatehowfar Wtogetsocaughtupinthe we’ve come. vivid descriptions of events Otherthanthat,itfeelslike that we forget that there was someone something’s missing. The majority holding the pen, operating the camera or oftheaccountsherearefromAllied manning the typewriter. journalists. It’s pretty safe to assume Brian Best’s Reporting The Second that the censorship implemented by World War does a good job of filling in theAxispowerswouldhavebeen the blanks, chronicling the exploits of just as severe – and probably more the likes of Ernest Hemingway, David so – than their counterparts, but Dimblebey, Robert Capa and more as accounts from the other side would theyputthemselvesdirectlyinharm’s have been nothing if not enlightening. wayinordertocapturethebiggest The events regaled here are exciting scoops of their time. Whether it was andenlightening,butitwouldhave theevacuationatDunkirkortheD-Day been nice to have heard the alternative landings,whatwouldbeconsidereda interpretations too. situationofutmostperiltomostwas Beyond this, the book also stands simplyajobtothem. out for its revealing descriptions of However,formanyitwastheir larger-than-life figures. Take Edward lastjob.OftheAllies,54Americans, Kennedy’sreportontheactionsof 20 British and six Australians died GeneralGeorgePatton–amanwho, whiledoingtheirjob.Thejournalists while admired for his prowess in themselveswouldbefirsttoadmitthat thefield,alsoapprovedtacticslike theperiltheyfacedwasn’talwayson murdering prisoners of war while the level of that of the average soldier hurlingabuseatayoungsoldier – indeed, CBS reporter Eric Sevareid suffering from shell-shock, for instance. notably stated that “only the soldier Whenyoureadaccountslikethis,it’s reallylivesthewar;thejournalistdoes easy to see why some correspondents not”–butastheopeningsentenceof faced the problems that they did. thisparagraphpaystestamentto,the With the amount of books dedicated to danger they faced was very real. World War II out there, new books on Butthreatstotheirlivesweren’tthe thesubjectneedtonotonlybewell- only obstacles these men and women researched and engaging, they need hadtoface.Withcensorshipheavily to cover new ground, and it’s certainly monitoredbythevariousauthorities, safe to say that Reporting The Second much of what they produced invariably World War does this. It’s interesting didn’t make its way to the page intact, that so few books are dedicated to the with many of those who chose to people who informed much of what “What would be considered a ignore or circumvent censorship we understand about history’s most invariably having their careers ruined. destructive conflict – well, now there’s situation of utmost peril to most was Inanagewhereanyassaultsonour at least one more. simply a job to them” 86 Reviews

AFTERNOON TEA: A HISTORY AND GUIDE TO THE GREAT EDWARDIAN TRADITION Discover how tea became the quintessentially British drink Author Vicky Straker Publisher Amberley Price £9.99 Released Out now

t’s undeniable that the afternoon cup, whether tradition among the most fortunate in society it’s served in fragile china or a sturdy mug, to discuss gossip and business. Straker uncovers is universally understood as a British staple. the domino effect of the cuppa in all areas, from IEnjoying a cuppa unifies our nation, but also trade, fashion, culinary traditions, and even creates serious divides: milk before or after emancipation of the sexes. water, sugar or no sugar, Yorkshire or PG Tips? Inspired, perhaps, by the recent surge in Luckily, we don’t have to bear the weight interest in traditional British baking due to a of the cultural associations of tea experienced little television baking competition, Straker has during the Edwardian and Victorian periods. included a range of recipes and instructions on Can you imagine having to change your dress how to serve tea for a proper afternoon tea party. up to five times a day, and wearing a specific The recipes include classics like scones, tea cakes, garment to pour and drink tea with your high and cucumber sandwiches, but also explain the society friends? If you’re hoping to fit in with history and significance of dishes like Sally Lunns the Edwardians and learn the proper teatime and pikelets. We have personally put these recipes etiquette, Straker is here to help. She explains the to the test and can conclude that they are both initial negative connotations associated with the informative and delicious. Now excuse us while concept of afternoon tea as a lazy and gluttonous we return to stuffing Peach Melba in our corseted pastime, and follows its rise to a significant torsos (just pray we don’t develop gallstones).

