Arthur Schopenhauer

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Arthur Schopenhauer (German: [ˈaʁtʊʁ ˈʃɔpənˌhaʊ̯ɐ]; 22 February 1788 – 21 September 1860) was a German philosopher. He is best known for his 1818 work The World as Will and Representation, in which he charac- terizes the phenomenal world, and consequently all human action, as the product of a blind, insatiable, and malignant metaphysical will.[2][3] Proceeding from the transcendental idealism of Immanuel Kant, Schopen- hauer developed an atheistic metaphysical and ethical system that has been described as an exemplary manifesta- tion of philosophical pessimism,[4][5][6] rejecting the con- temporaneous post-Kantian philosophies of German idealism.[7][8] Schopenhauer was among the first thinkers in Western philosophy to share and affirm significant tenets of Eastern philosophy (e.g., asceticism, the world- as-appearance), having initially arrived at similar conclusions as the result of his own philosophical work.[9][10] His writing on aesthetics, morality, and psychology would ex- ert important influence on thinkers and artists throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Though his work failed to garner substantial attention during his life, Schopenhauer’s posthumous impact has proven profound across various disciplines, including philosophy, literature, and science. Those who have cited his influence include Friedrich Nietzsche,[11] Richard Wagner, Leo Tolstoy, Ludwig Wittgenstein,[12] Erwin Schrödinger, Sigmund Freud, Joseph Campbell, Albert Einstein,[13] Carl Jung, Thomas Mann, Jorge Luis Borges, [14] and Samuel Beckett, among others. Schopenhauer’s birthplace house, ul. Św. Ducha (formerly Heiligegeistgasse)

1 Life her. As early as 1799, he started playing the ﬂute.[17]

Schopenhauer was born on 22 February 1788, in the He became a student at the University of Göttingen in city of Danzig (Gdańsk, Poland) on Heiligegeistgasse 1809. There he studied metaphysics and psychology un- (known in the present day as Św. Ducha 47), the son der Gottlob Ernst Schulze, the author of Aenesidemus, of Johanna Schopenhauer (née Trosiener) and Heinrich who advised him to concentrate on Plato and Immanuel Floris Schopenhauer,[15] both descendants of wealthy Kant. In Berlin, from 1811 to 1812, he had attended lec- German patrician families. When Danzig became part of tures by the prominent post-Kantian philosopher Johann Prussia in 1793, Heinrich moved to Hamburg, although Gottlieb Fichte and the theologian Friedrich Schleierma- his ﬁrm continued trading in Danzig. In 1805, Schopen- cher. hauer’s father may have committed suicide.[16] Shortly In 1814, Schopenhauer began his seminal work The thereafter, Schopenhauer’s mother Johanna moved with World as Will and Representation (Die Welt als Wille und his sister Adele to Weimar, then the centre of German Vorstellung). He ﬁnished it in 1818 and published it the literature, to pursue her writing career. After one year, following year. In Dresden in 1819, Schopenhauer fa- Schopenhauer left the family business in Hamburg to join thered, with a servant, an illegitimate daughter who was

1 2 1 LIFE

singer, Caroline Richter (called Medon), and had a relationship with her for several years. He discarded marriage plans, however, writing, “Marrying means to halve one’s rights and double one’s duties,” and “Marrying means to grasp blindfolded into a sack hoping to find an eel amongst an assembly of snakes.” When he was forty-three years old, he took interest in seventeen-year-old Flora Weiss but she rejected him as recorded in her diary.[25] Schopenhauer had a notably strained relationship with his mother Johanna Schopenhauer. After his father’s death, Arthur Schopenhauer endured two long years of drudgery as a merchant, in honor of his dead father. Then his mother retired to Weimar, and Arthur Schopenhauer dedicated himself wholly to studies in the gymnasium of Gotha. He left it in disgust after seeing one of the mas- ters lampooned, and went to live with his mother. But by that time she had already opened her famous salon, and Arthur was not compatible with what he considered to be the vain, ceremonious ways of the salon. He was also disgusted by the ease with which Johanna Schopenhauer had forgotten his father’s memory. Consequently, he attempted university life. There, he wrote his first book, On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason. His mother informed him that the book was incompre- hensible and it was unlikely that anyone would ever buy Schopenhauer as a youth a copy. In a fit of temper Arthur Schopenhauer told her that his work would be read long after the “rubbish” she wrote would have been totally forgotten.[26][27] born and died the same year.[18][19] In 1820, Schopen- In 1831, a cholera epidemic broke out in Berlin and hauer became a lecturer at the University of Berlin. He Schopenhauer left the city. Schopenhauer settled perma- scheduled his lectures to coincide with those of the fa- nently in Frankfurt in 1833, where he remained for the mous philosopher G. W. F. Hegel, whom Schopenhauer next twenty-seven years, living alone except for a succes- described as a “clumsy charlatan”.[20] However, only five sion of pet poodles named Atman and Butz. The numer- students turned up to Schopenhauer’s lectures, and he ous notes that he made during these years, amongst others dropped out of academia. A late essay, On University on aging, were published posthumously under the title Se- Philosophy, expressed his resentment towards the work nilia. conducted in academies. While in Berlin, Schopenhauer was named as a defen- dant in a lawsuit initiated by a woman named Caro- line Marquet.[21] She asked for damages, alleging that Schopenhauer had pushed her. According to Schopen- hauer’s court testimony, she deliberately annoyed him by raising her voice while standing right outside his door.[22] Marquet alleged that the philosopher had assaulted and battered her after she refused to leave his doorway. Her companion testified that she saw Marquet prostrate outside his apartment. Because Marquet won the lawsuit, Schopenhauer made payments to her for the next twenty years.[23] When she died, he wrote on a copy of her death certificate, Obit anus, abit onus (“The old woman dies, the burden is lifted”).[24] In 1819 the fortunes of his mother Grave at Frankfurt Hauptfriedhof and sister, and himself, were threatened by the failure of the firm in Danzig in which his father had been a director and shareholder. His sister accepted a compromise com- Schopenhauer had a robust constitution, but in 1860 his pensation package of 70 per cent, but Schopenhauer an- health began to deteriorate. He died of heart failure on grily refused this, and eventually recovered 9400 thalers. 21 September 1860 while sitting at home on his couch. In 1821, he fell in love with nineteen-year-old opera He was 72.[28] 2.2 Art and aesthetics 3

