University of Dayton eCommons

Geology Faculty Publications Department of Geology

2011 Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers Vijay P. Singh Texas A & M University - College Station

Pratap Singh

Umesh K. Haritashya University of Dayton, [email protected]

Follow this and additional works at: http://ecommons.udayton.edu/geo_fac_pub Part of the Geology Commons, Geomorphology Commons, Geophysics and Seismology Commons, Glaciology Commons, Hydrology Commons, Other Environmental Sciences Commons, Paleontology Commons, Sedimentology Commons, Soil Science Commons, Stratigraphy Commons, and the Tectonics and Structure Commons eCommons Citation Singh, Vijay P.; Singh, Pratap; and Haritashya, Umesh K., "Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers" (2011). Geology Faculty Publications. Paper 7. http://ecommons.udayton.edu/geo_fac_pub/7

This Book is brought to you for free and open access by the Department of Geology at eCommons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Geology Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of eCommons. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES

ENCYCLOPEDIA of SNOW, ICE AND GLACIERS

edited by

VIJAY P. SINGH Texas A&M University College Station, Texas USA

PRATAP SINGH New Delhi India

UMESH K. HARITASHYA University of Dayton Dayton, Ohio USA Contents

Contributors xxi Anabatic Winds: In Relation with Snow/Glacier Basin 39 Preface xli Umesh K. Haritashya, Vijay P. Singh and Pratap Singh Acknowledgments xliii Anchor Ice 40 Guide to the Reader xlv D. P. Dobhal

Ablation Depression 1 Andean Glaciers 40 Lasafam Iturrizaga Mathias Vuille

Ablatometer 3 Anisotropic Ice Flow 44 Rijan B. Kayastha Olivier Gagliardini

Acidity of Glacier Ice 3 Antarctica 45 Cunde Xiao Rasik Ravindra and Arun Chaturvedi

Active Ice Wedge 4 Anti-Icing 54 Pratima Pandey Rijan B. Kayastha

Adfreeze 4 Anti-Syngenetic Ice Wedge 54 Pratima Pandey Pratima Pandey

Aerial Photogrammetry for Glacial Monitoring 4 Appalachian Glacier Complex in Maritime Canada 54 Martin Kappas Rudolph R. Stea

Alaskan Glaciers 16 Arctic Hydroclimatology 58 Bruce F. Molnia Jessica Ellen Cherry

Albedo 23 Artificial Ground Freezing 61 Thomas C. Grenfell Rijan B. Kayastha

Alps 35 Artificial Production of Snow 61 Martin Beniston Carmen de Jong

Altai-Sayan Glaciers 38 Atmosphere-Snow/Ice Interactions 66 Vladimir Aizen Timo Vihma viii CONTENTS

Atmospheric Circulation and Glaciochemical Catastrophic Rock Slope Failures and Mountain Records 75 Glaciers 113 Shichang Kang Kenneth Hewitt, John J. Clague and Philip Deline

Automated Glacier Mapping 76 Catchment Glacier 127 Frank Paul D. P. Dobhal

Basal Sediment Evacuation by Subglacial Caucasus Mountains 127 Drainage Systems 85 Chris R. Stokes Darrel A. Swift Characteristics of Snow and Glacier Fed Rivers Base Flow/Groundwater Flow 90 in Mountainous Regions with Special Debasmita Misra, Ronald P. Daanen and Reference to Himalayan Basins 128 Anita M. Thompson Akhouri Pramod Krishna

Bed (Bottom) Topography 93 Chemical Composition of Snow, Ice, and Glaciers 133 Vijay Kumar Amanda M. Grannas

Bed Forms (Fluvial) 93 Chemical and Microbe Records in Snow and Ice 135 Vijay Kumar Liu Yongqin

Bed Roughness 94 Chemical Processes in Snow and Ice 138 Vijay Kumar Amanda M. Grannas

Bed Strength 94 Circulation and Mixing in Ice-Covered Lakes 139 Vijay Kumar Lars Bengtsson

Benchmark Glacier 95 Cirque Glaciers 141 Tobias Bolch Øyvind Paasche Biogeochemistry of Sea Ice 98 David N. Thomas Climate Change and Glaciers 145 Arun B. Shrestha Blue Ice 102 Richard Bintanja Climate Variability and High Altitude Temperature and Precipitation 153 Bottom Melting or Undermelt (Ice Shelf) 103 Mathias Vuille Ashok Kumar Verma Cloudburst 156 Brash Ice 103 Vijay Kumar Chelamallu Hariprasad Cohesion 157 Calving Glaciers 105 P. Pradeep Kumar Charles R. Warren Cold-Based Glaciers 157 Canadian Rockies and Coast Mountains Reginald D. Lorrain and Sean J. Fitzsimons of Canada 106 John J. Clague, Brian Menounos and Condensation Nuclei 161 Roger Wheate P. Pradeep Kumar

Cascade Mountains, USA 111 Confluence of Rivers 161 Rijan B. Kayastha Anju Chaudhary

Cascade System 112 Congelation Ice 163 Rijan B. Kayastha Pratima Pandey

Catastrophic Flooding 112 Crack 163 Fiona Tweed Pratima Pandey CONTENTS ix

Creep 163 Debris 186 Christophe Lambiel, Reynald Delaloye and Tobias Bolch Isabelle Gärtner-Roer Debris Thermal Properties and Impact on Crevasses 165 Ice Ablation 188 C. J. van der Veen Ryohei Suzuki

Critical Temperature 168 Debris-Covered Glaciers 190 Pratima Pandey Martin P. Kirkbride

Crush 168 Deglaciation 192 Pratima Pandey Vinvent Rinterknecht

Crust 168 Degree-Days 196 Pratima Pandey Roger J. Braithwaite

Cryoconite 168 Depletion of Snow Cover 200 Nozomu Takeuchi Sanjay K. Jain

Cryodessication 171 Deposition from Debris-Rich Ice 201 P. Pradeep Kumar Gulab Singh and Farjana S. Birajdar Cryofront 171 Digital Elevation Model Generation Over P. Pradeep Kumar Glacierized Region 202 Thierry Toutin Cryogenesis 171 P. Pradeep Kumar Digital Image Information Extraction Techniques for Snow Cover Mapping from Remote Cryogenic Aquiclude 171 Sensing Data 213 P. Pradeep Kumar Manoj K. Arora, Aparna Shukla and Ravi P. Gupta Cryogenic Fabric 172 P. Pradeep Kumar Direct Surface Runoff 232 Lars Bengtsson Cryolithology 172 P. Pradeep Kumar Discharge/Streamflow 234 Cryopeg 172 Debasmita Misra, Ronald P. Daanen and P. Pradeep Kumar Anita M. Thompson

Cryosol 172 Distributary Channels 236 P. Pradeep Kumar Anju Chaudhary

Cryostatic Pressure 173 Diurnal Cycle of Runoff 237 Pratima Pandey Darrel A. Swift

Cryostructure 173 Diverging Ice Flow 239 Pratima Pandey Gulab Singh and Farjana S. Birajdar

Cryoturbation 173 Drift Glacier/Ice/Snow 240 P. Pradeep Kumar Gulab Singh and Farjana S. Birajdar

Dating Glacial Landforms 175 Dry and Wet Snow Line/Zone 240 Jason P. Briner Ravi P. Gupta

Dead Ice 186 Dry Snow 241 D. P. Dobhal Ravi P. Gupta x CONTENTS

Dye Tracer Investigations of Glacier Hydrology 242 Forbes Band 296 Peter Nienow Gulab Singh

Dynamics of Glaciers 245 Formation and Deformation of Basal Ice 297 Hester Jiskoot Simon J. Cook

Elongation Ratio 257 Frazil 300 Vijay Kumar Gulab Singh

Englacial Conduit 257 Freezing Bottom (Ice Shelf) 300 D. P. Dobhal Gulab Singh

Englacial Processes 258 Freezing Meltwater 301 Andrew G. Fountain Gulab Singh and F. S. Birajdar Freezing and Thawing Index 301 Environmental Isotopes 261 Jiang Fengqing and Zhang Yanwei Bhishm Kumar Frequency Analysis of Snow Storms 302 Epigenetic Ice 262 Stanley A. Changnon Chelamallu Hariprasad Fresh Water Storage 303 Epiglacial Morphology 262 Pratima Pandey Claudio Smiraglia and Guglielmina Diolaiuti Frictional Melting 303 Equilibrium-Line Altitude (ELA) 268 Pratima Pandey Jostein Bakke and Atle Nesje Frost 303 Erosion of Hard Rock Bed 277 Alan W. Rempel D. P. Dobhal Frozen Soil Hydrology 306 Erosion Rate 277 Ronald P. Daanen, Debasmita Misra and Subhajit Sinha Anita M. Thompson

Estimation of Glacier Volume and Volume Frozen Toe (Outer Zone of Glacier Snout) 311 Change by Scaling Methods 278 Pratima Pandey David B. Bahr Gelisols 313 Estuary Ice Cover 281 Divya Dudeja Brian Morse Geochemistry of Snow and Ice 313 Tandong Yao, Yongqin Liu, Huabiao Zhao and Fast Ice 289 Wusheng Yu D. P. Dobhal Geocryology 324 Finger Rafting 289 Amit Kumar Dominic Vella and John Wettlaufer GIS in Glaciology 325 Firn 290 Jacob Napieralski Rachel W. Obbard, Ian Baker and Rachel W. Lomonaco Glacial Drainage Characteristics 328 Richard A. Marston Fjords 293 Umesh K. Haritashya, Vijay P. Singh and Glacial Ecosystems 330 Pratap Singh Nozomu Takeuchi

Foliation 296 Glacial Erosion 332 Gulab Singh Ping Fu and Jonathan Harbor CONTENTS xi

Glacial Erratic 341 Glacier Surging 415 D. P. Dobhal Hester Jiskoot

Glacial Geomorphology and Landforms Evolution 341 Glacier System 428 Alan R. Gillespie Rajesh Kumar

Glacial Grooves 358 Glacier Toe 429 D. P. Dobhal Rajesh Kumar

Glacial Overdeepening 358 Glaciers of the Karakoram Himalaya 429 Christopher Lloyd Kenneth Hewitt

Glacial Striations 359 Glacieret 436 D. P. Dobhal Rajesh Kumar

Glacial Trough 359 Glacierization 436 D. P. Dobhal Rajesh Kumar

Glacial/Interglacial Cycles 359 Glacioeustasy 436 Michel Crucifix Amit Kumar

Glaciation During Times of Enhanced/Reduced Glaciofluvial 437 Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide 366 Rajesh Kumar Andrew B. G. Bush Glaciogenic Deposits 437 Glaciations and Groundwater Flow Systems 372 Rajesh Kumar Jean-Michel Lemieux and Edward A. Sudicky