A HANDFUL OF HARD MEN A comprehensive look at the battle for Rhodesia, including detailed first-hand accounts from members of the Rhodesian SAS Author Hannes Wessels Publisher Casemate Price £19.99 Released Out now

hodesia survived as an independent country brilliantly throughout; the trials and tribulations for only 90 years, but during much of this both him and his team endured are nothing short time the world was at war. Throughout its of mind blowing, drinking their own urine and Rhistory it remained ostracised, isolated and eating used tea bags to survive when resupply largely bereft of allies, not to mention a missions failed. Like many books of this genre, considerable lack of military force. it’s impossible not to marvel at the bravery and As communism grew in strength all over the determination of these soldiers – the term ‘hard world, South Africa became a particularly high men’ fails to do them justice. profile target for both Moscow and Beijing, as Captain Watt’s story is the highlight, but what it possessed superb strategic value and hugely the author also excels in is the retelling of the valuable resources. To get to South Africa, world governments’ involvement in Rhodesia’s communist forces had to go through Rhodesia, demise. The White House, Whitehall, the Kremlin but this tiny nation refused to buckle under global and Beijing all get a mention; it’s worth reading the pressure, standing firm where most nations would book just to learn the part they played. In the end, have fallen. A Handful Of Hard Men focuses on the Rhodesia was lost due to a lack of political know- story of Captain Darrel Watt of the Rhodesian SAS, how rather than on the battlefield. Sadly, Captain who spent 12 gruelling years battling tirelessly in Watt’s fight had been in vain, but at least he lived the cauldron of war, resisting the forces of Robert to tell the tale and relay much of his story to the Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo. His story is told author of this book. 87 Reviews

IN BED WITH THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS Get under the pharaohs’ sheets with this saucy exposé Author Charlotte Booth Publisher Amberley Price £20 Released Out now

hey’re one of the most sexualised Sex in general was not considered the taboo civilisations in history, but just how accurate subject that it became in the centuries that are the modern-day depictions of the followed, and it was often performed outside of TAncient Egyptians? In her latest book, author marriage and within the confines of crowded CharlotteBoothdemystifiesthelivesand family homes. loves of the pharaohs and their subjects, ensuring But the book is not all about lust and notasinglegorydetailisleftoutofwhatis procreation. Extracts from their love poetry acclaimedasthefirstgeneralhistorybookonsex reveal a more sensitive side to the Ancient in Ancient Egypt. Egyptians that many readers may not have been Of course, filling 300-odd pages with wisdom aware of previously, as so many of the studies solely on their bedroom antics would be quite a focus on their immense building projects and feat, so Booth looks at sex in the wider context gruesome funerary rituals. of beauty, love, marriage and childbearing. She Frustratingly for the less prudish reader, also examines Egyptian attitudes to prostitution, the 16 gallery pages at the centre of the book homosexuality and incest, some of which may aren’t quite as graphic as you’d find in a book surprise you. Rather than the inbred folk they are on Roman sex lives, for example, but provide made out as being, incest was in fact forbidden a useful visual aid regardless. Overall, In Bed outside of the royal family, and the Egyptians had With The Ancient Egyptians is an accessible and a relatively modern outlook on same-sex relations. enjoyable read that will thrill any enthusiast.

