DOCSLIB.ORG

RRGH-Chapter 9

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
RRGH-Chapter 9 135 Copyright by CLP Research Caesar Conquers Gaul, Penetrates Germany and Britain, 59-51 B.C. By the first century B.C., Rome had come so thoroughly to survivors to return to their homeland to serve as a buffer against dominate the Mediterranean area that Greeks, Macedonians, other Germanic tribes. Spaniards, Egyptians, Numidians, and others who occupied Caesar perceived that the disunity of the Gauls presented territory adjacent to that great body of water bowed to the city a danger and an opportunity. The danger was that powerful on the Tiber River. Although the Romans had succeeded over Germans like the Suebi would pour across the Rhenus (Rhine) the course of three centuries since Brennus and the Senones River and either conquer or unite with the Gauls to form an tribe sacked Rome in 386 B.C. in driving the Gauls out of the even greater threat to Rome’s frontier than already existed. Padus valley, pacifying all territory south of the Alps and orga- The opportunity was that if he moved swiftly to seal the bor- nizing it as the province of Gallia Cisalpina, and even carving der between Gaul and Germania, he could isolate the historic out a Roman province in southern Gaul called Gallia Transalpina but disunited enemies of Rome for conquest. Thus, he wanted (or Gallia Narbonensis), vast lands in wild Gaul, Germania, and to strike eastward toward Vesontio to answer the appeal of the eastward on the European continent remained unknown and Sequani to aid them against Ariovistus. Except for the 10th unconquered. Particularly after Germanic tribes rampaged into Legion his army balked at the unauthorized campaign until he Illyricum and Gaul in the last quarter century of the second shamed them by insisting he would attack with only one le- century B.C. and inflicted terrible losses on Roman armies be- gion if necessary and conquer or die as the gods saw fit. March- fore being overcome and destroyed, Roman commanders lis- ing unexpectedly between the eastern foothills of the Vosges tened to report of new incursions of barbarians with deadly mountains and the Rhenus, he attacked the Suebi at the wan- seriousness. Add to the mix that the proconsul in command of ing of the moon to take advantage of barbarian superstition Gallia Cisalpina, Gallia Transalpina, and Illyricum with six le- against fighting at such time. In a great rout, he drove them gions in 58 B.C. was the ambitious and ruthless Gaius Julius back across the river, killing 80,000. Caesar, aware that military victories always translated into po- Suddenly, Caesar’s legions came to believe what Caesar litical power in Rome, and the following events can better be already knew—that their military skill and tactical advantage understood. in battle made them Roman wolves among barbarian sheep. Hearing in spring 58 B.C. that the Tigurini north of the Thus, he had little difficulty recruiting two more legions in his Alps, defeated in 102 B.C. by Marius and chased out of Italy provinces over the winter and convincing his officers to plan a by Sulla, had merged with the Helveti, a larger tribe numbering new campaign north into the third of Gaul he called Gallia 300,000 people (with reputedly 190,000 fighting men), and were Belgica ostensibly to retaliate against the various Belgae tribes preparing as an advance guard of the Helveti to migrate west- for raiding into Sequani territory but actually to conquer new ward across Gaul in search of wider lands to contain their lands, treasure, and slaves for Rome. No match for the disci- growing populations, Caesar sent Legate Titus Labienus with plined legions and their cunning commander, several were one legion up the Rhodanus valley to rebuff them on the Isara swiftly defeated and the Nervi, the most powerful, lost 60,000 River. He then came up with his other five legions to block the men in battle. At once Caesar dispatched Publius Licinius Helveti near Lake Geneva and turn them back. Receiving an Crassus, the triumvir’s son, to obtain the submission of tribes appeal by the Aedui from their capital of Bibracte that Ariovistus in the northwest of Gaul while he approached the English Chan- and the Germanic Suebi were threatening the Sequani Gauls, nel. Legions garrisoned at key sites in northeastern and cen- he continued northward toward Bibracte. The Helveti unex- tral Gaul imposed a veneer of order over Rome’s vast newly pectedly followed and offered battle. There before Bibracte, conquered territory. Caesar had to call a halt to further cam- Caesar defeated the barbarians and went on to storm their paigning to deal with the political situation at home. wagon camp in a fight that lasted until midnight. After slaugh- In April 56 B.C., Caesar journeyed to Luca in Cisalpine tering 200,000 men, women, and children, he permitted 100,000 Gaul to meet with Pompeius, Crassus, and 200 senators to HistoryGraphics.net 135 136 Copyright by CLP Research arrange for continuation of his com- mand in Gaul, more money, and ad- ditional legions. In his absence, Publius Crassus sent envoys to collect grain from the Veneti, Esubii, and Coriosolites of the northwest. However, they were promptly taken prisoner, which provoked Caesar when he returned to move ruth- lessly to suppress the revolt. While Labienus kept watch on the Belgae, Legate Quintus Titurius Sabinus attacked the Coriosolites, and Crassus drove south into Gallia Aquitania, Caesar marched through Veneti territory to the ocean. He finally overcame them in a naval battle commanded by