2 Thought my representation”. Will, for Schopenhauer, is what Kant called the "thing-in-itself.”[31] Nietzsche was greatly in- 2.1 Philosophy of the “Will” ﬂuenced by this idea of Will, while developing it in a different direction. Main article: The World as Will and Representation A key focus of Schopenhauer was his investigation of 2.2 Art and aesthetics

Main article: Arthur Schopenhauer’s aesthetics

For Schopenhauer, human desiring, “willing,” and crav- ing cause suffering or pain. A temporary way to escape this pain is through aesthetic contemplation (a method comparable to Zapffe's "Sublimation"). Aes- thetic contemplation allows one to escape this pain— albeit temporarily—because it stops one perceiving the world as mere presentation. Instead, one no longer per- ceives the world as an object of perception (therefore as subject to the Principle of Sufficient Grounds; time, space and causality) from which one is separated; rather one becomes one with that perception: "one can thus no longer separate the perceiver from the perception"(The World as Will and Representation, section 34). From this immersion with the world one no longer views oneself as an individual who suffers in the world due to one’s individual will but, rather, becomes a "subject of cognition" to a perception that is "Pure, will-less, timeless" (section 34) where the essence, “ideas,” of the world are shown. Art is the practical consequence of this brief aesthetic contemplation as it attempts to depict one’s immersion with the world, thus tries to depict the essence/pure ideas of the Schopenhauer in 1815, second of the critical five years of the world. Music, for Schopenhauer, was the purest form of initial composition of Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung art because it was the one that depicted the will itself without it appearing as subject to the Principle of Sufficient individual motivation. Before Schopenhauer, Hegel had Grounds, therefore as an individual object. According to popularized the concept of Zeitgeist, the idea that soci- Daniel Albright, “Schopenhauer thought that music was ety consisted of a collective consciousness which moved the only art that did not merely copy ideas, but actually in a distinct direction, dictating the actions of its mem- embodied the will itself.”[32] bers. Schopenhauer, a reader of both Kant and Hegel, He deemed music to be a timeless, universal lan- criticized their logical optimism and the belief that indi- guage which is comprehended everywhere, and can im- vidual morality could be determined by society and rea- bue global enthusiasm, if in possession of a significant son. Schopenhauer believed that humans were motivated melody.[33] by only their own basic desires, or Wille zum Leben (“Will to Live”), which directed all of mankind.[29] For Schopenhauer, human desire was futile, illogical, di- 2.3 Mathematics rectionless, and, by extension, so was all human action in the world. He wrote “Man can indeed do what he wants, Schopenhauer’s realist views on mathematics are evident but he cannot will what he wants”. In this sense, he ad- in his criticism of the contemporary attempts to prove the hered to the Fichtean principle of idealism: “the world parallel postulate in Euclidean geometry. Writing shortly is for a subject”. This idealism so presented, immedi- before the logical independence of the axiom was demon- ately commits it to an ethical attitude, unlike the purely strated by the discovery of hyperbolic geometry, and long epistemological concerns of Descartes and Berkeley. To before the general theory of relativity revealed that it does Schopenhauer, the Will is a malignant,[30] metaphysical not express a property of physical space, Schopenhauer existence which controls not only the actions of individ- criticized mathematicians for trying to prove from indi- ual, intelligent agents, but ultimately all observable phe- rect concepts that which he held to be directly evident nomena; an evil to be terminated via mankind’s duties: from perception. asceticism and chastity.[30] He is credited with one of the most famous opening lines of philosophy: “The world is The Euclidean method of demonstration 4 2 THOUGHT