THE VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE Or, ‘A 19th-century guide to spending your gap year’ Author Charles Darwin Publisher Zenith Press Price £25 Released Out now RECOMMENDS… oday, if a 22 year-old natural fauna he trapped (and often dissected), history student mentioned that Darwin describes volcano islands and Hattin: Great they were going to spend a couple soaring cliffs with the fabulous prose of Battles Series Tof years globetrotting, you might an educated early Victorian gentleman. Author: John France Price: £18.99 raise an eyebrow and ask a few Turns out, Darwin’s grandfather was Publisher: Oxford University Press questions. But 200 years ago, when a poet and natural philosopher, which If you’re after an in-depth a young Charles Darwin was handed doesn’t surprise us a bit. study of the the opportunity of a lifetime, this was This edition is, thankfully, more Battle of unheard of. What must his friends and than just a reprint in hardback. It’s Hattin from a military point family have made of what would have been furnished with illustrations of view, this been quite a risky adventure? and excerpts from Darwin’s later, is not the There’s little of this kind of personal scientific and cultural watershed work book for you. reflection in Darwin’s account of his On The Origin Of Species, as well as France’s new study on five years circumnavigating the planet, modern photos that give his memoirs the subject although he is quite sentimental when appreciable context. And there are notes is more drawing comparisons with the many from the captain of the Beagle, Robert interested in exploring new horizons that he encounters and Fitzroy, in the form of small boxes of how the 12th-century battle fits into his homeland. text for a well-rounded perspective of the grand sweep of history. The scope His famous voyage took him to their journey from start to finish. The is ambitious, and comes across a little like a university thesis. That said, if you untouched wildernesses that gap- Voyage Of The Beagle is compulsory want to understand more about how year travellers and scientists alike can reading for any biologist and this the current tension between East and only read about today. So between particular volume, while far from travel- West is rooted deep in our shared past, paragraphs of infinitely detailed sized, could be a source of inspiration this is a good place to start. discussion of strange new flora and for those bitten by the travel bug. 88 Reviews

IN SEARCH OF ALFRED THE KING, THE GRAVE, THE GREAT: THE LEGEND Uncover the story of the monarch that faced the Vikings Author Edoardo Albert and Katie Tucker Publisher Amberley Price £9.99 Released Out now

fter a high-profile excavation in Winchester like a cinematic experience resembling the in early 2014, led by osteologist and History Channel show Vikings thanaworkof archaeologist Katie Tucker, the remains of an nonfiction. His resume, including the historical Aiconic British monarch were found in a rather fiction trilogy The Northumbrian Thrones, un-royal cardboard box, kept in a museum’s explains this style, and it certainly increases the storage for years. entertainment value of the book. This reignited interest in one of Britain’s most It is, however, in stark contrast to Dr Katie famous kings, and inspired the release of this Tucker’s contribution to the book. The book retelling of Alfred the Great’s life. While arguably comeswithafewpagesofinformativeimages, the book’s largest selling point, the actual discovery including artefacts and documents from is not covered until chapter 12: The Post-Mortem Alfred’stimeasaruler,andtheverypelvic Story of Alfred. Edoardo Albert spends the bonethoughttobelongtothekinghimself. remaining chapters following his “main character”, While they certainly add to the experience a distraught and defeated King Alfred. of the book, they appear quite abruptly amid Chronicling Alfred’s rise as a leader from an Albert’s retelling of Alfred’s life story. While early age, including the untimely death of his certainly an entertaining and well-written read father Æthelwulf, Albert paints a picture of a wise forfansofhistoricalfiction,ifyouwerehoping and conflicted ruler. Often taking Alfred’s point of foranin-depthbreakdownofAlfred’srule,the view, Albert’s contribution to the book reads more book might not deliver.

SOLDIER SLANG OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR From‘ack-ack’to‘ziff’,soldiersusedslangtohelpget themthroughthehorrorsofwar Author Emily Brewer Publisher Amberley Price £8.99 Released Out now

mily Brewer’s Soldier Slang Of The First World ‘chat’, ‘chum’, ‘posh’ and ‘scrounge’ were all used War introduces the reader to almost every frequently by Brits during the war and ‘bootcamp’ piece of dialect used by soldiers during the and ‘cake walk’ arrived from over the Atlantic as EGreat War. Whether it was used to describe popular American slang. Brewer doesn’t just stick to a German mortar (blind pig) or a local the Allied side and also delves into the words used Belgian town (Wipers instead of Ypres), the puns, by the Germans and Austrians. Perhaps not quite as neologisms, slang, dialect, and mispronunciations interesting for the British reader, they nevertheless entertained the troops, kept them out of trouble provide an interesting and alternative view on the with their officers and could even help them escape war. One notable phrase is ‘England’s Schrecken’, a sticky situation. The book does a sterling job of which translates to ‘England’s Fear’. This terrifying presenting the many phrases of the era. Appearing nickname was used for the Zeppelin airships that in alphabetical order, words can easily be found on terrorised Britain. Overall, the book does exactly repeated reads and are all accompanied by a short what it says on the tin and makes some interesting and interesting description. Did you know ‘Tommy’, insights into how soldiers on both sides chatted slang for a British soldier, came from the standard during the war. A personal favourite from the book recruitment form example name ‘Tommy Atkins’? is ‘dream sack’, which was a lovely piece of slang Flicking through the book, familiar words still for ‘hammock’. The drive for it to be included in the in use today jump out. ‘Backchat’, ‘binge’, ‘blighty’, Oxford English Dictionary starts here. 89 Competition

