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Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers Vijay P University of Dayton eCommons Geology Faculty Publications Department of Geology 2011 Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers Vijay P. Singh Texas A & M University - College Station Pratap Singh Umesh K. Haritashya University of Dayton, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://ecommons.udayton.edu/geo_fac_pub Part of the Geology Commons, Geomorphology Commons, Geophysics and Seismology Commons, Glaciology Commons, Hydrology Commons, Other Environmental Sciences Commons, Paleontology Commons, Sedimentology Commons, Soil Science Commons, Stratigraphy Commons, and the Tectonics and Structure Commons eCommons Citation Singh, Vijay P.; Singh, Pratap; and Haritashya, Umesh K., "Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers" (2011). Geology Faculty Publications. Paper 7. http://ecommons.udayton.edu/geo_fac_pub/7 This Book is brought to you for free and open access by the Department of Geology at eCommons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Geology Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of eCommons. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES ENCYCLOPEDIA of SNOW, ICE AND GLACIERS edited by VIJAY P. SINGH Texas A&M University College Station, Texas USA PRATAP SINGH New Delhi India UMESH K. HARITASHYA University of Dayton Dayton, Ohio USA Contents Contributors xxi Anabatic Winds: In Relation with Snow/Glacier Basin 39 Preface xli Umesh K. Haritashya, Vijay P. Singh and Pratap Singh Acknowledgments xliii Anchor Ice 40 Guide to the Reader xlv D. P. Dobhal Ablation Depression 1 Andean Glaciers 40 Lasafam Iturrizaga Mathias Vuille Ablatometer 3 Anisotropic Ice Flow 44 Rijan B. Kayastha Olivier Gagliardini Acidity of Glacier Ice 3 Antarctica 45 Cunde Xiao Rasik Ravindra and Arun Chaturvedi Active Ice Wedge 4 Anti-Icing 54 Pratima Pandey Rijan B. Kayastha Adfreeze 4 Anti-Syngenetic Ice Wedge 54 Pratima Pandey Pratima Pandey Aerial Photogrammetry for Glacial Monitoring 4 Appalachian Glacier Complex in Maritime Canada 54 Martin Kappas Rudolph R. Stea Alaskan Glaciers 16 Arctic Hydroclimatology 58 Bruce F. Molnia Jessica Ellen Cherry Albedo 23 Artificial Ground Freezing 61 Thomas C. Grenfell Rijan B. Kayastha Alps 35 Artificial Production of Snow 61 Martin Beniston Carmen de Jong Altai-Sayan Glaciers 38 Atmosphere-Snow/Ice Interactions 66 Vladimir Aizen Timo Vihma viii CONTENTS Atmospheric Circulation and Glaciochemical Catastrophic Rock Slope Failures and Mountain Records 75 Glaciers 113 Shichang Kang Kenneth Hewitt, John J. Clague and Philip Deline Automated Glacier Mapping 76 Catchment Glacier 127 Frank Paul D. P. Dobhal Basal Sediment Evacuation by Subglacial Caucasus Mountains 127 Drainage Systems 85 Chris R. Stokes Darrel A. Swift Characteristics of Snow and Glacier Fed Rivers Base Flow/Groundwater Flow 90 in Mountainous Regions with Special Debasmita Misra, Ronald P. Daanen and Reference to Himalayan Basins 128 Anita M. Thompson Akhouri Pramod Krishna Bed (Bottom) Topography 93 Chemical Composition of Snow, Ice, and Glaciers 133 Vijay Kumar Amanda M. Grannas Bed Forms (Fluvial) 93 Chemical and Microbe Records in Snow