Glacier 376 Glaciohydraulic Supercooling 438 D. P. Dobhal Fiona Tweed

Glacier Bird of the Andes 377 Glacioisostasy 439 Douglas R. Hardy and Spencer P. Hardy Amit Kumar

Glacier Cave 377 Glaciolacustrine 440 Monohar Arora Himali Panthri

Glacier Field Studies: Important Things to Notice 378 Glaciology 440 John F. Shroder Peter G. Knight

Glacier Hydrology 379 Glaciomarine 443 Pratap Singh Amit Kumar

Glacier Lake Outburst Floods 381 Glaciostatic Pressure/Stress 443 Lasafam Iturrizaga Divya Dudeja

Glacier Mass Balance 399 Glaciotectonic Structures, Landforms, Wilfried Haeberli and Processes 444 James S. Aber and Andrzej Ber Glacier Motion/Ice Velocity 408 Terry Hughes Global Climate Modeling in Cryospheric Assessment 458 Glacier Pothole 414 Jeffrey Ridley Rajesh Kumar Global Outlook of Snowcover, Sea Ice, Glacier Sliding 415 and Glaciers 461 Rajesh Kumar Mauri Pelto xii CONTENTS

Global Warming and its Effect on Horizontal Component of Velocity 530 Snow/Ice/Glaciers 468 Rijan B. Kayastha Stephen J. Déry Hummocks (Peat) 530 GPS in Glaciology, Applications 471 Subhajit Sinha Matt A. King Hydrochemical Characteristics of Snow, Ice, and GRACE in Glaciology 474 Glaciers 530 John Wahr Jacob Clement Yde

Granulometry 477 Hydrogen Isotopes 533 Amit Kumar Bhishm Kumar

Gravel Sheet 477 Hydrographs 534 Amit Kumar Ian C. Willis

Gravitational Mass Movement Deposits 477 Hydrologic Cycle and Snow 538 D. P. Dobhal Ronald P. Daanen, Debasmita Misra and Anita M. Thompson Gravity Flow (Mass Flow) 477 Rajesh Kumar Hydrological Response in Glacierized Basins 541 Ian C. Willis Gray-White Ice 478 Chelamallu Hariprasad Hydrology of Jökulhlaups 544 Fiona Tweed Greenland Glaciers Outside the Ice Sheet 478 Jacob C. Yde Hydropower: Hydroelectric Power Generation from Alpine Glacier Melt 546 Greenland Ice Sheet 484 Mauri S. Pelto Poul Christoffersen

Ground Ice 489 Hypsometry 551 D. P. Dobhal Andrés Rivera, Fiona Cawkwell, Camilo Rada and Claudio Bravo Ground Penetrating Radar Measurements Over Glaciers 490 Hysteresis 554 David C. Nobes Vijay Kumar

Heat and Mass Transfer in Sea Ice 505 Ice 557 Daniel J. Pringle Yoshinori Furukawa

High Elevation Glacio-Climatology 507 Ice Age 560 Vladimir Aizen Matthias Kuhle

Himalaya 510 Ice Age Cycles: Data, Models, and Uncertainties 565 John F. Shroder Donald Rapp

Himalayan Glaciers in 2010 and 2035 520 Ice Age Development Theory 576 J. Graham Cogley Matthias Kuhle

Hindu Kush 523 Ice Apron 581 John F. Shroder Mahendra R. Bhutiyani

Holocene Glacier Fluctuations 525 Ice Caps 582 Johannes Koch Mahendra R. Bhutiyani

Horizontal Component of Ablation 529 Ice Caves 583 Rijan B. Kayastha Mahendra R. Bhutiyani CONTENTS xiii

Ice Core 584 International Polar Year 2007–2008 647 Nancy A. N. Bertler Ian Allison

Ice Covered Lakes 589 Interstitial Ice 649 Lars Bengtsson P. Pradeep Kumar

Ice Dams 590 Intrusive Ice 649 Mahendra R. Bhutiyani Chelamallu Hariprasad

Ice Sheet 592 Inventory of Glaciers 650 Alastair G. C. Graham Frank Paul

Ice Sheet Mass Balance 608 Inverse Methods in Glaciology 653 Eric Rignot G. Hilmar Gudmundsson

Ice Shelf 613 Inversion Layers 656 Adrian Jenkins Mahendra R. Bhutiyani

Ice-Cored Moraines 616 Inverted Cup Depth Hoar Crystals 656 Sven Lukas Mahendra R. Bhutiyani

Ice-Dammed Lakes 619 Irreducible Water 657 Fiona Tweed Mahendra R. Bhutiyani Ice-Marginal Deposition 621 Isotope Analysis 657 Mahendra R. Bhutiyani Tandong Yao, Wusheng Yu, Huabiao Zhao and Yongqin Liu Ice-Marginal Processes 623 Matthew R. Bennett Isotopic Characteristics of Ice, Snow, and Glaciers 665 Bhism Kumar Ice-Volcano Interactions 625 Hugh Tuffen Isotopic Fractionation of Freezing Water 668 Icefall 628 Martyn Tranter Mahendra R. Bhutiyani Isotopic Signatures 669 Iceland Glaciers 630 Bhishm Kumar Oddur Sigurðsson Kame and Kettle Topography 671 ICESat Data in Glaciological Studies 636 Amit Kumar Thomas A. Neumann, H. J. Zwally and Bob E. Schutz Katabatic Wind: In Relation With Snow and Glaciers 671 Icicle 640 Amit Kumar P. Pradeep Kumar Kilimanjaro 672 Icing 640 Douglas R. Hardy P. Pradeep Kumar Kunlun Mountains 679 Impacts of Snow and Glaciers on Runoff 640 Jingshi Liu Sarah Boon Lake Ellsworth 683 Interception of Snow 646 John Woodward, Martin J. Siegert, Manmohan Kumar Goel Andy M. Smith and Neil Ross

Interflow 647 Lake Ice 686 Manmohan Kumar Goel Rajesh Kumar xiv CONTENTS

Lake Vostok 687 Marginal Channel (Lateral Meltwater Channel) 724 Malte Thoma Amit Kumar

Laminated Sediments 690 Marginal Ice Zones 724 Rajesh Kumar Rajesh Kumar

Landforms of Glacial Deposition 690 Marine Glaciers 725 John F. Shroder Rajesh Kumar

Landforms of Glacial Erosion 692 Marine Ice Sheet 725 John F. Shroder Rajesh Kumar

Landforms of Glacial Transportation 693 Mechanical Weathering 725 John F. Shroder Rajesh Kumar

Landscapes of Glacial Erosion 694 Median Elevation of Glaciers 726 Martin P. Kirkbride D. P. Dobhal

Last Glacial Maximum Glaciation (LGM/LGP) Mediterranean Glaciers and Glaciation 726 in High Asia (Tibet and Surrounding Mountains) 697 Philip D. Hughes Matthias Kuhle Melt Runoff Modeling 730 Latent Heat of Condensation 702 Pratap Singh Prem Datt Melting Processes 733 Latent Heat of Fusion/Freezing 703 Luke Copland Prem Datt Meltwater Channels 735 Cliff Atkins Latent Heat of Sublimation 703 Prem Datt Meltwater Conduit 738 D. P. Dobhal Latent Heat of Vaporization/Condensation 703 Prem Datt Meltwater Erosion 738 Rajesh Kumar Lateroglacial 704 Lasafam Iturrizaga Meltwater Pressure 739 Rajesh Kumar Lateroglacial Landform Systems 704 Lasafam Iturrizaga Meltwater Storage 739 Pratap Singh Laurentide Ice Sheet 708 John T. Andrews Microorganisms Associated with Glaciers 741 Vanya I. Miteva Layering of Snow 713 Rajesh Kumar Monitoring and Warning Systems 744 Markus Konz LIDAR in Glaciology 713 Michael N. Demuth Monsoonal Records Observed from Snow/Ice/Glacier 746 Little Ice Age 722 Shichang Kang Rajesh Kumar Moraine 747 Lobe 722 Anders Schomacker Rajesh Kumar Moulins 756 Mapping of Internal Glacial Layers 723 Umesh K. Haritashya, Vijay P. Singh and David A. Braaten Pratap Singh CONTENTS xv

Mount Everest 756 Palaeo-Channel 803 Rijan B. Kayastha Vijay Kumar

Mount Kenya 758 Palaeo-Ice Stream 803 William C. Mahaney Chris R. Stokes

Mountain Geomorphology 761 Palaeoclimate and Past Glaciations 808 David R. Butler Philip D. Hughes

Natural Hazards Associated with Glaciers and Palaeohydrology 812 Permafrost 763 Vijay Kumar Andreas Kääb Pamirs 813 Negative Temperature Gradient (in Ice) 775 Vladimir Aizen Rajesh Kumar Pancake Ice 815 Neoglaciation 775 Chelamallu Hariprasad Rajesh Kumar Papua 815 Network of Stakes 775 Ian Allison Pratap Singh Paraglacial Landscape Transformations 817 New Zealand Glaciers 775 Lasafam Iturrizaga Wendy Lawson Patagonia 824 Niche Glacier 779 Stephan Harrison D. P. Dobhal Paternoster Lakes 826 Umesh K. Haritashya, Vijay P. Singh and Normalized-Difference Snow Index (NDSI) 779 Pratap Singh Dorothy K. Hall and George A. Riggs Peak Flood Glacier Discharge 827 Novaya Zemlya 781 Monohar Arora Chris R. Stokes Percolation Zone 827 Nye (N) Channels 781 Prem Datt D. P. Dobhal Perennially Frozen Ground 827 Ogives 783 Monohar Arora Divya Dudeja Periglacial 827 Optical Remote Sensing of Alpine Glaciers 783 H. M. French Duncan J. Quincey and Michael P. Bishop Permacrete 841 Orographic Precipitation 794 Ashok Kumar Verma Justin R. Minder and Gerard H. Roe Permafrost 841 Outlet Glacier 799 Yuri Shur, M. Torre Jorgenson and Monohar Arora M. Z. Kanevskiy

Overburden Pressure 799 Permafrost on Asteroids 848 Prem Datt William C. Mahaney

Oxygen Isotopes 799 Permafrost and Climate Interactions 852 Bhishm Kumar Sharon L. Smith and Margo M. Burgess

Palaeo Glaciofluvial Sediment Systems 801 Permafrost Modeling 858 Norm R. Catto Daniel Riseborough xvi CONTENTS