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Trotsky was always against Stalin’s rise to power, and his preferred form What was the of communism, ‘Trotskyism’, was at ideological loggerheads with ‘Stalinism’ key battle of the Spanish Civil War? Mark Boyd, FRANCISCO FRANCO Maidstone Nationality: Spanish The ad-hoc Born-died: 1892-1975 nature of the A former chief of staff civil war meant in the Spanish Army, small skirmishes Brief Francisco Franco was Bio a right-winger in a were more left-wing world. When common than the country’s economy began large battles. to nosedive, Franco joined the growing rebel movement and The Battle of became so influential that when Guadalajara is the war ended he became head of state on 1 October 1936. often cited as a major battle, and was an important victory for the Republicans against the Italian-supported Nationalists, but the 1938 Battle of the Ebro claims the title for bloodiest and perhaps most key battle. After surprise Republican attacks in July, the Nationalists were initially surrounded, but quick thinking by Franco turned the battle on its head. Fighting lasted until November when the Republicans were eventually exhausted with losses of 75,000 men. The battle was the most brutal of the war and helped extend the war What happened to Leon Trotsky? as both sides reeled from their losses. The last Republicanoffensiveofthewar,theeffectswere Nick Connors, Macclesfield StalinandthenewSovietgovernment.Asaresult, felt harder by them as the Nationalists launched OnceamajorplayerintheBolshevikseizeof Trotskywasnamedanenemyofthepeopleand16 an offensive into Catalonia. power,Trotskywas,atatime,secondonlyto ofhisallieswereexecuted.Heeventuallysettled Lenininthecommunistpeckingorder.Afterthe in Mexico in 1936 and resided there for four years deathofLenin,therewasapowerstruggle,and beforeamachine-gunattackonhishouse.Trotsky despite being Lenin’s preferred successor, Trotsky survived,butacommunistassassinbythename was outmanoeuvred and lost out to fellow party of Ramón Mercader, debatably sent by Stalin, member Joseph Stalin. Subsequently, he was infamously attacked him with an ice pick. Trotsky’s banishedtoAlma-AtainCentralAsia.Hewas skull was punctured and he died in hospital the later exiled and lived abroad in various countries, next day aged 60. Since Stalin’s demise, Trotsky’s including Turkey, Britain and Norway. Enraged memory has been put into a more positive light The Nationalists also lost 60,000 men, andbitteroverhisshunningfromthecountryhe andifhehadledtheUSSR,historycouldhave meaning it was a pyrrhic yet important helped transform, he wrote frequently criticising been very different. victory for Franco and his supporters Thisdayinhistory10 December 1510 1817 1868 1884

O Portuguese conquest of Goa O Mississippi becomes a state O First traffic lights O Huckleberry Finn published Portugal expands its overseas empire Just like Indiana a year earlier, InstalledoutsidethePalaceof WrittenbyMarkTwain,thebook as it conquers Goa, a prosperous Mississippi becomes the 20th Westminster in London, the soonbecomesafavouriteinthe trading port on India’s west coast. state of the United States of signals are gas lit rather than United States. The novel’s story ThePortuguese,ledbyAdmiral America. It would go on to gain electric powered. Leaks made the basesitselfaroundHuckand Afonso de Albuquerque, capture Goa a reputation as a reactionary inventiondangerousbutitput hisbestpalTomSawyer.The withinadayandslaughterthelocal state and was the last to repeal thewheelsinmotionforelectric Mississippi and American life are Muhammadan population. prohibition in 1966. versions in the future. constant themes.