and Ice 135 Vijay Kumar Liu Yongqin Bed Roughness 94 Chemical Processes in Snow and Ice 138 Vijay Kumar Amanda M. Grannas Bed Strength 94 Circulation and Mixing in Ice-Covered Lakes 139 Vijay Kumar Lars Bengtsson Benchmark Glacier 95 Cirque Glaciers 141 Tobias Bolch Øyvind Paasche Biogeochemistry of Sea Ice 98 David N. Thomas Climate Change and Glaciers 145 Arun B. Shrestha Blue Ice 102 Richard Bintanja Climate Variability and High Altitude Temperature and Precipitation 153 Bottom Melting or Undermelt (Ice Shelf) 103 Mathias Vuille Ashok Kumar Verma Cloudburst 156 Brash Ice 103 Vijay Kumar Chelamallu Hariprasad Cohesion 157 Calving Glaciers 105 P. Pradeep Kumar Charles R. Warren Cold-Based Glaciers 157 Canadian Rockies and Coast Mountains Reginald D. Lorrain and Sean J. Fitzsimons of Canada 106 John J. Clague, Brian Menounos and Condensation Nuclei 161 Roger Wheate P. Pradeep Kumar Cascade Mountains, USA 111 Confluence of Rivers 161 Rijan B. Kayastha Anju Chaudhary Cascade System 112 Congelation Ice 163 Rijan B. Kayastha Pratima Pandey Catastrophic Flooding 112 Crack 163 Fiona Tweed Pratima Pandey CONTENTS ix Creep 163 Debris 186 Christophe Lambiel, Reynald Delaloye and Tobias Bolch Isabelle Gärtner-Roer Debris Thermal Properties and Impact on Crevasses 165 Ice Ablation 188 C. J. van der Veen Ryohei Suzuki Critical Temperature 168 Debris-Covered Glaciers 190 Pratima Pandey Martin P. Kirkbride Crush 168 Deglaciation 192 Pratima Pandey Vinvent Rinterknecht Crust 168 Degree-Days 196 Pratima Pandey Roger J. Braithwaite Cryoconite 168 Depletion of Snow Cover 200 Nozomu Takeuchi Sanjay K. Jain Cryodessication 171 Deposition from Debris-Rich Ice 201 P. Pradeep Kumar Gulab Singh and Farjana S. Birajdar Cryofront 171 Digital Elevation Model Generation Over P. Pradeep Kumar Glacierized Region 202 Thierry Toutin Cryogenesis 171 P. Pradeep Kumar Digital Image Information Extraction Techniques for Snow Cover Mapping from Remote Cryogenic Aquiclude 171 Sensing Data 213 P. Pradeep Kumar Manoj K. Arora, Aparna Shukla and Ravi P. Gupta Cryogenic Fabric 172 P. Pradeep Kumar Direct Surface Runoff 232 Lars Bengtsson Cryolithology 172 P. Pradeep Kumar Discharge/Streamflow 234 Cryopeg 172 Debasmita Misra, Ronald P. Daanen and P. Pradeep Kumar Anita M. Thompson Cryosol 172 Distributary Channels 236 P. Pradeep Kumar Anju Chaudhary Cryostatic Pressure 173 Diurnal Cycle of Runoff 237 Pratima Pandey Darrel A. Swift Cryostructure 173 Diverging Ice Flow 239 Pratima Pandey Gulab Singh and Farjana S. Birajdar Cryoturbation 173 Drift Glacier/Ice/Snow 240 P. Pradeep Kumar Gulab Singh and Farjana S. Birajdar Dating Glacial Landforms 175 Dry and Wet Snow Line/Zone 240 Jason P. Briner Ravi P. Gupta Dead Ice 186 Dry Snow 241 D. P. Dobhal Ravi P. Gupta x CONTENTS Dye Tracer Investigations of Glacier Hydrology 242 Forbes Band 296 Peter Nienow Gulab Singh Dynamics of Glaciers 245 Formation and Deformation of Basal Ice 297 Hester Jiskoot Simon J. Cook Elongation Ratio 257 Frazil 300 Vijay Kumar Gulab Singh Englacial Conduit 257 Freezing Bottom (Ice Shelf) 300 D. P. Dobhal Gulab Singh Englacial Processes 258 Freezing Meltwater 301 Andrew G. Fountain Gulab Singh and F. S. Birajdar Freezing and Thawing Index 301 Environmental Isotopes 261 Jiang