Permanent/Perpetual Snow Line 859 Rating Curve 918 Monohar Arora Ian C. Willis

Physical Properties of Snow 859 Recession Coefficient 922 Florent Domine Manmohan Kumar Goel

Piedmont Glaciers 863 Recession of Discharge 922 Monohar Arora Manoj K. Jain

Pingo 863 Reconstruction of the Last Glaciations in the Himali Panthri Whole of Asia 924 Matthias Kuhle Plastic Deformation 864 A. K. Singh Recrystallization of Ice 932 Ashok Kumar Verma Plastic Flow 864 A. K. Singh Refreezing of Meltwater 932 Ashok Kumar Verma Pleistocene Epoch 865 Amit Kumar Regelation 933 Ashok Kumar Verma Plucking 865 Amit Kumar Remobilization (of Debris) 933 Renoj J. Thayyen Polythermal Glaciers 865 Neil F. Glasser Resedimentation 933 Subhajit Sinha Precipitation 867 Donna F. Tucker Retreat/Advance of Glaciers 934 Luke Copland Proglacial Lakes 870 Brenda L. Hall Rime Ice 939 Renoj J. Thayyen Quaternary Glaciation 873 Jürgen Ehlers and Philip Gibbard River Ice Hydrology 939 Hung Tao Shen Radar Application in Snow, Ice, and Glaciers 883 G. Venkataraman and Gulab Singh Roche Moutonnees 942 Himali Panthri Radiative Transfer Modeling 903 Jie Cheng and Shunlin Liang Rock Glaciers 943 John R. Giardino, Netra R. Regmi and Radioactive Fallout 913 John D. Vitek Bhishm Kumar Rocky Mountains 948 Radioactive Isotopes 913 Eric M. Leonard Bhishm Kumar Röthlisberger (R)-Channels 952 Radioactivity 914 Renoj J. Thayyen Bhishm Kumar Runoff Coefficient 952 Rain-Induced Snowmelt 915 Manmohan Kumar Goel Delphis F. Levia and Daniel J. Leathers Runoff Generation 953 Ram Resistance 917 Anita M. Thompson, Debasmita Misra and Prem Datt Ronald P. Daanen CONTENTS xvii

Runoff Observations 955 Serac 1027 Anita M. Thompson, Debasmita Misra and Markus Konz Ronald P. Daanen Siberia 1028 Runout Distance 957 Kazuyoshi Suzuki A. K. Singh Slush and Sleet of Snow 1031 Salinity 959 A. K. Singh C. K. Jain Snow 1031 Saltation 959 A. K. Singh C. K. Jain Snow Bed/Snow Bed Vegetation 1032 Scandinavian Glaciers 960 Nadine Konz Juha P. Lunkka

Sea Ice 964 Snow Course 1032 Matti Leppäranta A. K. Singh

Sea-Level 969 Snow Cover and Snowmelt in Forest Regions 1033 Anny Cazenave Tobias Jonas and Richard Essery

Seasonal Frost 974 Snow Cover Changes in the Alps 1036 Chelamallu Hariprasad Christoph Marty

Seasonal Snow Cover 974 Snow Crystal Structure 1038 Amit Kumar Kenneth G. Libbrecht

Sediment Budgets 975 Snow Deformation 1041 Helen E. Reid and Gary J. Brierley Jerome B. Johnson

Sediment Core and Glacial Environment Snow Density 1045 Reconstruction 979 Steven Fassnacht Jostein Bakke and Øyvind Paasche Snow Depth 1045 Sediment Entrainment, Transport, and Deposition 984 Gavin Gong Michael J. Hambrey and Neil F. Glasser Snow Drift 1048 Sediment Flux Source-To-Sink 1003 Richard Bintanja Achim A. Beylich Snow Gauge 1049 Sediment Gravity Flow 1005 A. K. Singh George Postma

Sediment Routing 1010 Snow Grains 1050 Subhajit Sinha Thomas H. Painter

Sediment Transfer Modeling 1010 Snow Hydrology 1053 Richard Hodgkins Sarah Boon and Katie Burles

Sediment Yield 1014 Snow Layer 1059 Kelly MacGregor A. K. Singh

SEM Analysis of Glacial Sediments 1016 Snow Load 1060 William C. Mahaney A. K. Singh

Septa of Englacial Debris 1027 Snow Metamorphism 1060 Subhajit Sinha A. K. Singh xviii CONTENTS

Snow Microstructure 1061 Streamflow Trends in Mountainous Regions 1084 Christine Pielmeier Peter Molnar, Paolo Burlando and Francesca Pellicciotti Snow Pellet 1062 A. K. Singh Structural Glaciology 1089 Michael J. Hambrey Snow Pillow 1062 A. K. Singh Subglacial Borehole Instrumentation 1091 Philip R. Porter Snow Pit 1063 A. K. Singh Subglacial Drainage System 1095 Bryn Hubbard Snow Ripening 1064 A. K. Singh Subglacial Lakes, Antarctic 1099 John C. Priscu Snow Skating 1064 Ashok Kumar Verma Subglacial Processes 1101 Sean Fitzsimons and Reginald Lorrain Snow Skiing 1066 Ashok Kumar Verma Subglacial Volcanism 1105 Hugh Tuffen Snow Storm 1067 A. K. Singh Subglacial Weathering 1106 Markus Konz Snow and Vegetation Interaction 1067 Christopher A. Hiemstra and Glen E. Liston Sublimation from Snow and Ice 1106 A. K. Singh Snow Water Equivalent 1070 Michael Durand Summer Accumulation Type Glaciers 1107 Nozomu Naito Snowboard 1071 Amit Kumar Super Cooling Clouds 1108 Solifluction 1071 P. Pradeep Kumar Stephen J. Walsh and Daniel J. Weiss Supercooled Water 1108 Solute in Glacial Meltwaters 1074 Simon Cook Martyn Tranter Supra-Glacial Debris Entrainments 1112 Solutes in Glacier Ice 1077 D. P. Dobhal Renoj Thayyen Surface Energy Balance 1112 Specific Melt Rate 1078 Michiel Van den Broeke, Xavier Fettweis and Pratap Singh Thomas Mölg

Stable Isotopes 1078 Surface Temperature of Snow and Ice 1123 Bhishm Kumar Dorothy K. Hall

Stage-Discharge Relationship 1079 Suspended Sediment Concentration 1125 Amit Kumar Veerle Vanacker

Stationary Glacier 1081 Suspended Sediment Dynamics 1126 Renoj Thayyen Tim Stott

Stratigraphy of Snowpacks 1081 Suspended Sediment Load 1132 Peter W. Nienow and Fay Campbell Amit Kumar CONTENTS xix

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) Interferometry Topographic Normalization of Multispectral for Glacier Movement Studies 1133 Satellite Imagery 1187 Y. S. Rao Michael P. Bishop and Jeffrey D. Colby

Talik 1143 Transformations of Snow at the Earth’s Tingjun Zhang Surface and its Climatic and Environmental Consequences 1197 Tarn 1144 Florent Domine Himali Panthri Transient Snowline 1204 Temperate Glaciers 1145 Markus Konz Andrew Fountain Tree-Ring Indicators of Glacier Fluctuations 1205 Temperature Lapse Rates in Glacierized Basins 1145 Dan J. Smith and Lynn Koehler Shawn J. Marshall and Mira Losic Tributary Glaciers 1209 Temperature Profile of Snowpack 1151 Hester Jiskoot Charles Fierz Urban Snow 1211 Terminus 1154 Lars Bengtsson and Annette Semádeni-Davies Amit Kumar U-Shape Valley 1217 Terraces 1155 Amit Kumar Amit Kumar Vein Ice 1219 Thaw Weakening 1155 Chelamallu Hariprasad Divya Dudeja V-Shaped Valley 1219 Thermal Infrared Sensors 1156 Amit Kumar Anju Chaudhary Water Balance in the Glacierized Region 1221 Thermal Regime of Ice-Covered Lakes 1157 Heidi Escher-Vetter Lars Bengtsson Westerlies and their Effects on Maritime Thermokarst 1158 Ice Caps and Glaciers 1224 Debasmita Misra, Ronald P. Daanen and Robert D. McCulloch Anita M. Thompson WGMS (World Glacier Monitoring Service) 1227 Thinning of Arctic Sea Ice 1166 Wilfried Haeberli Ron Lindsay Winter Accumulation Glacier 1227 Thinning of Glaciers 1169 Amit Kumar Etienne Berthier Year-Round Ablation Pattern 1229 Tibetan Plateau 1172 Rijan B. Kayastha Tandong Yao, Yongqin Liu, Huabiao Zhao and Wusheng Yu Younger Dryas 1229 Sven Lukas Tidewater Glaciers 1175 Andreas Vieli List of Articles 1233

Tien Shan Glaciers 1179 Author Index 1239 Vladimir Aizen Subject Index 1241 Till 1181 Jan A. Piotrowski Contributors

James S. Aber Monohar Arora Emporia State University National Institute of Hydrology (NIH) Emporia, KS 66801-5087 Roorkee 247667, UA USA India [email protected] [email protected]

Cliff Atkins Vladimir Aizen School of Geography, Environment and Earth Sciences College of Science, Mines Building Victoria University of Wellington University of Idaho P.O. Box 600 Moscow, ID 83844-3025 Wellington 6140 USA New Zealand [email protected] [email protected]

Ian Allison David B. Bahr Australian Antarctic Division and Antarctic Climate and Department of Physics and Computational Science Ecosystems CRC Regis University Private Bag 80 3333 Regis Blvd Hobart, Tasmania 7001 Denver, CO 80221-1099 Australia USA [email protected] [email protected]

Ian Baker John T. Andrews Thayer School of Engineering Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research Dartmouth College and Department of Geological Sciences Hanover, NH 03755 University of Colorado USA Boulder, CO 80309 [email protected] USA [email protected] Jostein Bakke Department of Geography/Bjerknes Centre for Climate Manoj K. Arora Research Department of Civil Engineering University of Bergen Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Fosswinckelsgate 6 Roorkee 247667 5020 Bergen India Norway [email protected] [email protected] xxii CONTRIBUTORS