has brought forth from its own womb its most in order to pass over to the material and striking parody and caricature in the famous empirical.[35] controversy over the theory of parallels, and in the attempts, repeated every year, to prove This follows Kant's reasoning.[39] the eleventh axiom[34] (also known as the fifth postulate). The axiom asserts, and that indeed through the indirect criterion of a third 2.4 Ethics intersecting line, that two lines inclined to each other (for this is the precise meaning of “less Schopenhauer’s moral theory proposed that only than two right angles”), if produced far enough, compassion can drive moral acts. According to Schopen- must meet. Now this truth is supposed to be hauer, compassion alone is the good of the object of the too complicated to pass as self-evident, and acts, that is, they cannot be inspired by either the prospect therefore needs a proof; but no such proof of personal utility or the feeling of duty. Mankind can can be produced, just because there is nothing also be guided by egoism and malice. Egotistic acts more immediate.[35] are those guided by self-interest, desire for pleasure or happiness. Schopenhauer believed most of our deeds Throughout his writings,[36] Schopenhauer criticized the belong to this class. Acts of malice are different from logical derivation of philosophies and mathematics from egotistic acts. As in the case of acts of compassion, mere concepts, instead of from intuitive perceptions. these do not target personal utility. Their aim is to cause damage to others, independently of personal gains. He In fact, it seems to me that the logical believed, like Swami Vivekananda in the unity of all method is in this way reduced to an absur- with one-self and also believed that ego is the origin of dity. But it is precisely through the contro- pain and conflicts, that reduction of ego frames the moral versies over this, together with the futile at- principles.[40] tempts to demonstrate the directly certain as merely indirectly certain, that the independence 2.4.1 Punishment and clearness of intuitive evidence appear in contrast with the uselessness and difficulty of logical proof, a contrast as instructive as it is amusing. The direct certainty will not be admitted here, just because it is no merely logical certainty following from the concept, and thus resting solely on the relation of predicate to subject, according to the principle of contradiction. But that eleventh axiom regarding parallel lines is a synthetic proposition a priori, and as such has the guarantee of pure, not empirical, perception; this perception is just as immediate and certain as is the principle of contradiction itself, from which all proofs originally derive their certainty. At bottom this holds good of every geometrical theorem ….

Although Schopenhauer could see no justiﬁcation for trying to prove Euclid’s parallel postulate, he did see a reason for examining another of Euclid’s axioms.[37]

It surprises me that the eighth axiom,[38] “Figures that coincide with one another are equal to one another,” is not rather attacked. For "coinciding with one another" is either a mere tautology, or something quite empirical, Schopenhauer, 1852 belonging not to pure intuition or perception, but to external sensuous experience. Thus it According to Schopenhauer, whenever we make a choice, presupposes mobility of the figures, but matter “we assume as necessary that decision was preceded by alone is movable in space. Consequently, this something from which it ensued, and which we call the reference to coincidence with one another for- ground or reason, or more accurately the motive, of the sakes pure space, the sole element of geometry, resultant action.”[41] Choices are not made freely. Our 2.5 Psychology 5 actions are necessary and determined because “every hu- Seneca, Hobbes, Pufendorf, and Anselm Feuerbach. man being, even every animal, after the motive has ap- Schopenhauer declared that their teaching was corrupted peared, must carry out the action which alone is in ac- by subsequent errors and therefore was in need of cordance with his inborn and immutable character.”[42] clarification.[43] A definite action inevitably results when a particular motive influences a person’s given, unchangeable character. The State, Schopenhauer claimed, punishes criminals in 2.4.2 God order to prevent future crimes. It does so by placing “beside every possible motive for committing a wrong a more Even though Schopenhauer ended his treatise on the free- powerful motive for leaving it undone, in the inescapable dom of human will with the postulate of everyone’s re- punishment. Accordingly, the criminal code is as com- sponsibility for their character and, consequently, acts— plete a register as possible of counter-motives to all crim- the responsibility following from one’s being the Will as inal actions that can possibly be imagined....”[43] noumenon (from which also all the characters and cre- ations come)—he considered his views incompatible with theism, on grounds of fatalism and, more generally, re- ...the law and its fulfillment, namely pun- sponsibility for evil. In Schopenhauer’s philosophy the ishment, are directed essentially to the future, dogmas of Christianity lose their significance,[48] and the not to the past. This distinguishes punishment “Last Judgment” is no longer preceded by anything—"the from revenge, for revenge is motivated by what world is itself the Last Judgment on it”.[49] Whereas God, has happened, and hence by the past as such. if he existed, would be evil.[50] All retaliation for wrong by inflicting a pain without any object for the future is revenge, and can have no other purpose than consolation 2.5 Psychology for the suffering one has endured by the sight of the suffering one has caused in another. Such Philosophers have not traditionally been impressed by the a thing is wickedness and cruelty, and cannot tribulations of sex, but Schopenhauer addressed it and re- be ethically justified. ...the object of punish- lated concepts forthrightly: ment...is deterrence from crime.... Object and purpose for the future distinguish punishment ...one ought rather to be surprised that a thing from revenge, and punishment has this object [sex] which plays throughout so important a only when it is inflicted in fulfillment of a law. part in human life has hitherto practically been Only in this way does it proclaim itself to be disregarded by philosophers altogether, and inevitable and infallible for every future case; lies before us as raw and untreated material.[51] and thus it obtains for the law the power to deter....[43][44] He gave a name to a force within man which he felt had invariable precedence over reason: the Will to Live or Should capital punishment be legal? “For safeguarding Will to Life (Wille zum Leben), defined as an inherent the lives of citizens,” he asserted, “capital punishment drive within human beings, and indeed all creatures, to [45] is therefore absolutely necessary.” “The murderer,” stay alive; a force which inveigles[30] us into reproducing. wrote Schopenhauer, “who is condemned to death according to the law must, it is true, be now used as a Schopenhauer refused to conceive of love as either trifling mere means, and with complete right. For public security, or accidental, but rather understood it to be an immensely which is the principal object of the State, is disturbed by powerful force lying unseen within man’s psyche and dra- him; indeed it is abolished if the law remains unfulfilled. matically shaping the world: The murderer, his life, his person, must be the means of fulfilling the law, and thus of re-establishing pub- The ultimate aim of all love affairs ... is more lic security.”[46] Schopenhauer disagreed with those who important than all other aims in man’s life; and would abolish capital punishment. “Those who would therefore it is quite worthy of the profound seri- like to abolish it should be given the answer: 'First re- ousness with which everyone pursues it. What move murder from the world, and then capital punish- is decided by it is nothing less than the compo- ment ought to follow.' "[45] sition of the next generation ...[52] People, according to Schopenhauer, cannot be improved. They can only be influenced by strong motives that over- These ideas foreshadowed the discovery of evolution, power criminal motives. Schopenhauer declared that Freud’s concepts of the libido and the unconscious mind, “real moral reform is not at all possible, but only deter- and evolutionary psychology in general.[53] ment from the deed....”[45] He claimed that this doctrine was not original with 2.6 Political and social thought him. Previously, it appeared in the writings of Plato,[47] 6 2 THOUGHT