Fengqing and Zhang Yanwei Bhishm Kumar Frequency Analysis of Snow Storms 302 Epigenetic Ice 262 Stanley A. Changnon Chelamallu Hariprasad Fresh Water Storage 303 Epiglacial Morphology 262 Pratima Pandey Claudio Smiraglia and Guglielmina Diolaiuti Frictional Melting 303 Equilibrium-Line Altitude (ELA) 268 Pratima Pandey Jostein Bakke and Atle Nesje Frost 303 Erosion of Hard Rock Bed 277 Alan W. Rempel D. P. Dobhal Frozen Soil Hydrology 306 Erosion Rate 277 Ronald P. Daanen, Debasmita Misra and Subhajit Sinha Anita M. Thompson Estimation of Glacier Volume and Volume Frozen Toe (Outer Zone of Glacier Snout) 311 Change by Scaling Methods 278 Pratima Pandey David B. Bahr Gelisols 313 Estuary Ice Cover 281 Divya Dudeja Brian Morse Geochemistry of Snow and Ice 313 Tandong Yao, Yongqin Liu, Huabiao Zhao and Fast Ice 289 Wusheng Yu D. P. Dobhal Geocryology 324 Finger Rafting 289 Amit Kumar Dominic Vella and John Wettlaufer GIS in Glaciology 325 Firn 290 Jacob Napieralski Rachel W. Obbard, Ian Baker and Rachel W. Lomonaco Glacial Drainage Characteristics 328 Richard A. Marston Fjords 293 Umesh K. Haritashya, Vijay P. Singh and Glacial Ecosystems 330 Pratap Singh Nozomu Takeuchi Foliation 296 Glacial Erosion 332 Gulab Singh Ping Fu and Jonathan Harbor CONTENTS xi Glacial Erratic 341 Glacier Surging 415 D. P. Dobhal Hester Jiskoot Glacial Geomorphology and Landforms Evolution 341 Glacier System 428 Alan R. Gillespie Rajesh Kumar Glacial Grooves 358 Glacier Toe 429 D. P. Dobhal Rajesh Kumar Glacial Overdeepening 358 Glaciers of the Karakoram Himalaya 429 Christopher Lloyd Kenneth Hewitt Glacial Striations 359 Glacieret 436 D. P. Dobhal Rajesh Kumar Glacial Trough 359 Glacierization 436 D. P. Dobhal Rajesh Kumar Glacial/Interglacial Cycles 359 Glacioeustasy 436 Michel Crucifix Amit Kumar Glaciation During Times of Enhanced/Reduced Glaciofluvial 437 Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide 366 Rajesh Kumar Andrew B. G. Bush Glaciogenic Deposits 437 Glaciations and Groundwater Flow Systems 372 Rajesh Kumar Jean-Michel Lemieux and Edward A. Sudicky Glacier 376 Glaciohydraulic Supercooling 438 D. P. Dobhal Fiona Tweed Glacier Bird of the Andes 377 Glacioisostasy 439 Douglas R. Hardy and Spencer P. Hardy Amit Kumar Glacier Cave 377 Glaciolacustrine 440 Monohar Arora Himali Panthri Glacier Field Studies: Important Things to Notice 378 Glaciology 440 John F. Shroder Peter G. Knight Glacier Hydrology 379 Glaciomarine 443 Pratap Singh Amit Kumar Glacier Lake Outburst Floods 381 Glaciostatic Pressure/Stress 443 Lasafam Iturrizaga Divya Dudeja Glacier Mass Balance 399 Glaciotectonic Structures, Landforms, Wilfried Haeberli and Processes 444 James S. Aber and Andrzej Ber Glacier Motion/Ice Velocity 408 Terry Hughes Global Climate Modeling in Cryospheric Assessment 458 Glacier Pothole 414 Jeffrey Ridley Rajesh Kumar Global Outlook of Snowcover, Sea Ice, Glacier Sliding 415 and Glaciers 461 Rajesh Kumar Mauri Pelto xii CONTENTS Global Warming and its Effect on Horizontal Component of Velocity 530 Snow/Ice/Glaciers 468 Rijan B. Kayastha Stephen J. Déry Hummocks (Peat) 530 GPS in Glaciology, Applications 471 Subhajit Sinha Matt A. King Hydrochemical Characteristics
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