Lars Bengtsson (NTNU) Department of Water Resources Engineering Dragvoll Lund University 7491 Trondheim P.O. Box 118 Norway 22100 Lund [email protected] Sweden [email protected] Mahendra R. Bhutiyani Hazard Assessment and Forecasting Division Snow and Avalanche Study Establishment Martin Beniston Plot No. 1, Sector 37 A, Him Parisar Interdisciplinary Institute for Environmental Dynamics Chandigarh 160036 University of Geneva India 7 route de Drize [email protected] 1227 Carouge, Geneva Switzerland Richard Bintanja [email protected] Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI) Wilhelminalaan 10 Matthew R. Bennett 3732 De Bilt The School of Applied Sciences The Netherlands Bournemouth University Talbot Campos [email protected] Fern Barrow Dorset BH12 5BB Farjana S. Birajdar UK Centre of Studies in Resources Engineering [email protected] Indian Institute of Technology Bombay Powai, Mumbai 400076, Maharashtra India Andrzej Ber Polish Geological Institute – Polish Research Institute Michael P. Bishop Warszawa Department of Geography and Geology Poland University of Nebraska-Omaha [email protected] 6001 Dodge Street Omaha, NE 68182 USA Etienne Berthier [email protected] LEGOS/CNRS/UPS 14 av. Ed. Belin Tobias Bolch 31400 Toulouse Department of Geography France University of Zürich-Irchel [email protected] Winterthurerstr. 190 8057 Zürich Nancy A. N. Bertler Switzerland Joint Antarctic Research Institute [email protected] Victoria University of Wellington and GNS Science P.O. Box 600 Sarah Boon Wellington 6140 Department of Geography New Zealand University of Lethbridge [email protected] 4401 University Dr Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4 Canada Achim A. Beylich [email protected] Quaternary Geology and Climate Group Geological Survey of Norway (NGU) David A. Braaten Leiv Eirikssons vei 39 Center for Remote Sensing of Ice Sheets 7491 Trondheim Department of Geography Norway University of Kansas and Lawrence, KS 66045 Department of Geography USA Norwegian University of Science and Technology [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxiii

Roger J. Braithwaite Andrew B. G. Bush Geography Programme, School of Environment and Department of Earth and Atmospheric Science Development University of Alberta University of Manchester 1-26 Earth Sciences Building Oxford Road Edmonton, AB T6G 2E3 Manchester M13 9PL Canada UK [email protected] [email protected]

David R. Butler Claudio Bravo Mountain GeoDynamics Research Group Centro de Estudios Científicos, CECS Department of Geography Arturo Prat 514 Texas State University-San Marcos Valdivia San Marcos, TX 78666-4616 Chile USA [email protected] [email protected]

Gary J. Brierley Fay Campbell School of Environment Department of Geographical and Earth Sciences The University of Auckland University of Glasgow 10 Symonds Street Glasgow G12 8QQ Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142 UK New Zealand [email protected] Norm R. Catto Department of Geography Jason P. Briner Memorial University of Newfoundland Department of Geological Sciences St. John’s, NL A1B 3X9 University at Buffalo Canada Buffalo, NY 14260 [email protected] USA [email protected] Fiona Cawkwell Margo M. Burgess Department of Geography Geological Survey of Canada University College Cork Natural Resources Canada Cork 601 Booth Street Ireland Ottawa, ON K1A 0E8 [email protected] Canada [email protected] Anny Cazenave Laboratoire d’Etudes en Géophysique et Océanographie Paolo Burlando Spatiales (LEGOS) Institute of Environmental Engineering LEGOS-CNES, Observatoire Midi-Pyrénées ETH Zurich 18 Av. E. Belin 8093 Zurich 31400 Toulouse Switzerland France [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Katie Burles Department of Geography Stanley A. Changnon University of Lethbridge University of Illinois 4401 University Dr Urbana, IL 61853 Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4 USA Canada [email protected] xxiv CONTRIBUTORS

Arun Chaturvedi Jeffrey D. Colby Antartic Division Department of Geography and Planning Geological Survey of India Appalachian State University NH 5P Boone, NC 28608 Faridabad 121001 USA India [email protected] [email protected] Simon J. Cook Anju Chaudhary Centre for Glaciology Water Resources System Division Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences National Institute of Hydrology Aberystwyth University Roorkee 247667 H5, Llandinam India Ceredigion, Wales SY23 3DB [email protected] UK [email protected] Jie Cheng [email protected] College of Global Change and Earth System Science Beijing Normal University Luke Copland 19 Xinjiekouwai Street Department of Geography Beijing 100875 University of Ottawa China Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5 [email protected] Canada [email protected] Jessica Ellen Cherry International Arctic Research Center and Institute of Michel Crucifix Northern Engineering Georges Lemaitre Centre for Earth and Climate Research University of Alaska Fairbanks Université catholique de Louvain 930 Koyukuk Dr. 2 chemin du Cyclotron Fairbanks, AK 99775-7335 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve USA Belgium [email protected] [email protected]

Poul Christoffersen Scott Polar Research Institute Ronald P. Daanen University of Cambridge Geophysical Institute Lensfield Road University of Alaska Fairbanks Cambridge CB2 1ER 903 Koyukuk Dr. UK Fairbanks, AK 99775-7320 [email protected] USA [email protected] John J. Clague Department of Earth Sciences Prem Datt Centre for Natural Hazard Research Research and Design Center (RDC) Simon Fraser University Snow and Avalanche Study Establishment 8888 University Drive Plot No-1, Sector 37-A Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6 Himparishar 160036, Chandigarh Canada India [email protected] [email protected]

J. Graham Cogley Carmen de Jong Department of Geography The Mountain Institute Trent University University of Savoy Peterborough ON, K9J 7B8 73376 Pôle Montagne, Le Bourget du Lac Canada France [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxv

Reynald Delaloye Divya Dudeja Department of Geosciences Department of Geology Geography University of Fribourg DBS (P.G.) College Ch. du Musee 4 Dehradun 248001, Uttarakhand 1700 Fribourg India Switzerland [email protected] [email protected] Michael Durand Philip Deline Byrd Polar Research Center EDYTEM Lab Ohio State University Université de Savoie, CNRS 108 Scott Hall, 1090 Carmack Road 73376 Le Bourget du Lac Columbus, OH 43210 France USA [email protected] [email protected] Michael N. Demuth Glaciology Section, Geological Survey of Canada Jürgen Ehlers Earth Sciences Sector Program on Climate Change Geologisches Landesamt Geoscience Billstrasse 84 Natural Resources Canada 20539 Hamburg 601 Booth Street Germany Ottawa, ON K1A 0E8 [email protected] Canada [email protected] Heidi Escher-Vetter Commission for Glaciology Stephen J. Déry Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities Environmental Science and Engineering Program Alfons-Goppel-Strasse 11 University of Northern British Columbia 80539 Munich 3333 University Way Germany Prince George, BC V2N 4Z9 [email protected] Canada [email protected] Richard Essery Guglielmina Diolaiuti School of GeoSciences Department of Earth Sciences “A. Desio” University of Edinburgh University of Milano Edinburgh EH9 3JW Via Mangiagalli 34 UK 20133 Milano [email protected] Italy [email protected] Steven Fassnacht Snow Hydrology, Watershed Science Program D. P. Dobhal Colorado State University Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology Natural Resources Building Room 335 33, General Mahadev Singh Road Fort Collins, CO 80523 Dehradun 248001, Uttarakhand USA India [email protected] [email protected]

Florent Domine Jiang Fengqing Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, CAS l’Environnement Chinese Academy of Sciences CNRS 40-3 South Beijing Road BP 96, 54 rue Molière Urumqi, Xinjiang 830011 38402 Saint Martin d’Hères China France [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] xxvi CONTRIBUTORS

Xavier Fettweis Yoshinori Furukawa Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research Research Group for Phase Transition Dynamics of Ice Utrecht University Institute of Low Temperature Science Princetonplein 5 Hokkaido University 3584 CC Utrecht N19 W8 Netherlands Sapporo 060-0819 and Japan Department of Geography [email protected] University of Liège Allée du 6 Août, 2 Olivier Gagliardini 4000 Liège Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de Belgium l'Environnement du CNRS/UJF [email protected] 54, rue Molière BP 96 38402 Grenoble France [email protected] Charles Fierz WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF Isabelle Gärtner-Roer 7260 Davos Dorf Glaciology, Geomorphodynamics and Geochronology Switzerland Department of Geography [email protected] University of Zürich Winterthurerstrasse 190 8057 Zürich Sean J. Fitzsimons Switzerland Department of Geography [email protected] University of Otago P.O. Box 56 John R. Giardino Dunedin 9054 Department of Geology and Geophysics New Zealand Texas A&M University [email protected] College Station, TX 77843-3115 USA [email protected]

Andrew G. Fountain Philip Gibbard Department of Geology Quaternary Palaeoenvironments Group, Cambridge Portland State University Quaternary P.O. Box 751 Department of Geography Portland, OR 97207-0751 University of Cambridge USA Downing Street [email protected] Cambridge CB2 3EN UK [email protected] Hugh M. French University of Ottawa (retired) Alan R. Gillespie 10945 Marti Lane Department of Earth and Space Sciences North Saanich, British Columbia V8L 5S5 Quaternary Research Center Canada University of Washington [email protected] Seattle, WA 98195-1310 USA [email protected]

Ping Fu Neil F. Glasser Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Centre for Glaciology, Institute of Geography & Earth Purdue University Sciences 550 Stadium Mall Dr Aberystwyth University West Lafayette, IN 47907 Aberystwyth, Ceredigion, Wales SY23 3DB USA UK [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxvii

Manmohan Kumar Goel Wilfried Haeberli Water Resources System Glaciology, Geomorphodynamics & Geochronology National Institute of Hydrology Geography Department Roorkee 247667, Uttarakhand University of Zurich India Winterthurerstrasse 190 [email protected] 8057 Zurich [email protected] Switzerland [email protected]

Gavin Gong Brenda L. Hall Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering Department of Earth Sciences and Henry Krumb School of Mines Climate Change Institute Columbia University Bryand Global Sciences Center 500 West. 120th Street, MC4711 University of Maine New York, NY 10027 Orono, ME 04469 USA USA [email protected] [email protected]

Alastair G. C. Graham Dorothy K. Hall Ice Sheets Programme, British Antarctic Survey Crysopheric Sciences Branch High Cross, Madingley Road Code 614.1, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Cambridge CB3 0ET Greenbelt, MD 20771 UK USA [email protected] [email protected] Michael J. Hambrey Amanda M. Grannas Centre for Glaciology Department of Chemistry Institute of Geography & Earth Sciences Villanova University Aberystwyth University 800 Lancaster Ave Aberystwyth, Ceredigion, Wales SY23 3DB Villanova, PA 19085 UK USA [email protected] [email protected] Jonathan Harbor Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Thomas C. Grenfell Purdue University Department of Atmospheric Sciences 550 Stadium Mall Dr University of Washington West Lafayette, IN 47907 Seattle, WA 98195-1640 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] Douglas R. Hardy G. Hilmar Gudmundsson Climate System Research Center and British Antarctic Survey Department of Geosciences High Cross Madingley Road University of Massachusetts Cambridge CB3 0ET Morrill Science Center UK 611 North Pleasant Street [email protected] Amherst, MA 01003-9297 USA [email protected] Ravi P. Gupta [email protected] Department of Earth Sciences Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Spencer P. Hardy Roorkee 247667, UA Hanover High School India 41 Lebanon St [email protected] Hanover, NH 03755 [email protected] USA xxviii CONTRIBUTORS