92 History Answers

TheGreatPyramidistheonlyWonderoftheAncient Are any Worldstillstanding.Wecanonlyspeculatehowthe Wonders of othersixwouldhavelookedintheirheyday YOUR the Ancient World still TWEETS Follow us at… standing? @AboutHistoryMag Stephanie James, Lincoln I’m a few issues behind but am Sadly, only the Great Pyramid loving @AboutHistoryMag, of Giza remains. The other six so interesting (Hanging Gardens of Babylon, @Jackieivylouise Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, @AboutHistoryMag You have Statue of Zeus at Olympia, some awesome illustrations. Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, @ijosborne the Colossus of Rhodes and the Great to see lead review for Von Lighthouse of Alexandria) have all Oelhafen’s Lebensborn memoir - Hitler’s Forgotten Children been destroyed either by natural in @AboutHistoryMag @ disasters or military action. The eandtbooks Important book. Hanging Gardens is a controversial @alisonmenziespr exception, with the cause of its @AboutHistoryMag You demise still unknown. Some guys should do an ‘All About Archaeology’ magazine with historians debate whether it even newsandinfoaboutthelatest existed at all due to a lack of ruins digsandfinds.It’dbeahit! and sparse mentioning in historical @dbrock82 documents. Settling down with a cuppa & the new @AboutHistoryMag reading about Billy the kid @trevor_H45 RoaldAmundsenwasthefirstmantoreach Who reached the both the North and South Poles SouthPolefirst? Sophie Turner, Warminster This accolade goes to Roald Amundsen. The Norwegian explorer reached the southernmost point ofthesurfaceoftheEarthwith hisfourcompanionsinDecember 1911. The last unexplored continent, many European nations registered an interest in achieving the feat but by1911ithadboileddowntotwo countries: Norway and Britain. The experienced campaigner beat a British teamledbyRobertFalconScott, whose ‘Terra Nova Expedition’ arrived 33 days after Amundsen, and despite WhowastheotherUSpresident theNorwegiansleavingatentof to be assassinated in the 20th surplussuppliesbehind,thejourney endedintragedywhentheyfailedto century? Find out at… make it out of the freezing Antarctic. historyanswers.co.uk

1898 1907 1936 1968

O Spanish-American War ends O Rudyard Kipling wins Nobel Prize O Edward VIII abdicates O The 300 million Yen withtheTreatyofParis The Jungle Book author is awarded the In what is still an anomaly in robbery Representatives from both countries accolade for literature for “consideration the British monarchy, King Four employees of a Tokyo meet in the French capital to discuss of the power of observation, originality Edward VIII gives up the bank are tricked into getting peace terms. The treaty is signed of imagination, virility of ideas and throne less than a year into out of a company car leading to andtheUSAacquiresthePhilippines, remarkable talent for narration, which his reign after falling in love their vehicle and its 300 million Puerto Rico and Guam while Spain characterise the creations of this world- with American divorcee Yen to be stolen. The heist is relinquishes its claim to Cuba. famous author.” Wallis Simpson. the largest in Japanese history.