Schopenhauer, by his own admission, did not give much thought to politics, and several times he writes proudly of how little attention he had paid “to political aﬀairs of [his] day”. In a life that spanned several revolutions in French and German government, and a few continent- shaking wars, he did indeed maintain his aloof position of “minding not the times but the eternities”. He wrote many disparaging remarks about Germany and the Ger- mans. A typical example is, “For a German it is even good to have somewhat lengthy words in his mouth, for he thinks slowly, and they give him time to reﬂect.”[56] Schopenhauer attributed civilizational primacy to the northern “white races” due to their sensitivity and creativ- ity (except for the ancient Egyptians and Hindus whom he saw as equal):

The highest civilization and culture, apart from the ancient Hindus and Egyptians, are found exclusively among the white races; and even with many dark peoples, the ruling caste or race is fairer in colour than the rest and has, therefore, evidently immigrated, for example, the Brahmans, the Incas, and the rulers of the South Sea Islands. All this is due to the fact that Bust in Frankfurt am Main necessity is the mother of invention because those tribes that emigrated early to the north, and there gradually became white, had to de- 2.6.1 Politics velop all their intellectual powers and invent and perfect all the arts in their struggle with need, want and misery, which in their many Schopenhauer’s politics were, for the most part, an echo forms were brought about by the climate. This of his system of ethics (the latter being expressed in Die they had to do in order to make up for the par- beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik, available in English as simony of nature and out of it all came their two separate books, On the Basis of Morality and On the high civilization.[57] Freedom of the Will). Ethics also occupies about one quarter of his central work, The World as Will and Rep- resentation. Despite this, he was adamantly against differing treatment of races, was fervently anti-slavery, and supported In occasional political comments in his Parerga and Par- the abolitionist movement in the United States. He de- alipomena and Manuscript Remains, Schopenhauer describes the treatment of "[our] innocent black brothers scribed himself as a proponent of limited government. whom force and injustice have delivered into [the slave- What was essential, he thought, was that the state should master’s] devilish clutches” as “belonging to the blackest “leave each man free to work out his own salvation", and pages of mankind’s criminal record”.[58] so long as government was thus limited, he would “prefer to be ruled by a lion than one of [his] fellow rats” Schopenhauer additionally maintained a marked meta- — i.e., by a monarch, rather than a democrat. Schopen- physical and political anti-Judaism. Schopenhauer ar- hauer shared the view of Thomas Hobbes on the necessity gued that Christianity constituted a revolt against the of the state, and of state action, to check the destructive materialistic basis of Judaism, exhibiting an Indian- tendencies innate to our species. He also defended the influenced ethics reflecting the Aryan-Vedic theme of independence of the legislative, judicial and executive spiritual “self-conquest.” This he saw as opposed to what branches of power, and a monarch as an impartial ele- he held to be the ignorant drive toward earthly utopianism ment able to practise justice (in a practical and everyday and superficiality of a worldly Jewish spirit: sense, not a cosmological one).[54] He declared monar- chy as “that which is natural to man” for “intelligence has While all other religions endeavor to ex- always under a monarchical government a much better plain to the people by symbols the metaphys- chance against its irreconcilable and ever-present foe, stu- ical significance of life, the religion of the pidity” and disparaged republicanism as “unnatural as it Jews is entirely immanent and furnishes noth- is unfavourable to the higher intellectual life and the arts ing but a mere war-cry in the struggle with and sciences.”[55] other nations.[59] 2.6 Political and social thought 7