Chelamallu Hariprasad Philip D. Hughes Centre for Studies in Resource Engineering Geography, School of Environment and Development Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay The University of Manchester Powai, Mumbai 400076, Maharashtra Arthur Lewis Building India Manchester M13 9PL [email protected] UK [email protected] Umesh K. Haritashya Department of Geology University of Dayton Terry Hughes 300 College Park Department of Earth Science Dayton, OH 45469-2364 University of Maine USA Orono, ME 04469-5790 [email protected] USA [email protected] and Climate Change Institute Stephan Harrison University of Maine School of Geography, Archaeology and Earth Resources Orono, ME 04469-5790 University of Exeter USA Cornwall Campus [email protected] Penryn, Cornwall TR10 9EZ UK [email protected] Lasafam Iturrizaga Department of Geography/High Mountain Kenneth Hewitt Geomorphology Cold Regions Research Centre Institute of Geography Wilfrid Laurier University University of Göttingen 75 University Avenue West Goldschmidtstr. 5 Waterloo, ON N2L 3C5 37077 Göttingen Canada Germany [email protected] [email protected]

Christopher A. Hiemstra Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory C. K. Jain (CRREL) National Institute of Hydrology U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, ERDC Centre for Flood Management Studies P.O. Box 35170 G. S. Road, Sapta Sahid Path, Mathura Nagar Fort Wainwright, AK 99703-0170 Dispur, Guwahati 781006, Assam USA India [email protected] [email protected] Richard Hodgkins Department of Geography Loughborough University Manoj K. Jain Leicestershire LE11 3TU Department of Hydrology UK Indian Institute of Technology [email protected] Roorkee 247667, Uttarakhand India [email protected] Bryn Hubbard Centre for Glaciology Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences Aberystwyth University Sanjay K. Jain Llandinam Building National Institute of Hydrology Aberystwyth, Ceredigion, Wales SY23 3DB Roorkee, 247667 Uttarakhand UK India [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxix

Adrian Jenkins Shichang Kang British Antarctic Survey Key Laboratory of Tibetan Environmental Changes and Natural Environment Research Council Land Surface Processes High Cross, Madingley Road Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research Cambridge CB3 0ET Chinese Academy of Sciences UK No.18, Shuangqing Rd., P.O. Box 2871 [email protected] Haidian District, Beijing 100085 [email protected] China and State Key Laboratory of Cryospheric Sciences Hester Jiskoot Chinese Academy of Sciences Department of Geography Lanzhou 730000 University of Lethbridge China 4401 University Drive W [email protected] Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4 Canada [email protected] Martin Kappas Cartography, GIS and Remote Sensing Section Institute of Geography Jerome B. Johnson Georg-August University Göttingen Institute of Northern Engineering Goldschmidtstr. 5 University of Alaska Fairbanks 37077 Göttingen P.O. Box 755910 Germany Fairbanks, AK 99775-5910 [email protected] USA [email protected] Rijan B. Kayastha Himalayan Cryosphere, Climate and Disaster Research Center (HiCCDRC) Tobias Jonas Kathmandu University Snow Hydrology Research Group Dhulikhel, Kavre WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF P.O. Box 6250, Kathmandu 7260 Davos Nepal Switzerland [email protected] [email protected] Matt A. King M. Torre Jorgenson School of Civil Engineering and Geosciences Alaska Ecoscience Newcastle University Fairbanks, AK 99709 Cassie Building USA Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU [email protected] UK [email protected]

Andreas Kääb Martin P. Kirkbride Department of Geosciences Geography, School of the Environment University of Oslo University of Dundee Sem Sælands vei 1, 1047 Perth Road Blindern, 0316 Oslo Dundee DD1 4HN, Scotland Norway UK [email protected] [email protected]

M. Z. Kanevskiy Peter G. Knight Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering School of Physical and Geographical Sciences University of Alaska Fairbanks Keele University 245 Duckering Building, P.O. Box 755900 William Smith Building Fairbanks, AK 99775-59000 Staffordshire ST5 5BG USA UK [email protected] [email protected] xxx CONTRIBUTORS

Johannes Koch Amit Kumar Department of Earth Sciences Department of Geology Simon Fraser University Centre of Advanced Study in Geology Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6 Punjab University Canada Sector-14 [email protected] Chandigarh 160014, Punjab India [email protected] [email protected] Lynn Koehler University of Victoria Tree-Ring Laboratory Department of Geography Bhishm Kumar University of Victoria Hydrological Investigations Division Victoria, British Columbia V8W 3R4 National Institute of Hydrology Canada Roorkee 247667, Uttarakhand [email protected] India [email protected] [email protected] Markus Konz Institute of Environmental Engineering Rajesh Kumar Hydrology and Water Resources Management School of Engineering and Technology ETH Zürich Sharda University Wolfgang-Pauli-Str. 15 32–34, Knowledge Park-III 8093 Zurich Greater Noida 201306, NCR Switzerland India [email protected] and Remote Sensing Division Birla Institute of Technology, Extension Centre Jaipur Nadine Konz 27, Malviya Industrial Area Institute of Environmental Geosciences Jaipur 302017, Rajasthan University of Basel India 4003 Basel [email protected] Switzerland [email protected] Vijay Kumar National Institute of Hydrology Roorkee 247667, Uttarakhand Akhouri Pramod Krishna India Department of Remote Sensing [email protected] Birla Institute of Technology (BIT) [email protected] Deemed University P.O. Mesra Ranchi 835215, Jharkhand Christophe Lambiel India Institute of Geography [email protected] University of Lausanne [email protected] Bâtiment Anthropole 1015 Lausanne Switzerland [email protected] Matthias Kuhle Department of Geography and High Mountain Geomorphology Wendy Lawson Geographical Institute Department of Geography University of Göttingen University of Canterbury Goldschmidtstr. 5 Private Bag 4800 37077 Göttingen Christchurch 8140 Germany New Zealand [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxxi

Daniel J. Leathers Ron Lindsay Department of Geography Polar Science Center University of Delaware Applied Physics Laboratory Newark, DE 19716-2541 University of Washington USA 1013 NE 40th Street [email protected] Seattle, WA 98105-6698 USA [email protected] Jean-Michel Lemieux Département de géologie et de génie géologique Université Laval Glen E. Liston 1065 avenue de la Médecine Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere Québec, QC G1V 0A6 Colorado State University Canada 1375 Campus Delivery [email protected] Fort Collins, CO 80523-1375 USA [email protected] Eric M. Leonard Department of Geology Jingshi Liu Colorado College Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research 14E Cache la Poudre Chinese Academy of Sciences Colorado Springs, CO 80903 18 Shuangqing Rd. USA Haidian District, Beijing 100085 [email protected] China [email protected] Matti Leppäranta Department of Physics Yongqin Liu University of Helsinki Laboratory of Tibetan Environment Changes and Land P.O. Box 64, (Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2a) Surface Processes (TEL) 00014 Helsinki Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research Finland Chinese Academy of Sciences [email protected] No. 18 Shuangqing Rd, P.O. Box 2871 Haidian District, Beijing 100085 China Delphis F. Levia [email protected] Department of Geography University of Delaware Newark, DE 19716-2541 Christopher Lloyd USA Department of Geography [email protected] University of Sheffield Sheffield S10 2TN UK Shunlin Liang [email protected] Department of Geography University of Maryland Rachel W. Lomonaco 2181 LeFrak Hall Thayer School of Engineering College Park, MD 20742 Dartmouth College USA Hanover, NH 03755 [email protected] USA

Kenneth G. Libbrecht Reginald D. Lorrain Department of Physics Département des Sciences de la Terre et de Caltech l’Environnement 264-33 Caltech Université Libre de Bruxelles Pasadena, CA 91125 Bruxelles USA Belgium [email protected] [email protected] xxxii CONTRIBUTORS

Mira Losic Christoph Marty Department of Geography WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF University of Calgary Flüelastr. 11 Earth Sciences 356, 2500 University Dr NW 7260 Davos Calgary, AB T2N 1N4 Switzerland Canada [email protected] [email protected]

Sven Lukas Robert D. McCulloch Department of Geography School of Biological and Environmental Science Queen Mary University of London University of Stirling Mile End Road Stirling FK9 4LA, Scotland London E1 4NS UK UK [email protected] [email protected] Brian Menounos Juha P. Lunkka Geography Program and Natural Resources and Institute of Geosciences Environmental Studies Institute University of Oulu University of Northern British Columbia P.O. Box 3000 3333 University Way 90014 Oulu Prince George, BC V2N 4Z9 Finland Canada [email protected]

Kelly MacGregor Justin R. Minder Geology Department Department of Atmospheric Science Macalester College University of Washington 1600 Grand Avenue Box 351640 Saint Paul, MN 55105 Seattle, WA 98195-1640 USA USA [email protected] [email protected]

William C. Mahaney Quaternary Surveys Debasmita Misra 26 Thornhill Ave Department of Mining and Geological Engineering Thornhill, ON L4J 1J4 College of Engineering and Mines Canada University of Alaska Fairbanks [email protected] P.O. Box 755800 [email protected] Fairbanks, AK 99775-5800 USA [email protected] Shawn J. Marshall Department of Geography University of Calgary Vanya I. Miteva Earth Sciences 356, 2500 University Dr NW Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Calgary, AB T2N 1N4 The Pennsylvania State University Canada 211 South Frear [email protected] University Park, PA 16802 USA Richard A. Marston [email protected] Department of Geography Kansas State University 118 Seaton Hall Thomas Mölg Manhattan, KS 66506-2904 Center for Climate & Cryosphere USA University of Innsbruck [email protected] 6020 Innsbruck [email protected] Austria CONTRIBUTORS xxxiii