Decimus driving the Menapi out of their lands at the mouth of that great Junius Brutus Albinus in Quiberon Bay. The entire Veneti river. At first he thought it wise to conclude a truce and open population was enslaved and the leaders were executed. negotiations, but after lulling them into a false sense of secu- Just as Caesar feared, two more Germanic tribes—the rity attacked and destroyed three quarters of their people, men, Usipetes and Tencteri—crossed the Rhenus in spring 55 B.C., women, and children. When the remnant took refuge east of 136 HistoryGraphics.net 137 Copyright by CLP Research the Rhenus with the Sugambri, he used that as a pretext to and 80,000 of the enemy. When the barbarians took refuge in bridge the river and ravage Sugambri lands for 18 days. Al- the hilltop fortress of Alesia, he built walls of circumvellation though his political enemies in Rome, led by Marcus Porcius around the place such as his uncle Marius told him the great Cato, proposed that for violating a truce and massacring so Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus used to besiege Numantia many people without pity he should be handed over to the in Spain 134-133 B.C., then desperately staved off attacks by a Germans, majority sentiment was approval that dangerous en- Gallic relieving force of 248,000 under Commius. Vercingetorix emies of Rome had been punished. capitulated and was transported in chains to Rome, to lan- The Gauls apparently pacified and the Germans intimi- guish in prison for six years before walking in Caesar’s tri- dated, Caesar crossed the English Channel late in the year in a umph and being ritually strangled. hastily constructed invasion fleet, landed in Britannia, and Assembling a powerful force of seven legions, Caesar compelled the stunned submission of minor tribes. However, drove north in spring 51 B.C. against the Bellovaci and crushed storms destroyed his ships; under attack by more powerful all resistance in central Gaul. However, with exasperation, he tribes, he repaired the fleet and sailed back to Gaul. learned that yet another uprising had occurred at Uxellodonum Returning to Britannia in spring 54 B.C. with five legions in southwest Gaul, where Gallic survivors of the force led by and a contingent of Gallic cavalry, Caesar marched inland, won Commius were hold up. Racking his brain how to stamp out a victory near the modern site of Canterbury, returned to the once and for all rebellion and free himself to deal with the coast after another storm damaged his ships, crossed the coming political showdown with Pompeius Magnus that would Thames River, overawed the Trinovantes tribe, and defeated ignite into the Second Roman Civil War, he remembered what King Casivellaunus of the Catuvellauni tribe in battle. South- his uncle Marius once quoted the great Scipio Aemilianus as east Britannia therefore fell under his nominal sway. When he saying, that massacres are sometimes not the answer when withdrew to Gaul, however, no garrisons were left. dealing with stiff-necked barbarians because they do not fear Encouraged and supported by the Sugambri, King death. Thus, when he surrounded Uxellodonum and forced Ambiorix and the Eburones, as well as the Treveri and Menapi, its surrender, he did not annihilate the survivors but cut off attacked two legions garrisoned for the winter at Atuatuca the hands of all prisoners. This ruthless tactic had been used commanded by Sabinus and Lucius Aurunculeius Cotta while by Scipio Aemilianus at Lutia during the siege of Numantia. the surviving Nervi of 60,000 men besieged Legate Quintus After that, Gaul was truly pacified. Tullius Cicero, the orator’s brother, and a single legion in his In nearly a decade of campaigning in Gaul, Caesar killed camp. Caesar returned in time from Britannia to crush them all, one million of its three million people and captured and en- then with two legions crossed the Rhenus a second time to slaved another million. The million who remained made ac- punish the Sugambri. He now realized that he needed more commodation with the new state of affairs.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • 1 Gallo-Roman Relations Under the Early Empire by Ryan Walsh A
    Gallo-Roman Relations under the Early Empire By Ryan Walsh A thesis presented to the University of Waterloo in fulfillment of the thesis requirement for the degree of Master of Arts in Ancient Mediterranean Cultures Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2013 © Ryan Walsh 2013 1 Author's Declaration I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public. ii Abstract This paper examines the changing attitudes of Gallo-Romans from the time of Caesar's conquest in the 50s BCE to the start of Vespasian's reign in 70-71 CE and how Roman prejudice shaped those attitudes. I first examine the conflicted opinions of the Gauls in Caesar's time and how they eventually banded together against him but were defeated. Next, the activities of each Julio-Claudian emperor are examined to see how they impacted Gaul and what the Gallo-Roman response was. Throughout this period there is clear evidence of increased Romanisation amongst the Gauls and the prominence of the region is obvious in imperial policy. This changes with Nero's reign where Vindex's rebellion against the emperor highlights the prejudices still effecting Roman attitudes. This only becomes worse in the rebellion of Civilis the next year. After these revolts, the Gallo-Romans appear to retreat from imperial offices and stick to local affairs, likely as a direct response to Rome's rejection of them.