2.6.2 Views on women

In Schopenhauer’s 1851 essay Of Women, he expressed his opposition to what he called “Teutonico- Christian stupidity” of reflexive unexamined reverence (“abgeschmackten Weiberveneration”)[60] for the female. Schopenhauer wrote that “Women are directly fitted for acting as the nurses and teachers of our early childhood by the fact that they are themselves childish, frivolous and short-sighted”. He opined that women are deficient in artistic faculties and sense of justice, and expressed opposition to monogamy. Indeed, Rodgers and Thompson in Philosophers Behaving Badly call Schopenhauer “a misogynist without rival in....Western philosophy.” He claimed that “woman is by nature meant to obey”. The essay does give some compliments, however: that “women are decidedly more sober in their judgment than [men] are” and are more sympathetic to the suffering of others. Schopenhauer’s controversial writings have influenced many, from Friedrich Nietzsche to nineteenth-century feminists.[61] Schopenhauer’s biological analysis of the difference between the sexes, and their separate roles in the struggle for survival and reproduction, antici- pates some of the claims that were later ventured by Schopenhauer at age 58 on 16 May 1846 sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists.[62] After the elderly Schopenhauer sat for a sculpture portrait by Elisabet Ney, he told Richard Wagner’s friend Malwida von Meysenbug, “I have not yet spoken my last ties, we are led to the view that a real and thor- word about women. I believe that if a woman succeeds ough improvement of the human race might in withdrawing from the mass, or rather raising herself be reached not so much from outside as from above the mass, she grows ceaselessly and more than a within, not so much by theory and instruction [63] man.” as rather by the path of generation. Plato had something of the kind in mind when, in the 2.6.3 Heredity and eugenics fifth book of his Republic, he explained his plan for increasing and improving his warrior caste. Schopenhauer believed that personality and intellect were If we could castrate all scoundrels and stick inherited. He quotes Horace’s saying, “From the brave all stupid geese in a convent, and give men of and good are the brave descended” (Odes, iv, 4, 29) noble character a whole harem, and procure and Shakespeare’s line from Cymbeline, “Cowards father men, and indeed thorough men, for all girls of cowards, and base things sire base” (IV, 2) to reinforce intellect and understanding, then a generation [64] would soon arise which would produce a better his hereditarian argument. Mechanistically, Schopen- [66] hauer believed that a person inherits his level of intellect age than that of Pericles. through his mother, and personal character through one’s father.[65] This belief in heritability of traits informed Schopenhauer’s view of love – placing it at the highest level of importance. For Schopenhauer the “final aim of In another context, Schopenhauer reiterated his all love intrigues, be they comic or tragic, is really of more antidemocratic-eugenic thesis: “If you want Utopian importance than all other ends in human life. What it all plans, I would say: the only solution to the problem is the turns upon is nothing less than the composition of the next despotism of the wise and noble members of a genuine generation.... It is not the weal or woe of any one indi- aristocracy, a genuine nobility, achieved by mating the vidual, but that of the human race to come, which is here most magnanimous men with the cleverest and most at stake.” This view of the importance for the species of gifted women. This proposal constitutes my Utopia whom we choose to love was reflected in his views on and my Platonic Republic”.[67] Analysts (e.g., Keith eugenics or good breeding. Here Schopenhauer wrote: Ansell-Pearson) have suggested that Schopenhauer’s advocacy of anti-egalitarianism and eugenics influenced With our knowledge of the complete unal- the neo-aristocratic philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, terability both of character and of mental facul- who initially considered Schopenhauer his mentor.[68] 8 2 THOUGHT

2.6.4 Animal welfare against the aims and ends of nature, and that in a matter that is all important and of the greatest concern to As a consequence of his monistic philosophy, Schopen- her, it must in fact serve these very aims, although only hauer was very concerned about the welfare of indirectly, as a means for preventing greater evils.”[80] animals.[69] For him, all individual animals, includ- Shrewdly anticipating the interpretive distortion, on the ing humans, are essentially the same, being phenomenal part of the popular mind, of his attempted scientific ex- manifestations of the one underlying Will. The word planation of pederasty as personal advocacy (when he “will” designated, for him, force, power, impulse, had otherwise described the act, in terms of spiritual energy, and desire; it is the closest word we have that ethics, as an “objectionable aberration”), Schopenhauer can signify both the real essence of all external things sarcastically concludes the appendix with the statement and also our own direct, inner experience. Since every that “by expounding these paradoxical ideas, I wanted to living thing possesses will, then humans and animals are grant to the professors of philosophy a small favour, for fundamentally the same and can recognize themselves in they are very disconcerted by the ever-increasing publi- each other.[70] For this reason, he claimed that a good cization of my philosophy which they so carefully con- person would have sympathy for animals, who are our cealed. I have done so by giving them the opportunity fellow sufferers. of slandering me by saying that I defend and commend pederasty.”[81] Compassion for animals is intimately asso- ciated with goodness of character, and it may be confidently asserted that he who is cruel to 2.7 Intellectual interests and affinities living creatures cannot be a good man.[71] 2.7.1 Indology Nothing leads more definitely to a recog- nition of the identity of the essential nature in Schopenhauer read the Latin translation of the animal and human phenomena than a study of Upanishads which had been translated by French zoology and anatomy.[72] writer Anquetil du Perron from the Persian translation of Prince Dara Shikoh entitled Sirre-Akbar (“The Great The assumption that animals are without Secret”). He was so impressed by their philosophy that rights and the illusion that our treatment of he called them “the production of the highest human them has no moral significance is a positively wisdom,” and considered them to contain superhuman outrageous example of Western crudity and conceptions. The Upanishads was a great source of barbarity. Universal compassion is the only inspiration to Schopenhauer, and writing about them he guarantee of morality.[73] said:

In 1841, he praised the establishment, in London, of the It is the most satisfying and elevating read- Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, and also ing (with the exception of the original text) the Animals’ Friends Society in Philadelphia. Schopen- which is possible in the world; it has been the hauer even went so far as to protest against the use of solace of my life and will be the solace of my the pronoun “it” in reference to animals because it led death.[82] to the treatment of them as though they were inanimate things.[74] To reinforce his points, Schopenhauer referred to anecdotal reports of the look in the eyes of a monkey It is well known that the book Oupnekhat (Upanishad) who had been shot[75] and also the grief of a baby elephant always lay open on his table, and he invariably studied it whose mother had been killed by a hunter.[76] before sleeping at night. He called the opening up of San- skrit literature “the greatest gift of our century”, and pre- He was very attached to his succession of pet poodles. dicted that the philosophy and knowledge of the Upan- Schopenhauer criticized Spinoza’s[77] belief that animals ishads would become the cherished faith of the West.[83] are to be used as a mere means for the satisfaction of humans.[78][79] Schopenhauer was ﬁrst introduced to the 1802 Latin Upanishad translation through Friedrich Majer. They met during the winter of 1813–1814 in Weimar at the 2.6.5 Views on homosexuality and pederasty home of Schopenhauer’s mother according to the biographer Sanfranski. Majer was a follower of Herder, In the third, expanded edition of The World as Will and and an early Indologist. Schopenhauer did not begin Representation (1859), Schopenhauer added an appendix a serious study of the Indic texts, however, until the to his chapter on the “Metaphysics of Sexual Love”. He summer of 1814. Sansfranski maintains that between also wrote that homosexuality did have the beneﬁt of pre- 1815 and 1817, Schopenhauer had another important venting ill-begotten children. Concerning this, he stated, cross-pollination with Indian thought in Dresden. This "... the vice we are considering appears to work directly was through his neighbor of two years, Karl Christian 9

Friedrich Krause. Krause was then a minor and rather un- to see my doctrine in such close agreement with orthodox philosopher who attempted to mix his own ideas a religion that the majority of men on earth with that of ancient Indian wisdom. Krause had also mas- hold as their own, for this numbers far more tered Sanskrit, unlike Schopenhauer, and the two devel- followers than any other. And this agreement oped a professional relationship. It was from Krause that must be yet the more pleasing to me, inasmuch Schopenhauer learned meditation and received the closest as in my philosophizing I have certainly not been thing to expert advice concerning Indian thought.[84] under its influence [emphasis added]. For up Most noticeable, in the case of Schopenhauer’s work, till 1818, when my work appeared, there was to be found in Europe only a very few accounts was the significance of the Chandogya Upanishad, whose [93] Mahavakya, Tat Tvam Asi is mentioned throughout The of Buddhism. World as Will and Representation.[85] Buddhist philosopher Nishitani Keiji, however, sought to distance Buddhism from Schopenhauer.[94] While 2.7.2 Buddhism Schopenhauer’s philosophy may sound rather mystical in such a summary, his methodology was resolutely Schopenhauer noted a correspondence between his doc- empirical, rather than speculative or transcendental: trines and the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism.[86] Sim- ilarities centered on the principles that life involves suf- Philosophy ... is a science, and as such has fering, that suffering is caused by desire (taṇhā), and that no articles of faith; accordingly, in it nothing the extinction of desire leads to liberation. Thus three of can be assumed as existing except what is either the four “truths of the Buddha” correspond to Schopen- positively given empirically, or demonstrated hauer’s doctrine of the will.[87] In Buddhism, however, through indubitable conclusions.[95] while greed and lust are always unskillful, desire is ethi- [88] cally variable – it can be skillful, unskillful, or neutral. Also note: For Schopenhauer, Will had ontological primacy over the intellect; in other words, desire is understood to be prior This actual world of what is knowable, to thought. Schopenhauer felt this was similar to notions in which we are and which is in us, re- of puruṣārtha or goals of life in Vedānta Hinduism. mains both the material and the limit of our consideration.[96] In Schopenhauer’s philosophy, denial of the will is attained by either: The argument that Buddhism affected Schopenhauer’s philosophy more than any other Dharmic faith loses more • personal experience of an extremely great suffering credence when viewed in light of the fact that Schopen- that leads to loss of the will to live; or hauer did not begin a serious study of Buddhism until • knowledge of the essential nature of life in the world after the publication of The World as Will and Repre- [97] through observation of the suffering of other people. sentation in 1818. Scholars have started to revise ear- lier views about Schopenhauer’s discovery of Buddhism. Proof of early interest and influence, however, appears However, Buddhist nirvāṇa is not equivalent to the con- in Schopenhauer’s 1815/16 notes (transcribed and trans- dition that Schopenhauer described as denial of the lated by Urs App) about Buddhism. They are included in will. Nirvāṇa is not the extinguishing of the person a recent case study that traces Schopenhauer’s interest in as some Western scholars have thought, but only the Buddhism and documents its influence.[98] Other schol- “extinguishing” (the literal meaning of nirvana) of the arly work questions how similar Schopenhauer’s philoso- flames of greed, hatred, and delusion that assail a person’s phy actually is to Buddhism.[99] character.[89] Occult historian Joscelyn Godwin (1945– ) stated, “It was Buddhism that inspired the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer, and, through him, attracted Richard Wagner.[90] This Orientalism reflected the strug- 3 Influences gle of the German Romantics, in the words of Leon Poli- akov, to free themselves from Judeo-Christian fetters”.[91] Schopenhauer said he was influenced by the Upanishads, In contradistinction to Godwin’s claim that Buddhism in- Immanuel Kant and Plato. References to Eastern phi- spired Schopenhauer, the philosopher himself made the losophy and religion appear frequently in Schopenhauer’s following statement in his discussion of religions:[92] writing. As noted above, he appreciated the teachings of the Buddha and even called himself a “Buddhist”.[100] [101] If I wished to take the results of my phi- He said that his philosophy could not have been con- losophy as the standard of truth, I should have ceived before these teachings were available. to concede to Buddhism pre-eminence over the Concerning the Upanishads and Vedas, he writes in The others. In any case, it must be a pleasure to me World as Will and Representation: 10 4 CRITIQUE OF KANT AND HEGEL