Peter Molnar David C. Nobes Institute of Environmental Engineering Department of Geological Sciences ETH Zurich University of Canterbury 8093 Zurich Private Bag 4800 Switzerland Christchurch 8140 [email protected] New Zealand [email protected] Bruce F. Molnia U.S. Geological Survey Rachel W. Obbard 562 National Center, 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive, 12201 Thayer School of Engineering Reston, VA 20192 Dartmouth College USA Hanover, NH 03755 [email protected] USA [email protected] Brian Morse Department of Civil and Water Engineering Øyvind Paasche Laval University Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research 1065, ave de la Médecine University of Bergen Quebec, QC G1V 0A6 Allégaten 55 Canada 5007 Bergen Norway Nozomu Naito and Department of Global Environment Studies Department of Research Management Hiroshima Institute of Technology University of Bergen Miyake 2-1-1, Saeki-ku Professor Keysers gt. 8 Hiroshima 731-5193 5020 Bergen Japan Norway [email protected] [email protected] Jacob Napieralski Thomas H. Painter Department of Natural Sciences Jet Propulsion Laboratory/Caltech University of Michigan-Dearborn 4800 Oak Grove Drive Dearborn, MI 48128 Pasadena, CA 91109 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] Atle Nesje Department of Earth Science\Bjerknes Centre for Pratima Pandey Climate Research Centre of Studies in Resources Engineering University of Bergen Indian Institute of Technology Bombay Allégaten 41 Powai, Mumbai 400076, Maharashtra 5007 Bergen India Norway [email protected] [email protected] Himali Panthri Thomas A. Neumann Department of Geology NASA Goddard Space Flight Center D.B.S (P.G) College Greenbelt, MD 20771 Dehradun 248001, Uttarakhand USA India [email protected] [email protected]

Peter W. Nienow Frank Paul School of Geosciences Department of Geography University of Edinburgh University of Zurich Drummond Street Winterthurerstrasse 190 Edinburgh EH8 9XP 8057 Zurich UK Switzerland [email protected] [email protected] xxxiv CONTRIBUTORS

Francesca Pellicciotti Daniel J. Pringle Institute of Environmental Engineering Arctic Region Supercomputing Center and Geophysical ETH Zurich Institute 8093 Zurich University of Alaska Switzerland Fairbanks, AK 99775 [email protected] USA [email protected] Mauri S. Pelto Department of Environmental Science John C. Priscu Nichols College Department of Land Resources and Environmental Dudley, MA 01571 Sciences USA Montana State University [email protected] Bozeman, MT 59717 USA Christine Pielmeier [email protected] WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF Warning and Prevention Duncan J. Quincey Flüelastrasse 11 Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences 7260 Davos Dorf Penglais Campus Switzerland Aberystwyth University [email protected] Aberystwyth, Wales SY23 3DB UK Jan A. Piotrowski Department of Earth Sciences Camilo Rada University of Aarhus Centro de Estudios Científicos, CECS Høegh-Guldbergs Gade 2 Arturo Prat 514 8000 Aarhus C Valdivia Denmark Chile and Department of Geography University of Sheffield Y. S. Rao Sheffield S10 2TN Centre of Studies in Resources Engineering UK Indian Institute of Technology [email protected] Powai, Mumbai 400076 India [email protected] Philip R. Porter Division of Geography and Environmental Sciences School of Life Sciences Donald Rapp University of Hertfordshire Independent Contractor Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL10 9AB 1445 Indiana Avenue UK South Pasadena, CA 91030 [email protected] USA [email protected] George Postma Faculty of Geosciences Rasik Ravindra EUROTANK Laboratories National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research P.O. Box 80.021 Headland Sada, Vasco-Da-Gama 3508 TA Utrecht Goa 403804 The Netherlands India [email protected] [email protected]

P. Pradeep Kumar Netra R. Regmi Department of Atmospheric and Space Sciences Department of Geology and Geophysics Pune University Texas A&M University Pune 411007, Maharashtra College Station, TX 77843-3115 India USA [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxxv

Helen E. Reid Andrés Rivera School of Environment Centro de Estudios Científicos, CECS The University of Auckland Arturo Prat 514 10 Symonds Street Valdivia Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142 Chile New Zealand and [email protected] Universidad de Chile Marcoleta 250 Santiago Alan W. Rempel Chile Department of Geological Sciences and University of Oregon Centro de Ingeniería de la Innovación, CIN Eugene, OR 97403-1272 Arturo Prat 514 USA Valdivia [email protected] Chile [email protected] Jeffrey Ridley Met Office, Hadley Centre FitzRoy Road Exeter EX1 3PB Gerard H. Roe UK Department of Atmospheric Science University of Washington Box 351640 George A. Riggs Seattle, WA 98195-1640 SSAI USA 10210 Greenbelt Road, Suite 600 and Lanham, MD 20706 Department of Earth and Space Sciences USA University of Washington [email protected] 2206 N41 St Seattle, WA 98103 USA Eric Rignot [email protected] Department of Earth System Science University of California Irvine Irvine, CA 92697 USA Neil Ross and School of Geosciences Jet Propulsion Laboratory University of Edinburgh 4800 Oak Grove Drive Geography Building Pasadena, CA 91214 Drummond Street USA Edinburgh EH8 9XP [email protected] UK [email protected] Vinvent Rinterknecht School of Geography and Geosciences University of St Andrews North Street Anders Schomacker St Andrews KY16 9AL, Scotland Institute of Earth Sciences UK University of Iceland [email protected] Askja, Sturlugata 7 101 Reykjavík Iceland Daniel Riseborough and Geological Survey of Canada Department of Geology 601 Booth Street Norwegian University of Science and Technology Ottawa, ON K1A 0E4 7491 Trondheim Canada Norway [email protected] [email protected] xxxvi CONTRIBUTORS

Bob E. Schutz Martin J. Siegert Center for Space Research School of GeoSciences University of Texas at Austin University of Edinburgh Austin, TX 78759 Grant Institute USA West Mains Road [email protected] Edinburgh EH9 3JW UK [email protected] Annette Semádeni-Davies Department of Water Resources Engineering Oddur Sigurðsson Lund University Veðurstofu Íslands 22100 Lund Icelandic Meteorological Office Sweden Bústaðavegi 9 [email protected] 150 Reykjavík Iceland [email protected] Hung Tao Shen Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Clarkson University A. K. Singh P.O. Box 5710 DIAT (Deemed University) Potsdam, NY 13699-5710 Girinagar USA Pune 411025, Maharashtra [email protected] India [email protected] [email protected] Arun B. Shrestha International Centre for Integrated Mountain Gulab Singh Development (ICIMOD) Centre of Studies in Resources Engineering Khumaltar, Lalitpur, GP.O. Box 3226 Indian Institute of Technology Bombay Kathmandu Powai Nepal Mumbai 400076, Maharashtra [email protected] India [email protected] John F. Shroder Department of Geography and Geology Pratap Singh University of Nebraska at Omaha Integrated Natural Resources Management (INRM) 6001 Dodge Street Consultants Pvt. Ltd Omaha, NE 68182 An Incubatee Company of IIT Delhi USA New Delhi [email protected] India and Hydro Tasmanier Consulting Aparna Shukla Nehru Place Uttarakhand Space Application Centre New Delhi 110019 Dehradun India India [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Vijay P. Singh Yuri Shur Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Texas A&M University University of Alaska Fairbanks Scoates Hall 245 Duckering Building, P.O. Box 755900 2117 TAMU Fairbanks, AK 99775-59000 College Station, TX 77843-2117 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxxvii

Subhajit Sinha Edward A. Sudicky DBS College Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences Dehradun, Uttarakhand University of Waterloo India Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1 [email protected] Canada [email protected] Claudio Smiraglia Department of Earth Sciences “A. Desio” University of Milano Kazuyoshi Suzuki Via Mangiagalli 34 Research Institute for Global Change 20133 Milano Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology Italy 3173-25 Showa-machi [email protected] Yokohama 236-0001 Japan Andy M. Smith [email protected] British Antarctic Survey, High Cross Madingley Road Ryohei Suzuki Cambridge CB3 0ET Graduate School of Environmental Studies UK Nagoya University [email protected] c/o Hydrospheric Atmospheric Research Center Furo-cho Chikusa-ku Dan J. Smith Nagoya 464-8601 University of Victoria Tree-Ring Laboratory Japan Department of Geography [email protected] University of Victoria Victoria, British Columbia V8W 3R4 Canada Darrel A. Swift Department of Geography Sharon L. Smith University of Sheffield Geological Survey of Canada Sheffield S10 2TN Natural Resources Canada UK 601 Booth Street [email protected] Ottawa, ON K1A 0E8 Canada [email protected] Nozomu Takeuchi Department of Earth Sciences Rudolph R. Stea Graduate School of Science Stea Surficial Geology Services Chiba University 851 Herring Cove Road 1-33 Yayoicho, Inage-ku, Chiba-city Halifax, Nova Scotia B3R 1Z1 Chiba 263-8522 Canada Japan [email protected] [email protected]

Chris R. Stokes Renoj J. Thayyen Department of Geography Western Himalayan Regional Centre Durham University National Institute of Hydrology Science Site, South Road Jammu (J&K) 180003 Durham DH1 3LE India UK [email protected] [email protected]

Tim Stott Malte Thoma Physical Geography and Outdoor Education Bavarian Academy and Sciences, Commission for Liverpool John Moores University Glaciology I. M. Marsh Campus, Barkhill Road Alfons-Goppel-Str. 11 Liverpool L17 6BD 80539 Munich UK Germany [email protected] and xxxviii CONTRIBUTORS

Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research Fiona Tweed Bussestrasse 24 Department of Geography 27570 Bremerhaven Staffordshire University Germany College Road [email protected] Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire ST4 2DE UK [email protected] David N. Thomas School of Ocean Sciences, College of Natural Sciences Bangor University Michiel Van den Broeke Menai Bridge, Anglesey LL59 5AB Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research UK Utrecht University [email protected] Princetonplein 5 3584 CC Utrecht Netherlands Anita M. Thompson [email protected] Department of Biological Systems Engineering University of Wisconsin-Madison 230 Ag. Eng. Building, 460 Henry Mall Madison, WI 53706 C. J. van der Veen USA Department of Geography and [email protected] Center for Remote Sensing of Ice Sheets University of Kansas 203 Lindley Hall Thierry Toutin 1475 Jayhawk Blvd Canada Centre for Remote Sensing Lawrence, KS 66045-7613 Natural Resources Canada USA Ottawa, ON K1A 0Y7 [email protected] Canada [email protected] Veerle Vanacker TECLIM, Earth and Life Institute Martyn Tranter University of Louvain Bristol Glaciology Centre Place L. Pasteur, 3 School of Geographical Sciences 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, BW University of Bristol Belgium University Road [email protected] Bristol BS8 1SS UK [email protected] Dominic Vella Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Donna F. Tucker Physics Department of Geography Institute of Theoretical Geophysics University of Kansas University of Cambridge 1475 Jayhawk Blvd., Room 213 Wilberforce Road Lawrence, KS 66045-7613 Cambridge CB3 0WA USA UK [email protected] [email protected]

Hugh Tuffen G. Venkataraman Lancaster Environment Centre Centre of Studies of Resources Engineering Lancaster University Indian Institute of Technology Bombay Lancaster LA1 4YQ Mumbai 400076 UK India [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxxix

Ashok Kumar Verma Charles R. Warren Department of Geography and Environmental Studies School of Geography and Geosciences Cold Regions Research Center University of St. Andrews Wilfrid Laurier University Irvine Building 75 University Ave. West St. Andrews, Fife KY16 9AL, Scotland Waterloo, ON N2L 3C5 UK Canada [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Daniel J. Weiss Department of Geography Andreas Vieli University of North Carolina Department of Geography Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3220 Durham University USA Durham DH1 3LE UK John Wettlaufer [email protected] Yale University New Haven, CT 06520-8109 USA Timo Vihma [email protected] Finnish Meteorological Institute Erik Palménin aukio 1, P.O. Box 503 00101 Helsinki Roger Wheate Finland Geography Program and Natural Resources and [email protected] Environmental Studies Institute University of Northern British Columbia 3333 University Way John D. Vitek Prince George, BC V2N 4Z9 Department of Geology and Geophysics Canada Texas A&M University [email protected] College Station, TX 77843-3115 USA Ian C. Willis [email protected] Department of Geography Scott Polar Research Institute Mathias Vuille University of Cambridge Department of Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences Lensfield Road University at Albany Cambridge CB2 1ER State University of New York UK 1400 Washington Avenue [email protected] Albany, NY 12222 USA John Woodward [email protected] Division of Geography School of Applied Sciences Northumbria University John Wahr Ellison Place Department of Physics and CIRES Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST University of Colorado UK Boulder, CO 80309-0390 [email protected] USA [email protected] Cunde Xiao State Key Laboratory of Cryospheric Sciences Stephen J. Walsh Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Department of Geography Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences University of North Carolina Lanzhou, Gansu 730000 Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3220 China USA [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] xl CONTRIBUTORS

Zhang Yanwei Wusheng Yu Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography Laboratory of Tibetan Environment Changes and Land Chinese Academy of Sciences Surface Processes (TEL) 40-3 South Beijing Road Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research Urumqi, Xinjiang 830011 Chinese Academy of Sciences China No. 18 Shuangqing Rd, P.O. Box 2871 Haidian District, Beijing 100085 China Tandong Yao Laboratory of Tibetan Environment Changes and Land Tingjun Zhang Surface Processes (TEL) National Snow and Ice Data Center Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Chinese Academy of Sciences Sciences No. 18 Shuangqing Rd, P.O. Box 2871 University of Colorado at Boulder Haidian District, Beijing 100085 Boulder, CO 80309-0449 China USA [email protected] [email protected]

Huabiao Zhao Jacob C. Yde Laboratory of Tibetan Environment Changes and Land Center for Geomicrobiology Surface Processes (TEL) University of Aarhus Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research Ny Munkegade building 1540 Chinese Academy of Sciences 8000 Århus C No. 18 Shuangqing Rd, P.O. Box 2871 Denmark Haidian District, Beijing 100085 and China Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research University of Bergen H. J. Zwally Allégaten 55 NASA Goddard Space Flight Center 5007 Bergen Greenbelt, MD 20771 Norway USA [email protected] [email protected] Preface

Snow, ice and glaciers (SIG) are the components constitut- The objective of this Encyclopedia is to present the ing what is called cryosphere. They exist at all latitudes current state of scientific understanding of various aspects and contain the majority of the earth’s fresh water. Due of earth’s cryosphere – snow, glaciers, ice caps, ice sheets, to their dominant prevalence, they influence weather, ice shelves, sea ice, river and lake ice, and permafrost – climate, ecosystems, vegetation, and life and human activ- and their related interdisciplinary connections under ities in a variety of ways. Indeed they shape human civili- one umbrella. Therefore, every effort has been made to zation. Owing to looming climate change and global provide a comprehensive coverage of cryosphere by warming, temperature changes now seem inevitable and including a broad array of topics, such as the atmospheric are changing the landscape of snow, ice and glaciers, or processes responsible for snow formation; snowfall obser- even the existence thereof. In fact, the changes occurring vations; snow cover and snow surveys; transformation in SIG can be construed as major indicators of climate of snow to ice and changes in their properties; classifica- change. The nature of cryosphere is highly interdisciplin- tion of ice and glaciers and their worldwide distribution; ary and calls for an updated interdisciplinary account of its glaciation and ice ages; glacier dynamics; glacier surface dynamics. Recent decades have witnessed increasing and subsurface characteristics; geomorphic processes attention to SIG and scientific communities have started and landscape formation; hydrology and sedimentary sys- working collectively to develop the basic foundation upon tems; hydrochemical and isotopic properties; permafrost which the broad understanding of cryosphere rests. modeling; hazards caused by cryospheric changes; trends However, there is still a long way to go. of glacier retreat on a global scale along with the impact of Discussions on climate change and global warming climate change; and many more quantitative estimates of now seem to be occupying the center stage in public various glacier parameters, such as degree-day, mass bal- debates, professional forums, news media, and political dia- ance, extent and volume, and downwasting. Also included log. As a result, the general public has become much more are articles on GPS application, and satellite image appli- aware of what is happening to our climate. Since both cation in glaciology; GPR analysis; and sea level rise. climate change and climate variability have been found For purposes of the Encyclopedia 463 articles were to be closely linked with the cryosphere, it is important selected. Literature on snow, ice and glaciers has grown for scientists and professionals in the field of earth, environ- too large to be fully treated in a single volume; therefore, mental, oceanic and atmospheric sciences to develop the selection of articles included some subjectivity but a better understanding of this sphere from conceptual, theo- was reviewed by many experts who have long been at retical, technical and applied viewpoints. This is especially the forefront of research in the field of cryosphere. We important for snow, ice and glacier covered areas, since truly understand that given the scope of this subject it is they are rarely stable and are continuously changing in their almost impossible to include each and every topic in this thickness, areal extent, and flow speeds. Recent advances type of reference book, but we have tried our best to avoid in field-based studies and quantitative and numerical any glaring omissions or miss something which could sig- modeling have provided answers to several key questions nificantly hamper the quality of the Encyclopedia. There- but have also highlighted the urgent need for cryospheric fore, we have made the contents of the Encyclopedia studies in many areas, for example, contribution of snow, exhaustive, but we understand that we might have missed ice and glacier melt to the sea level rise; importance of snow certain topics. We are also aware of some partial omis- and glacier to water resources; and so on. sions. As it frequently happens, willing contributors xlii PREFACE cannot unfortunately be always found for all the suggested The contributors represent varying backgrounds and topics. It may be noted that if the reader does not see an many of them represent WHO’S WHO in the cryosphere. entry for the particular topic that interests him or her, then It is hoped that the Encyclopedia will serve as a reference he or she should look in the index because that topic may to scholars and students. The Encyclopedia will also be have been covered under a different heading and perhaps a valuable resource for geologists, geographers, climatol- in more than one article. In making the list exhaustive, it ogists, hydrologists, and water resources engineers; as is possible that there might be a little bit of repetition here well as to those who are engaged in the practice of agricul- and there, but we do not want readers to read two articles tural and civil engineering, earth sciences, environmental to understand one. sciences and engineering, ecosystems management, and The material presented in the articles consists of other relevant fields. established information on a particular topic and repre- The encyclopedia is comprised of articles under three sents easily accessible digested knowledge. The level of categories: A, B, and C. Tables 1, 2 and 3 provide a list material is such that a graduate student can benefit from of major headings of articles included in the encyclopedia the presentation which is not necessarily from his or her for a quick reference (see List of Articles, pages 1233– area of expertise. An effort has been made such that each 1237). 64 articles in category A represent major divisions article stands on its own, without an assumption that and review topics. These also serve to coordinate the a reader will be seeing any other portion of the Encyclope- widely scattered entries of categories B and C. 182 Cate- dia. Although entries are presented in alphabetical order, gory B articles constitute building block items, inspired they have been organized under major compilation head- by textbook subheads, but also the cookbook items. 217 ings which should become particularly obvious when the articles in category C are mini-entries dealing with mate- reader uses the cross-references with each entry. This is rials, fancy terms, or outdated concepts. All these categor- not an exhaustive list but hopefully it gives a structure to ical entries on different topics are compiled in an the Encyclopedia’s contents. Of equal value are the many alphabetical order, with their length being related to their references given with the entries. relative importance. This Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers is sup- posed to provide clear explanations of current topics, and is not structured as a student textbook, but it is rather March 2011 Vijay P. Singh for quick access to particular terms and concepts in self- Pratap Singh contained entries. We hope that this volume will also Umesh K. Haritashya tempt the casual reader to browse through and become (Editors-in-Chief) curious about the different facets and foci of cryosphere. Acknowledgments

This Encyclopedia is a result of the collective contribu- gratefully acknowledged for their constructive reviews. tions of the authors who were gracious, generous and Their efforts have greatly enhanced the quality of contri- willing to write different articles. These authors, butions contained in the Encyclopedia. Special thanks representing five continents, have synthesized the body goes to Tom Allen, Andrew Bush, Etienne Berthier, of knowledge in their particular area, and therefore the Poul Christoffersen, Graham Cogley, Luke Copland, quality of the Encyclopedia is a reflection of the quality Moritz Dick, Thomas Grenfell, William Harrison, Robert of their efforts. We are grateful to these authors. Any Hellstrom, Kenneth Jezek, Richard Lindzen, Frederick drawbacks are editors’, not authors’. The preparation Nelson, Mauri Pelto, Donald Rapp, and Cornelis of this Encyclopedia was greatly aided by the assistance Vanderveen. we received from our International Advisory Board We would also like to acknowledge the constant sup- members: port and help we received from Petra van Steenbergen, Richard Armstrong, NSIDC, Boulder, Colorado, USA; Senior Publishing Editor, Earth Sciences and Geography, Michael P. Bishop, University of Nebraska-Omaha, USA; Dr. Sylvia Blago, Associate Editor MRW and Simone Helgi Björnsson, Institute of Earth Sciences, Iceland; Giesler, Editorial Assistant, Springer. Wilfried Haeberli, WGMS, University of Zurich, Iceland; Our families (V.P. Singh: wife Anita, son Vinay, Johannes Oerlemans, University of Utrecht, Netherlands; daughter-in-law Sonali, and daughter Arti; P. Singh: wife John F. Shroder, University of Nebraska-Omaha, USA; Anju, sons Arpit and Aman; and U.K. Haritashya: wife Martyn Tranter, University of Bristol, UK; Namrata and daughter Vanshika) allowed us to work dur- We wish to express our deep gratitude to them for their ing holidays, weekends and in night away from them. invaluable support and encouragement. They provided support and help whenever we needed. All category A articles and major category B articles Without their patience and love, this volume might not were peer reviewed. Reviewers of these articles are have been completed, and we are much grateful to them. Guide to the Reader

