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California Agriculture IMMIP I I Imam I .11m I I •ff•Fi,to I um I Sm. f 1- lorairdroVordirordir2irdr2irorororor2ireir21 • MECHANIZATION AND MEXICAN LABOR IN - CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE by David Runsten and Phillip LeVeen 41, Monographs in U.S.-Mexican Studies, 6 1981 .r Program in United States-Mexican Studies University of California, San Diego Q-060 La Jolla, California 92093 rdrair2irorairalrgr2IRIRIRIRIrdreirgrairdralralr24242.1r2irdraireirdrdrdr21 PUBLICA'TIONS OF THE PROGRAM IN UNITED STATES-MEXICAN STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO edited by Wayne A. Cornelius and Jorge G. Castro WORKING PAPERS IN U.S.-MEXICAN STUDIES No. 1: Immigration and U.S.-Mexican Relations, edited by Wayne A. Cornelius. $4.00 No. 2: Interviewing Undocumented Immigrants: Methodological Reflections Based on Fieldwork in Mexico and the United States, by Wayne A. Cornelius. $2.50 No. 3: American in the Era of Limits: Nativist Reactions to the `New' Immigration, by Wayne A. Cornelius. $3.00 No. 4: Mexican Immigration: Changing Terms of the Debate in the United States and Mexico, by Ann L. Craig. $2.50 No. 5: Mexican Migration to the United States: The Limits of Government Intervention, by Wayne A. Cornelius. $2.00 No. 6: The Future of Mexican Immigrants in California: A New Perspective for Public Policy, by Wayne A. Cornelius. $3.50 No. 7: Legalizing the Flow of Temporary Migrant Workers from Mexico: A Policy Proposal, by Wayne A. Cornelius. $2.50 No. 8: Immigration, Mexican Development Policy, and the Future of U.S.-Mexican Relations, by Wayne A. Cornelius. $3.00 No. 9: U.S. Trade Policy Toward Mexico: Are There Reasons to Expect Special Treatment? by Olga Pellicer de Brody. $2.50 No. 10: U.S. Concerns Regarding Mexico's Oil and Gas: Evolution of the Debate, 1977-1980, by Olga Pellicer de Brody. $2.50 No. 11: The Importation of Mexican Contract Laborers to the United States, 1942-1964: Antecedents, Operation and Legacy, by Manuel Garcia y Griego. $3.50 No. 12: Hispanic Workers in the Garment and Restaurant Industries in Los Angeles County, by Sheldon L. Maram, with the assistance of Stuart Long and Dennis Berg. $4.00 No. 13: The United States Congress and the Making of U.S. Policy Toward Mexico, by Donald L. Wyman. $3.50 (Continued on inside back cover) MECHANIZATION AND MEXICAN LABOR IN CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE by DAVID RUNSTEN Department of Agriculture and Resource Economics University of California, Berkeley and PHILLIP LEVEEN Public Interest Economics - West MONOGRAPHS IN U.S.-MEXICAN STUDIES, .6 . Program in United States-Mexican Studies University of California, San Diego 4 1981 Publication of this paper is made possible, in part, by a generous grant from the Rosenberg Foundation of San Francisco, California. The paper was presented at the Binational Consultation on U.S.-Mexican Agricultrual Rela- tions held February 25-27, 1981 in San Diego, California and sponsored by the Program in U.S.-Mexican Studies at the University of California, San Diego. TABLE OF CONTENTS PART I: INTRODUCTION ................................... 1 PART II: THE POLITICAL ECONOMIC CONTEXT: CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE'S UNIQUE DEVELOPMENT AND THE CHOICE OF TECHNOLOGY.................„ 11181111811111111111 4 The Unique Structure of California's Agriculture 1111 4 Early Land Tenure,„„„,„„„, 11111111181111118111 9 Evolution of Large-Scale Farming,.................. ,12 A Brief History of Hired Labor in California, ,14 The Importance of Immigrant Labor to California Agriculture,„.„,„„„„ ...............22 APPENDIX TO PART II. ................................... ,30 The Chinese,....................................... ,30 The Japanese„„ ...................................,32 .The Mexicans Pre-1930, 11111111111111111811111111 ,34 The Post-War Labor Force, 11111111111111111111111111 ,35 PART III: THE ROLE OF THE STATE IN CALIFORNIA'S AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT............................ 45 Policy Before World War II,..................... ,„,46 Implications of the Bracero Program and its Termination for Understanding the Role of the State 1111111 111111111111111111111111111111 „„S1 In Conclusion,„ 62 4 111111111111111111111111111111111111 PART IV: AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENTS TO THE TERMINATION OF THE BRACERO PROGRAM.........„.„„„64 An Overview of the Utilization of Labor After the Bracero Program,„„,„„„„,„„„„„„,„,„64 Adaptive Response #1: Sharecropping strawberries„ 68 Adaptive Response- #2: Labor rationalization in lettuce, 11111111111 ............................. 76 Adaptive Response #3: Labor rationalization n lemons i 111111 1111111 11111111111111111111111111111 80 Adaptive Response #4: White asparagus leaves California 1111 11111111111111111111111111111 89 • Adaptive Response #.5: Continued mechanization of sugar beets 1111111 ............................. 95 PART V: THE MECHANIZATION OF CANNING TOMATOES. 