If the reader has also received the benefit 4.1 Critique of the Kantian philosophy of the Vedas, the access to which by means of the Upanishads is in my eyes the greatest Main article: Critique of the Kantian philosophy privilege which this still young century (1818) See also: On the Basis of Morality and Schopenhauer’s may claim before all previous centuries, if then criticism of Kant’s schemata the reader, I say, has received his initiation in primeval Indian wisdom, and received it with an open heart, he will be prepared in the very Schopenhauer accepted Kant’s double-aspect of the uni- best way for hearing what I have to tell him. verse – the phenomenal (world of experience) and the It will not sound to him strange, as to many noumenal (the true world, independent of experience). others, much less disagreeable; for I might, if Some commentators suggest that Schopenhauer claimed it did not sound conceited, contend that ev- that the noumenon, or thing-in-itself, was the basis for ery one of the detached statements which con- Schopenhauer’s concept of the will. Other commenta- stitute the Upanishads, may be deduced as a tors suggest that Schopenhauer considered will to be only necessary result from the fundamental thoughts a subset of the “thing-in-itself” class, namely that which which I have to enunciate, though those deduc- we can most directly experience.[105] tions themselves are by no means to be found Schopenhauer’s identification of the Kantian noumenon [102] there. (i.e., the actually existing entity) with what he termed “will” deserves some explanation. The noumenon was what Kant called the Ding an sich (the Thing in Itself), Among Schopenhauer’s other influences were: the reality that is the foundation of our sensory and Shakespeare,[103] Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Locke, mental representations of an external world. In Kan- Thomas Reid, Baruch Spinoza, Matthias Claudius, tian terms, those sensory and mental representations are George Berkeley, David Hume, and René Descartes.[104] mere phenomena. Schopenhauer departed from Kant in his description of the relationship between the phe- nomenon and the noumenon. According to Kant, things- in-themselves ground the phenomenal representations in our minds; Schopenhauer, on the other hand, believed 4 Critique of Kant and Hegel phenomena and noumena to be two different sides of the same coin. Noumena do not cause phenomena, but rather phenomena are simply the way by which our minds per- ceive the noumena, according to the principle of sufficient reason. This is explained more fully in Schopen- hauer’s doctoral thesis, On the Fourfold Root of the Prin- ciple of Sufficient Reason. Schopenhauer’s second major departure from Kant’s epistemology concerns the body. Kant’s philosophy was formulated as a response to the radical philosophical skepticism of David Hume, who claimed that causality could not be observed empirically. Schopenhauer begins by arguing that Kant’s demarcation between external objects, knowable only as phenomena, and the Thing in It- self of noumenon, contains a significant omission. There is, in fact, one physical object we know more intimately than we know any object of sense perception: our own body. We know our human bodies have boundaries and occupy space, the same way other objects known only through our named senses do. Though we seldom think of our body as a physical object, we know even before reflection that it shares some of an object’s properties. We understand that a watermelon cannot successfully occupy the same space as an oncoming truck; we know that if we tried to repeat the experiment with our own body, we would obtain similar results – we know this even if we do not Schopenhauer in March 1859 understand the physics involved. We know that our consciousness inhabits a physical body, 4.2 Critique of Hegel 11 similar to other physical objects only known as phenom- pretation of the biographer Diogenes Laërtius from Lives ena. Yet our consciousness is not commensurate with our and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers. In reference to body. Most of us possess the power of voluntary mo- Plato’s Ideas, Schopenhauer quotes Laërtius verbatim in tion. We usually are not aware of the breathing of our an explanatory footnote. lungs or the beating of our heart unless somehow our at- Diogenes Laërtius (III, 12) Plato ideas in natura velut ex- tention is called to them. Our ability to control either emplaria dixit subsistere; cetera his esse similia, ad is- is limited. Our kidneys command our attention on their tarum similitudinem consistencia. (Plato teaches that the schedule rather than one we choose. Few of us have any Ideas exist in nature, so to speak, as patterns or proto- idea what our liver is doing right now, though this organ types, and that the remainder of things only resemble is as needful as lungs, heart, or kidneys. The conscious them, and exist as their copies.)