For the beginners, it is good to start with a general article, Experts or other readers with background in cryosphere then track the list of cross-references provided at the end may directly search for specific topics. For example, Ice of the article to locate similar or relevant articles. Age Cycles: Data, Models, and Uncertainties, or Basal For example, if one wants to learn about hydrological Sediment Evacuation by Subglacial Drainage Systems. aspects of snow and glaciers, then one should go to If one does not find the topic one is looking for, it is Glacier Hydrology and Snow Hydrology, then Melt possible that it may have been covered under a different Runoff Modeling, then Impacts of Snow and Glaciers on heading. Therefore, one should go to the index that would Runoff, then Hydrochemical Characteristics of Snow, Ice lead to the articles that may cover the topic of interest. and Glaciers, then Hydropower: Hydroelectric Power If a reader is looking for more explanation than what is Generation from Alpine Glacier Melt, or several other already described under any particular topic, then most specific Snow or Glacier Hydrology related articles. The articles provide important and landmark bibliographic list of cross-references provided at the end of the article references that relate to both general and research articles. is not exhaustive, otherwise it would lead to a long listing, Some articles provide older references which allow rather it is a guide for the reader to find other relevant readers to find the historical aspect of the topic. articles, which are further cross-referenced. FJORDS 293

As depth increases, firn porosity decreases and air Domine, F., Lauzier, T., Cabanes, A., Legagneux, L., Kuhs, W. F., mixing becomes more restricted (Schwander et al., 1997; Techmer, K., and Heinrichs, T., 2003. Snow metamorphism as Bender et al., 1997). Seasonal layering can also affect revealed by scanning electron microscopy. Microscopy Research and Technique, 62,33–48. the rate of air movement through firn (Albert, 1996) and Fain, X., Ferrari, C. P., Dommergue, A., Albert, M., Battle, M., may produce impermeable layers in the non-diffusive Arnaud, L., Barnola, J. M., Cairns, W., Barbante, C., and zone. These prevent air from equilibrating with that in Boutron, C., 2008. Mercury in the snow and firn at Summit the diffusive zone (Sowers et al., 1992; Schwander et al., Station, central Greenland and implications for the study of 1997). While air may mix locally, within the summer layer past atmospheric mercury levels. Atmospheric Chemistry and for example, impermeable winter layers impede its verti- Physics, 8, 3441–3457. Hawley, R., Waddington, E. D., Morse, D. L., Dunbar, N. W., and cal diffusion (Fain et al., 2008). Zielinski, G. A., 2002. Dating firn cores by vertical strain mea- surements. Journal of Glaciology, 48(162). Firn measurements Schwander, J., Sowers, T., Barnola, J. M., Blunier, T., Fuchs, A., and Malaize, B., 1997. Age scale of air in the summit ice: impli- Borehole logging is used to measure firn properties in situ. cations for glacial-interglacial temperature change. Journal of These include temperature, density, and vertical strain. Geophysical Research, 102, 19483–19493. Unlike snow, which must be sampled at depth by digging Sowers, T., Bender, M., Raynard, D., and Korotkevich, Y. S., 1992. d15 a large snow pit and sampling from the sides, firn has NofN2 in air trapped in polar ice: a tracer of gas transport in enough cohesion (Cohesion) to permit the extraction of the firn and a possible constraint on ice age-gas age differences. 97 – intact cores that are used to measure density, porosity Journal of Geophysical Research, (D14), 15,683 15,697. Spencer, M. K., Alley, R. B., Fitzpatrick, J. J., 2006. Developing a and permeability, grain size, and anisotropy. bubble number-density paleoclimatic indicator for glacier ice. Because firn is compressible, seasonal layers thin with Journal of Glaciology, 52(178), 358–364. depth. It is also porous and subject to the migration of Swinkels, F. B., and Ashby, M. F., 1980. A second report on chemical species deposited with the snow (Chemical sintering diagrams. Metallurgica, 29, 259–281. Composition of Snow, Ice, and Glaciers). Both of these aspects can complicate age-depth calculations. Where Cross-references annual layers cannot be distinguished optically or from Antarctica the geochemical record, a density profile produced from Chemical and Microbe Records in Snow and Ice a borehole log of vertical strain or measurements of mass, Chemical Composition of Snow, Ice, and Glaciers length, and diameter of core sections can reveal seasonal Cohesion layering. Geochemistry of Snow and Ice Glacier Ice Summary Isotopic Characteristics of Ice, Snow, and Glaciers A transitional state between fallen snow and meteoric ice, Layering of Snow firn is a complex material where vast morphological and Overburden Pressure Snow Grains chemical changes are taking place. Stratigraphy of Snowpacks Temperate Glaciers Bibliography Albert, M., 1996. Modeling heat, mass and species transport in polar firn. Annals of Glaciology, 23, 138–143. FJORDS Albert, M. R., 2002. Effects of snow and firn ventilation of sublima- tion rates. Annals of Glaciology, 35,52–56. Albert, M. R., and Shultz, E. F., 2002. Snow and firn properties and Umesh K. Haritashya1, Vijay P. Singh2, Pratap Singh3 air-snow transport processes at Summit, Greenland. Atmo- 1 36 – Department of Geology, University of Dayton, Dayton, spheric Environment, (15/16), 2789 2798. OH, USA Bender, M., Sowers, T., and Brook, E., 1997. Gases in ice 2 cores. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 94, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, 8343–8349. Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA Bender, M. L., Floch, G., Chappellaz, J., Suwa, M., Barnola, J.-M., 3Tahal Consulting Engineers Ltd, New Delhi, India Blunier, T., Dreyfus, G., Jouzel, J., and Parrenin, F., 2006. Gas age-ice age differences and the chronology of the Vostok ice Synonyms core, 0–100 ka. Journal of Geophysical Research, 111(D21), 115–125. Fiord Colbeck, S. C., 1983. Theory of metamorphism of dry snow. Jour- nal of Geophysical Research, 88, 5475–5482. Colbeck, S. C., 1989. Air movements in snow due to wind pumping. Definition Journal of Glaciology, 35, 209–213. Craig, H., Horibe, Y., and Sowers, T., 1988. Gravitation separation Fjords are long, narrow, and over-deepened features with of gasses and isotopes in polar ice caps. Science, 242, steep sides and are carved into bedrock by the glacial 1675–1678. activity and flooded by melting water (Figure 1). 294 FJORDS

Fjords, Figure 1 Fjord as seen in Milford Sound, New Zealand. Photo courtesy Dr. Luke Copland.

Fjords are erosional landforms that represent the move- of glaciers, which becomes lesser and lesser toward the ment of a glacier within a confined channel along the val- end of the feature. ley bottom. The movement of a glacier and formation of Sediment deposition in fjords can be related to fjords is entirely controlled by topography. They are com- retreating glaciers by depositional zones moving in the mon in the polar regions, but can also be found in subpolar upward direction and hiatuses in retreat by push moraines and temperate regions (Table 1). Fjords have existed for or morainal banks. Powell and Molnia (1989) has shown millions of years and they range from a few kilometers various depositional system models associated with to several tens of kilometers wide and several kilometers retreating glaciers, and he (Powell, 2003) has discussed long. Because of their location and relationship with the such models in various types of environment from polar sea level on one side and tectonically active high moun- to temperate. Sediment deposition can also be related to tains on the other side, they are an important feature. They advancing glaciers in the form of increasing till thickness also possess unique characteristics of oceanic processes from head of a fjord toward the sea limit. and ice-ocean interface (Straneo et al., 2010), and there- Fjords also provide critical information about marine fore, they are appropriately termed as one of the complex limits and relate to with the isostaic uplift of deglaciated and dynamic landsystems that provide information about outer coasts. glacial, fluvial, and oceanographic features. Most fjords are a Palimpsest feature which makes them an extremely important feature, because they can Bibliography provide information about the successive glaciations Cowan, E. A., et al., 2010. Fjords as temporary sediment traps: his- through floor sediments. However, these sediments need tory of glacial erosion and deposition in Muir Inlet, Glacier Bay National Park, southeastern Alaska. GSA Bulletin, 122(7-8), to be carefully analyzed, since they may have been buried – by younger glacimarine sediments. Fjords act as natural 1067 1080, doi:10.1130/B26595.1. Powell, R. D., 2003. Subaquatic landsystems: fjords. In Evans, sediment traps and typically have high sediment accumu- D. J. A. (ed.), Glacial Landsystems. London: Arnold, lation rates, providing the potential for high-resolution pp. 313–347. palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental studies on Powell, R. D., and Molnia, B. F., 1989. Glacimarine sedimentary decadal to centennial timescales and presenting a unique processes, facies and morphology of the South-southeast Alaska opportunity to study land–ocean interactions. Cowan shelf and fjords. Marine Geology, 85, 359–390. et al. (2010) used the fjord sediment to identify two prom- Straneo, F., et al., 2010. Rapid circulation of warm subtropical waters in a major glacial fjord in East Greenland. Nature Geosci- inent glacial erosion surfaces associated with Last Glacial ence, 3, 182–186, doi:10.1038/ngeo764. Maximum advance and Little Ice Age advance. Fjords comprise several rock basins, but many of them are deepest at the beginning and become gradually shallower Cross-references toward the sea. This could be related to the erosive power Sediment Core and Glacial Environment Reconstruction Fjords, Table 1 Some of the major local controls on modern fjord landsystems (Adopted from Powell, 2003)

Sediment contribution Glacial Glacifluvial Marine Terrestrial Glacial Internal Climatic flow ice Bed Subglacial En-/ En-/ Sea Mass zone velocity condition condition water free Glacier terminus Sub- supra Sub- supra icebergs ice biogenic Fluvial flow Wind Modern examples

Temperate Fast Temperate Deforming Conduit Tidewater cliff 2 2 5 1 2 1 3 3 1 Alaska, British till, local flow Columbia, Chile Subpolar Fast Slightly Deforming Conduit Tidewater cliff 3 1 3 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 Svalbard, cold till flow Canadian and Russian Arctic FJORDS Moderate Cold Mostly None to Short floating 2 2 1 2 1 1 Antarctic frozen, minor tongue or Peninsula local till conduit tidewater cliff flow Polar Fast Cold Deforming Local Floating tongue 3 1 3 3 1 1 2 1 1 Greenland, till conduit Ellesmere thin film Island, Baffin Island Moderate Very cold Deforming None Floating tongue 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 Antarctica till (Mackay) Slow Very cold Mostly None Floating tongue 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 Antarctica (Ferrar frozen, or tidewater and Blue) some till cliff 295