93 ABO O LL U OAMAZING STORIES A T

OYOUR HISTORY O

S h s ar u e y ith our past w SHARE & WIN Share your history with us and win a fantastic selection of history books worth more than £50 if your letter is selected for publication in All About History, including Living on the Home Front by Megan Westley. PLUS: One year’s FREE Imperator was at one time the largest subscription passenger ship in the world and was to All About History 13 metres larger than the Titanic WE WANT YOUR... Photos Scans of snaps that Leaving Channel offer insight to the past Antiques and objects Show off your family heirlooms, Island life behind mementos and retro curios Letters from the past Peter Mitchell gathering,Iwroteonthebackofaswimming In 1963, when I was nine years certificate all I had learned that evening from my Old correspondence can hold a wealth of old,Iwastakentosayafinal merryrelatives.Itwasn’tmuch,butIknewthat historical info and fascinating stories goodbye to my grandfather, Albert I had to find out more. However, growing up got News clippings Michel.Thissolemnvisitisthe in the way and the certificate was forgotten for Articles reporting on iconic events only recollection that I have of awhile.35yearslaterIcameacrossit,andthis him.Therewasalwaysamystery became my prompt to get on with it. It had all the Amazing stories surroundingAlbert’searlylife.Nooneknew,for clues I needed. Interesting or insightful tales passed sure,anythingabouthisparentsorhissiblings. Albert Michel was born on 22 April 1896 in Saint down from your ancestors Even his wife and their seven children knew very Helier, Jersey. His birth certificate names his father Eyewitness accounts little about his early life. Later, I began to hear as Guy Michel and mother as Augustine Leferve. Did you witness a historic event in storiesabouthowheoncelivedonadistantisland Albert left home at 14 for a life on the sea because person? Share it today namedJerseyandhowhehadrunawaytoserve he did not want to follow in his father’s footsteps on a British sailing ship. As I grew older I began to asashoemaker.TheshiphejoinedwasBritish Family trees askfamilymembersaboutmygranddadandhis and the captain, so the family story goes, wrote his A chance to boast about famous or life on the island of Jersey. Information was sketchy name incorrectly in the ship’s log. From then on significant ancestors to say the least. When I was about 14, at a family Albert Michel became Albert Mitchell. Send your memories to: [email protected] 94 All About YOUR HISTORY

An extract from Albert’s register isting the names nd occupations of his parents nd the place and date of his birth

Albert’s certificate of discharge from the navy that described his ability and conduct as ‘very good’

A rare photo of a young Albert Mitchell aged 25

Life in the Royal Navy was short lived, and six ThelastshipthaIhavearecordofisWildRose. weeks after joining he was transferred to the Royal Albert sailed on it during World War II, and in 1941, Naval Reserve (RNR). In that same month Albert on a voyage from Dublin to Cardiff, the Wild Rose married Zillah Isobel Jones. He was 20 years old was attacked by German aircraft. It received severe and Zillah gave her age as 19. She was in fact only bomb damage and was beached. After temporary 16. The next record of Albert shows that he made repairs were made, the ship was towed to Dublin two trips on Imperator, a passenger liner believed where permanent maintenance was carried out to have been taken from the Germans after World and it returned to service. Albert was discharged War I. It became the flagship of the Cunard Line from duty on 2 April 1940. and was rechristened Berengaria. It was one of the The family have no records or recollection of most popular liners of her time but was scrapped Albert Mitchell having gained any war medals. in 1938 after the introduction of Queen Mary Neither is it known if he ever returned to Jersey. and Queen Elizabeth two years earlier. After a Albert is described by older family members as succession of ships, there seems to be quite a gap being a quiet man who rarely spoke about where between SS Innisholm in 1925 and his next voyage he originated from or his time in the navy. Albert on 21 January 1939. Later that year, Britain and and Zillah lived for many years in Sussex until France declared war on Germany. Albert died in 1963, with Zillah passing in 1969. This stone in Portslade Cemetery is Albert and his wife Zillah’s final resting place Do you have any family stories to share? /AllAboutHistory @AboutHistoryMag 95 Imagine Publishing Ltd Richmond House, 33 Richmond Hill Bournemouth, Dorset, BH2 6EZ +44 (0) 1202 586200 Web: www.imagine-publishing.co.uk www.greatdigitalmags.com NEXT ISSUE www.historyanswers.co.uk Magazine team Editor Alicea Francis What does the future hold for All About History? [email protected] 01202 586260 Senior Art Editor Stephen Williams Assistant Designer Ryan Wells Senior Staff Writer Jack Griffiths Production Editor Callie Green Research Editor Peter Price Photographer James Sheppard Editor in Chief James Hoare On sale Publishing Director Aaron Asadi 7Jan Head of Design Ross Andrews Contributors Alex Hoskins, Ben Biggs, Catherine Curzon, James Clarke, John Man, Philip Watts, Philippa Grafton, Sanne de Boer, Steve Wright, Will Lawrence Cover image Joe Cummings Images Abigail Daker, Alamy, Corbis, Ed Crooks, Getty Images, Ian Hinley, Kevin McGivern, Look & Learn, Nicolle Fuller, Sol 90 Images, Rex Features, The Art Agency, Thinkstock, Top Foto. All copyrights and trademarks are recognised and respected. Advertising Digital or printed media packs are available on request. Head of Sales Hang Deretz 01202 586442 [email protected] Account Manager Lee Mussell 01202 586424 [email protected] International All About History is available for licensing. 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All text and layout is the copyright of Imagine Publishing Ltd. Nothing in this magazine may be reproduced in whole or part without the written permission of the publisher. All copyrights are recognised and used specifically for the purpose of criticism and review. Although the magazine has endeavoured to ensure all information is correct at time of print, prices and availability may change. This magazine is fully independent and not affiliated in any way with the companies mentioned herein. If you submit material to Imagine Publishing via post, email, social network or any other means, you grant Imagine Publishing an irrevocable, perpetual, royalty-free licence to EDWARD VIII: THESECRET HOWWOMEN use the material across its entire portfolio, in print, online and digital, and to deliver the material to existing and future clients, including but not limited to international licensees for reproduction in international, licensed editions of Imagine products. Any material you KING OF SCANDAL? LIFEOFNINJAS WONTHEWAR submit is sent at your risk and, although every care is taken, neither Imagine Publishing nor its employees, agents or subcontractors shall be liable for the loss or damage. Inside his abdication and his The training, tactics and tools 21 things you probably didn’t ambiguous ties with the Führer that made the shadow warriors knowaboutwomeninWWI PLUS: Charles Darwin, Battle of Culloden, Thomas Jefferson, Mao’s China, © Imagine Publishing Ltd 2015 ISSN 2052-5870 History of protest, What if Trotsky had become leader of the USSR? 96 THE UNTOLD STORIES BEHIND THE MOST INFAMOUS CRIMES