    [Show full text]
  • The Herodotos Project (OSU-Ugent): Studies in Ancient Ethnography
    Faculty of Literature and Philosophy Julie Boeten The Herodotos Project (OSU-UGent): Studies in Ancient Ethnography Barbarians in Strabo’s ‘Geography’ (Abii-Ionians) With a case-study: the Cappadocians Master thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master in Linguistics and Literature, Greek and Latin. 2015 Promotor: Prof. Dr. Mark Janse UGent Department of Greek Linguistics Co-Promotores: Prof. Brian Joseph Ohio State University Dr. Christopher Brown Ohio State University ACKNOWLEDGMENT In this acknowledgment I would like to thank everybody who has in some way been a part of this master thesis. First and foremost I want to thank my promotor Prof. Janse for giving me the opportunity to write my thesis in the context of the Herodotos Project, and for giving me suggestions and answering my questions. I am also grateful to Prof. Joseph and Dr. Brown, who have given Anke and me the chance to be a part of the Herodotos Project and who have consented into being our co- promotores. On a whole other level I wish to express my thanks to my parents, without whom I would not have been able to study at all. They have also supported me throughout the writing process and have read parts of the draft. Finally, I would also like to thank Kenneth, for being there for me and for correcting some passages of the thesis. Julie Boeten NEDERLANDSE SAMENVATTING Deze scriptie is geschreven in het kader van het Herodotos Project, een onderneming van de Ohio State University in samenwerking met UGent. De doelstelling van het project is het aanleggen van een databank met alle volkeren die gekend waren in de oudheid.
    [Show full text]
  • Gaelic Homepage, ***Also*** Who Were the Celts?
    Gaelic Homepage, Click here for a web site devoted to the language and culture of the Gaels, Gaelic and Gaelic Culture. ***Also*** BEGINNERS' BLAS, Learning Irish Who were the Celts? The Celts were a group of peoples that occupied lands stretching from the British Isles to Gallatia. The Celts had many dealings with other cultures that bordered the lands occupied by these peoples, and even though there is no written record of the Celts stemming from their own documents, we can piece together a fair picture of them from archeological evidence as well as historical accounts from other cultures. The first historical recorded encounter of a people displaying the cultural traits associated with the Celts comes from northern Italy around 400 BC, when a previously unkown group of barbarians came down from the Alps and displaced the Etruscans from the fertile Po valley, a displacment that helped to push the Etruscans from history's limelight. The next encounter with the Celts came with the still young Roman Empire, directly to the south of the Po. The Romans in fact had sent three envoys to the beseiged Etruscans to study this new force. We know from Livy's The Early History of Rome that this first encounter with Rome was quite civilized: [The Celts told the Roman envoys that] this was indeed the first time they had heard of them, but they assumed the Romans must be a courageous people because it was to them that the [Etruscans] had turned to in their hour of need. And since the Romans had tried to help with an embassy and not with arms, they themselves would not reject the offer of peace, provided the [Etruscans] ceded part of their seperfluous agricultural land; that was what they, the Celts, wanted...