1111111 ,100 The Development of the Mechanical Harvester„ ,100 Mechanization as a Labor Market Strategy,......... ,103 Adoption of the Harvester,,,........ 11111 1111 .108 Mechanization as a Labor Process Strategy,,,, • ,112 PART VI: CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY 1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 129 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES TABLE 11,1: COMPARATIVE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE CHARACTERISTICS: IOWA, CALIFORNIA, UNITED STATES: 1900-1974„„„,„„,,,,„,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 6 TABLE 11.2: CROPLAND PER FARM WORKER BY ACRES: IOWA, CALIFORNIA, AND UNITED STATES, 1935-1978„„„ 8 FIGURE 11.1: REAL AND NOMINAL AGRICULTURAL WAGES IN CALIFORNIA; RATIO OF AGRICULTURAL WAGES TO NON-AGRICULTURAL WAGES: 1880-1978,„„„„,,,,,,,,, 24 TABLE Al: ANNUAL AVERAGE EMPLOYMENT OF FARM WORKERS, CALIFORNIA, 1951-1975„,„„„„,„ 1 ., 36 TABLE A2: EMPLOYMENT AND EARNING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CALIFORNIA FARM LABOR FORCE, 1965,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 39 TABLE A3: SOCIOECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FARM LABOR FORCE IN CALIFORNIA, 1965,„„„,„,,,,,, 41 TABLE A4: LOW-INCOME FARM WORKERS EMPLOYMENT AND EARNINGS HISTORIES: MEXICAN AND ANGLO WORKERS, SELECTED AGE GROUPS, 1965-1968,,,,„„„„,,,,,,,,,, 43 TABLE III.1: ANNUAL PEAK EMPLOYMENT OF FOREIGN WORKERS ADMITTED FOR TEMPORARY JOBS IN U.S. AGRICULTURE, BY NATIONALITY, YEAR, AND MONTH, 1942-1967„„„„,„„„„„,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 52 FIGURE CHART I: COTTON: INDEX OF PRODUCTION, PRODUCTIVITY, AND MAN-HOURS.................,„ 54 CHART 2: COTTON PRODUCTION: BY METHOD OF HARVEST...........,.................. 54 TABLE 111.2: PERCENT OF ALL MEXICAN CONTRACT WORKERS IN SELECTED STATES, SELECTED YEARS, 1945-1962.„,„„„„,„,„,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 56 TABLE 111.3: PEAK EMPLOYMENT OF FOREIGN WORKERS IN THE UNITED STATES, NUMBER AND PERCENT OF TOTAL EMPLOYMENT, BY SELECTED CROP: 1959-1964.... 57 TABLE IV.1: CALIFORNIA SPECIALTY-CROP AGRICULTURE SEASONAL HAND-LABOR REQUIREMENTS, 1963-1976„,,,,,, 65 TABLE IV.2: NUMBER OF BRACEROS EMPLOYED AT PEAK AND PERCENT OF TOTAL PEAK EMPLOYMENT, CALIFORNIA, BY CROP......„.„..„„.„„........„ 70 TABLE IV.3: CALIFORNIA STRAWBERRIES, 1950-1978.,„,,,,, 71 TABLE IV.4: CALIFORNIA AND ARIZONA LEMONS, 1950-1951 TO 1977-1978„...„.„.„„.............. 83 TABLE IV.5: AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS OF (BRACER° ) CREWS IN LEMON PICKING, VENTURA COUNTY, CALIFORNIA, 1943-1966„,„,„„,„„„„,,,,,,,,,,, 84 TABLE IV.6: AVERAGE GROWER INCOME, CALIFORNIA LEMONS ............................................ 84 TABLE IV.7: EVIDENCE OF LABOR RATIONALIZATION IN LEMONS: LABOR USE AND LABOR PRODUCTIVITY IN THE COASTAL GROWERS ASSOCIATION...............„ 86 TABLE IV.8: CALIFORNIA ASPARAGUS, 1950-1979„,„„„„ 91 TABLE IV.9: U.S. CANNED ASPARAGUS, 1945-1974„„„,,,,, 94 TABLE V.1: CANNING TOMATO PRODUCTION STATISTICS FOR CALIFORNIA, 1950-1976„,„„„,„„,,,,,,,,,,,,101 TABLE V.2: SELECTED PERFORMANCE MEASURES ASSOCIATED WITH THE MECHANICAL TOMATO HARVESTER AND WITH RAW PRODUCT HANDLING IN CALIFORNIA, 1960-1976„,,,,107 TABLE V.3: DISTRIBUTION OF CALIFORNIA TOMATO GROWERS, BY ACRES; 1964,-„,„„,„,„„„„„„,„,110 sr TABLE V.4: COMPARISON OF WORK ORGANIZATION: HAND VS. MACHINE HARVEST...............„.„..„.„115 MECHANIZATION AND MEXICAN LABOR IN CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE* PART I: INTRODUCTION The social tension associated with rapid mechanization of vegetable and fruit production have recently been dramatized by two unprecedented events. A political association of small farm owners and farmworkers, the California Agrarian Action Project, filed a law suit against the University of California charging it with conducting research that princi- pally benefits large growers and agribusiness corporations and displaces • both small producers and farmworkers (Knickerbocker, 1979). Specifically, this action group denounced the existence of close economic ties between the university and agribusiness corporations as well as the university research funding policy whereby small agribusiness grants can divert large sums of public research money toward the interests of the large corporations. More recently, the United States Secretary of Agriculture abruptly cancelled all federal research funds supporting work on the development of labor saving technological innovations in California. This decision created the threat that state funds, which represent the bulk of research funding, could also be curtailed for the same reason. These developments only illustrate the fact that mechanization in California agriculture has become an active political issue. For many years, California agriculture has relied upon abundant supplies of cheap *This monograph is part of a larger study directed through the PROTAAL Project of the Instituto Interamericano de Ciencias Agricolas OEA and Ford Foundation. The larger study was co-authored by Alain de Janvry (Department of Agricultural and Resdurce
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