torious serial kille quarius to the ru es of the Jazz Age Real Crime is the ity true crime mag newsstand. Every is Crimereveals theu behind the world’s ng cases, the breatht riencesofinvestigator urvivors, and blow-by-b BRAND NEW FROM ccounts of how lawbrea THE MAKERS OF ere ﬁ nally brought to ju

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SUFFRAGETTE

Director: Sarah Gavron Starring: CareyMulligan,Anne-MarieDuff,HelenaBonhamCarterCountry: UK Released: 2015

VERD solid effort that perhaps bites Are the British women who campaigned for the vote fairly represented? off more than it can chew WHATTHEYGOTWRONG… WHATTHEYGOTRIGHT…

At the Epsom Derby, The gaining of the vote The Suffragists do not The absence of the The film makes a point of showing that the 01Emily Davison says to the 02wasn’t down to just 03appear in the film. The 04Labour Party is movement wasn’t just led by Pankhurst. The main character “never surrender, violence and hunger strikes. members of the NUWSS were not questionable. Sylvia Pankhurst WSPU is correctly portrayed as a group that never give up the fight.” It’s a Obviously the film can’t cover as violent as the Suffragettes but was a socialist feminist and the attracted members from all levels of society and moving line, but it hints that everything, but it fails to still helped win the vote. One line Suffrage movement did have different classes, and appealed to those who she committed suicide, a theory mention the change of tactics at the start of the film dismisses links with the young Labour laboured in the workhouses as much as it did to many historians now disagree during WWI, which was key to the Suffragists’ contribution Party. It barely mentions Prime upper-class ladies. with. She is also believed to have gaining the vote. Suffragettes entirely. Sylvia and Christabel Minister Asquith and Lloyd- worked alone on the day. weren’t always violent. Pankhurst are also absent. George is the sole antagonist. ©Alamy 98 Presenting a selection of World War One figures perfect for depicting life behind the lines in the third year of one of the biggest conflicts of the 20th century.

1 Piece Set 1 Piece Set 1 Piece Set 2 Piece Set

B23064 1916-17 British Infantry B23061 1914-18 British Nurse B23071 1916-17 British Infantry B23085 1916-17 British Infantry Walking with Rations Standing Smoking Pushing Bicycle No.1

2 Piece Set 1 Piece Set 2 Piece Set

B23063 1916-18 British Lancer B23096 1916-17 British Infantry B23062 1916-18 British Lancer Feeding Horse Marching No.2 Mounted No.1

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