    [Show full text]
  • DBG Book 1 Outline
    Caesar’s De Bello Gallico BOOK I OUTLINE Chapter I 1-4 Gaul has three parts, inhabited by three tribes (Belgae, Aquitaini, and Celtae/Galli) who are different in language, institutions, and laws. 4-5. The rivers that separate the three areas. 6-11. Three reasons why the Belgae are the bravest. 11-15. The final reason explains why the Helvetians surpass the other Gauls in courage, because they fight regularly with the Germans, either in Germania or in their own land. 15-18. The boundaries of the land the Gauls occupy. 18-21. The boundaries of the land the Belgae occupy. 21-24. The boundaries of the land the Aquitani occupy. Chapter II 1-6. The richest and noblest Helvetian made a conspiracy among the nobility because of a desire for power and persuaded his people to leave their land with the argument that because of their surpassing courage they would easily get control of all Gaul. 6-12. He easily swayed them because the Helvetians were hemmed in on all sides by natural barriers. 12-15. As a result they had less freedom of movement and were less able to wage war against their neighbors, and thus their warriors were afflicted with great sorrow. 15-18. They considered their land, 240 miles by 180 miles, too small in comparison with their numbers and their glory in war. Chapter III 1-6 Persuaded by their situation and the authority of Orgetorix, the Helvetians decide to get ready for departure: they buy all the wagons and pack animals they can; plant as many crops as possible for supplies on the trip, and make alliances with the nearest states.
    [Show full text]
  • The Late Republic in 5 Timelines (Teacher Guide and Notes)
    1 180 BC: lex Villia Annalis – a law regulating the minimum ages at which a individual could how political office at each stage of the cursus honorum (career path). This was a step to regularising a political career and enforcing limits. 146 BC: The fall of Carthage in North Africa and Corinth in Greece effectively brought an end to Rome’s large overseas campaigns for control of the Mediterranean. This is the point that the historian Sallust sees as the beginning of the decline of the Republic, as Rome had no rivals to compete with and so turn inwards, corrupted by greed. 139 BC: lex Gabinia tabelleria– the first of several laws introduced by tribunes to ensure secret ballots for for voting within the assembliess (this one applied to elections of magistrates). 133 BC – the tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus, who along with his younger brother, is seen as either a social reformer or a demagogue. He introduced an agrarian land that aimed to distribute Roman public land to the poorer elements within Roman society (although this act quite likely increased tensions between the Italian allies and Rome, because it was land on which the Italians lived that was be redistributed). He was killed in 132 BC by a band of senators led by the pontifex maximus (chief priest), because they saw have as a political threat, who was allegedly aiming at kingship. 2 123-121 BC – the younger brother of Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius Gracchus was tribune in 123 and 122 BC, passing a number of laws, which apparent to have aimed to address a number of socio-economic issues and inequalities.
    [Show full text]
  • Histoire Des Collections Numismatiques Et Des Institutions Vouées À La Numismatique
    25 Histoire des collections numismatiques et des institutions vouÉes À la numismatique Igor Van den Vonder and Guido Creemers tHe COINs AND MEDALs COLLECTION oF tHe GALLO-ROMAN MUSEUM IN TONGEREN (BELGIUM) the coin and medal collection of the Gallo-roman museum in tongeren is the former coin and medal cabinet (Munt- en Penningkabinet) of the Province of limburg. it is an important collection, comprising over 30,000 coins and exonumia. the collection reflects the coins produced and in circulation in the region from antiquity to the 19th century and is unique because many were excavated locally. When the coin and medal cabinet was established in 1985, the province’s own collection consisted of the collections belonging to the royal limburg Historical and antiquarian society (Koninklijk Limburgs Geschied- en Oud- heidkundig Genootschap) and the barons Philippe de schaetzen and armand de schaetzen de schaetzenhoff. these form the core of the collection, to- gether with the collection of the former small seminary of sint-truiden, on loan from the diocese of Hasselt. With the acquisition of several private collections, the coin and medal cabinet achieved its target of 10,000 items. an active collecting policy was implemented and the collection soon doubled in size, largely thanks to gifts. Furthermore, Belgium’s royal court made over Prince charles’ personal collection to the coin and medal cabinet as a long-term loan. systematic efforts were also made to acquire the coin hoards found in the region. at the end of the last century the Province of limburg decided to fully integrate the coin and medal cabinet into the archaeological collection of the Gallo-roman museum.
    [Show full text]
  • The Manipulation of Fear in Julius Caesar's" Bellum Gallicum."
    THE MANIPULATION OF FEAR IN JULIUS CAESAR'S BELLUM GALLICUM by Kristin Slonsky Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts at Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia August 2008 © Copyright by Kristin Slonsky, 2008 Library and Bibliotheque et 1*1 Archives Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-43525-0 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-43525-0 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives and Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par Plntemet, prefer, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans loan, distribute and sell theses le monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, worldwide, for commercial or non­ sur support microforme, papier, electronique commercial purposes, in microform, et/ou autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. this thesis. Neither the thesis Ni la these ni des extraits substantiels de nor substantial extracts from it celle-ci ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement may be printed or otherwise reproduits sans son autorisation.
    [Show full text]
  • The Lives of the Saints of His Family
    'ii| Ijinllii i i li^«^^ CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Cornell University Libraru BR 1710.B25 1898 V.16 Lives of the saints. 3 1924 026 082 689 The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924026082689 *- ->^ THE 3Ltt3e0 of ti)e faints REV. S. BARING-GOULD SIXTEEN VOLUMES VOLUME THE SIXTEENTH ^ ^ «- -lj« This Volume contains Two INDICES to the Sixteen Volumes of the work, one an INDEX of the SAINTS whose Lives are given, and the other u. Subject Index. B- -»J( »&- -1^ THE ilttieg of tt)e ^amtsi BY THE REV. S. BARING-GOULD, M.A. New Edition in i6 Volumes Revised with Introduction and Additional Lives of English Martyrs, Cornish and Welsh Saints, and a full Index to the Entire Work ILLUSTRATED BY OVER 400 ENGRAVINGS VOLUME THE SIXTEENTH LONDON JOHN C. NIMMO &- I NEW YORK : LONGMANS, GREEN, CO. MDCCCXCVIII I *- J-i-^*^ ^S^d /I? Printed by Ballantyne, Hanson &' Co. At the Ballantyne Press >i<- -^ CONTENTS The Celtic Church and its Saints . 1-86 Brittany : its Princes and Saints . 87-120 Pedigrees of Saintly Families . 121-158 A Celtic and English Kalendar of Saints Proper to the Welsh, Cornish, Scottish, Irish, Breton, and English People 159-326 Catalogue of the Materials Available for THE Pedigrees of the British Saints 327 Errata 329 Index to Saints whose Lives are Given . 333 Index to Subjects . ... 364 *- -»J< ^- -^ VI Contents LIST OF ADDITIONAL LIVES GIVEN IN THE CELTIC AND ENGLISH KALENDAR S.
    [Show full text]
  • Peter Mountford, Alesia: the Climax of Julius Caesar's Campaigns
    Alesia: the Climax of Julius Caesar’s Campaigns in Gaul Alesia: the Climax of Julius Caesar’s Campaigns in Gaul PETER MOUNTFORD In 2012 an impressive museum was opened on the plain below the village of Alise-Ste- Reine (Alesia). A combined ticket for the museum and the Gallo-Roman site on the t the beginning of June 2016 I made a hilltop costs €11,50. The museum is obviously pilgrimage to Alesia, something that I a popular place for school groups to visit, as had wanted to do for many years. There there were several there at the time of our A visit. The circular museum is on two levels is nothing like a visit to the site of an ancient event for clarifying one’s understanding of that and has impressive views of the site of the event. The topography is so important. events of Alesia from its rooftop (pl.1). My wife and I were very lucky, as we had In the open space in the centre of the ground arrived in France at a time when record floor displays are put on of both Gallic and rainfall had led to severe flooding of the Roman fighting equipment and methods of Seine and other rivers. Thankfully the rain fighting (pl.2). stopped just before we reached Alesia and did not start again until after we left, although These are designed especially for students. it was overcast. Alesia can be easily accessed There is also a good bookshop, although from the motorway from Paris to Lyon. It is almost all books are in French.
    [Show full text]
  • Oratio Recta and Oratio Obliqua in Caesar's De Bello
    VOICES OF THE ENEMY: ORATIO RECTA AND ORATIO OBLIQUA IN CAESAR’S DE BELLO GALLICO by RANDY FIELDS (Under the Direction of James C. Anderson, jr.) ABSTRACT According to his contemporaries and critics, Julius Caesar was an eminent orator. Despite the lack of any extant orations written by Caesar, however, one may gain insight into Caesar’s rhetorical ability in his highly literary commentaries, especially the De Bello Gallico. Throughout this work, Caesar employs oratio obliqua (and less frequently oratio recta) to animate his characters and give them “voices.” Moreover, the individuals to whom he most frequently assigns such vivid speeches are his opponents. By endowing his adversaries in his Commentarii with the power of speech (with exquisite rhetorical form, no less), Caesar develops consistent characterizations throughout the work. Consequently, the portrait of self-assured, unification-minded Gauls emerges. Serving as foils to Caesar’s own character, these Gauls sharpen the contrast between themselves and Caesar and therefore serve to elevate Caesar’s status in the minds of his reader. INDEX WORDS: Caesar, rhetoric, oratory, De Bello Gallico, historiography, propaganda, opponent, oratio obliqua, oratio recta VOICES OF THE ENEMY: ORATIO RECTA AND ORATIO OBLIQUA IN CAESAR’S DE BELLO GALLICO by RANDY FIELDS B.S., Vanderbilt University, 1992 A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF ARTS ATHENS, GEORGIA 2005 © 2005 Randy Fields All Rights Reserved VOICES OF THE ENEMY: ORATIO RECTA AND ORATIO OBLIQUA IN CAESAR’S DE BELLO GALLICO by RANDY FIELDS Major Professor: James C.
    [Show full text]
  • 'J.E. Lloyd and His Intellectual Legacy: the Roman Conquest and Its Consequences Reconsidered' : Emyr W. Williams
    J.E. Lloyd and his intellectual legacy: the Roman conquest and its consequences reconsidered,1 by E.W. Williams In an earlier article,2 the adequacy of J.E.Lloyd’s analysis of the territories ascribed to the pre-Roman tribes of Wales was considered. It was concluded that his concept of pre- Roman tribal boundaries contained major flaws. A significantly different map of those tribal territories was then presented. Lloyd’s analysis of the course and consequences of the Roman conquest of Wales was also revisited. He viewed Wales as having been conquered but remaining largely as a militarised zone throughout the Roman period. From the 1920s, Lloyd's analysis was taken up and elaborated by Welsh archaeology, then at an early stage of its development. It led to Nash-Williams’s concept of Wales as ‘a great defensive quadrilateral’ centred on the legionary fortresses at Chester and Caerleon. During recent decades whilst Nash-Williams’s perspective has been abandoned by Welsh archaeology, it has been absorbed in an elaborated form into the narrative of Welsh history. As a consequence, whilst Welsh history still sustains a version of Lloyd’s original thesis, the archaeological community is moving in the opposite direction. Present day archaeology regards the subjugation of Wales as having been completed by 78 A.D., with the conquest laying the foundations for a subsequent process of assimilation of the native population into Roman society. By the middle of the 2nd century A.D., that development provided the basis for a major demilitarisation of Wales. My aim in this article is to cast further light on the course of the Roman conquest of Wales and the subsequent process of assimilating the native population into Roman civil society.
    [Show full text]
  • Was Galatian Really Celtic? Anthony Durham & Michael Goormachtigh First Published November 2011, Updated to October 2016
    Was Galatian Really Celtic? Anthony Durham & Michael Goormachtigh first published November 2011, updated to October 2016 Summary Saint Jerome’s AD 386 remark that the language of ancient Galatia (around modern Ankara) resembled the language of the Treveri (around modern Trier) has been misinterpreted. The “Celts”, “Gauls” or “Galatians” mentioned by classical authors, including those who invaded Greece and Anatolia around 277 BC, were not Celtic in the modern sense of speaking a Celtic language related to Welsh and Irish, but tall, pale-skinned, hairy, warrior peoples from the north. The 150 or so words and proper names currently known from Galatian speech show little affinity with Celtic but more with Germanic. Introduction In AD 386 Saint Jerome wrote: Apart from the Greek language, which is spoken throughout the entire East, the Galatians have their own language, almost the same as the Treveri. For many people this short remark is the linchpin of a belief that ancient Celtic speech spread far outside its Atlantic-fringe homeland, reaching even into the heart of Anatolia, modern Turkey. However, we wish to challenge the idea that Galatians spoke a language that was Celtic in the modern sense of being closely related to Welsh or Irish. Galatia was the region around ancient Ancyra, modern Ankara, in the middle of Turkey. Anatolia (otherwise known as Asia Minor) has seen many civilisations come and go over the millennia. Around 8000 BC it was a cradle of agriculture and the Neolithic revolution. The whole family of Indo-European languages originated somewhere in that region. We favour the idea that they grew up around the Black Sea all the way from northern Anatolia, past the mouth of the river Danube, to southern Russia and Ukraine.
    [Show full text]