[107] mind is the servant, not the master, of these and other organs; these organs have an agenda which the conscious mind did not choose, and over which it has limited power. 4.2 Critique of Hegel When Schopenhauer identifies the noumenon with the desires, needs, and impulses in us that we name “will,” what Schopenhauer expressed his dislike for the philosophy of he is saying is that we participate in the reality of an oth- his contemporary Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel many erwise unachievable world outside the mind through will. times in his published works. The following quotations We cannot prove that our mental picture of an outside are typical: world corresponds with a reality by reasoning; through will, we know – without thinking – that the world can If I were to say that the so-called philosophy of stimulate us. We suffer fear, or desire: these states arise this fellow Hegel is a colossal piece of mystifi- involuntarily; they arise prior to reflection; they arise even cation which will yet provide posterity with an when the conscious mind would prefer to hold them at inexhaustible theme for laughter at our times, bay. The rational mind is, for Schopenhauer, a leaf borne that it is a pseudo-philosophy paralyzing all along in a stream of pre-reflective and largely unconscious mental powers, stifling all real thinking, and, emotion. That stream is will, and through will, if not by the most outrageous misuse of language, through logic, we can participate in the underlying re- putting in its place the hollowest, most sense- ality beyond mere phenomena. It is for this reason that less, thoughtless, and, as is confirmed by its Schopenhauer identifies the noumenon with what we call success, most stupefying verbiage, I should be our will. quite right. In his criticism of Kant, Schopenhauer claimed that sensation and understanding are separate and distinct abili- Further, if I were to say that this summus ties. Yet, for Kant, an object is known through each of philosophus [...] scribbled nonsense quite un- them. Kant wrote: "... [T]here are two stems of hu- like any mortal before him, so that whoever man knowledge ... namely, sensibility and understand- could read his most eulogized work, the so- ing, objects being given by the former [sensibility] and called Phenomenology of the Mind, without thought by the latter [understanding].”[106] Schopenhauer feeling as if he were in a madhouse, would disagreed. He asserted that mere sense impressions, not qualify as an inmate for Bedlam, I should be objects, are given by sensibility. According to Schopen- no less right.[108] hauer, objects are intuitively perceived by understanding and are discursively thought by reason (Kant had claimed that (1) the understanding thinks objects through con- At first Fichte and Schelling shine as the heroes cepts and that (2) reason seeks the unconditioned or ulti- of this epoch; to be followed by the man who is mate answer to “why?"). Schopenhauer said that Kant’s quite unworthy even of them, and greatly their mistake regarding perception resulted in all of the obscu- inferior in point of talent --- I mean the stupid rity and difficult confusion that is exhibited in the Tran- and clumsy charlatan Hegel.[109] scendental Analytic section of his critique. Lastly, Schopenhauer departed from Kant in how he in- In his Foreword to the first edition of his work Die beiden terpreted the Platonic ideas. In The World as Will and Grundprobleme der Ethik, Schopenhauer suggested that Representation Schopenhauer explicitly stated: he had shown Hegel to have fallen prey to the Post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy. ...Kant used the word [Idea] wrongly as Schopenhauer suggested that Hegel’s works were filled well as illegitimately, although Plato had al- with “castles of abstraction,” and that Hegel used deliber- ready taken possession of it, and used it most ately impressive but ultimately vacuous verbiage.[110] He appropriately. also thought that his glorification of church and state were designed for personal advantage and had little to do with Instead Schopenhauer relied upon the Neoplatonist inter- the search for philosophical truth.[110] For instance, the 12 6 INFLUENCE

Right Hegelians interpreted Hegel as viewing the Prus- sian state of his day as perfect and the goal of all history up until then.[111]

5 Criticism of Schopenhauer’s personal life

The British philosopher and historian Bertrand Russell deemed Schopenhauer an insincere person, because judg- ing by his life:

“He habitually dined well, at a good restaurant; he had many trivial love-affairs, which were sensual but not passionate; he was exceedingly quarrelsome and unusually avaricious. ... It is hard to find in his life evidences of any virtue except kindness to animals ... In all other re- spects he was completely selfish. It is difficult to believe that a man who was profoundly con- vinced of the virtue of asceticism and resigna- tion would never have made any attempt to em- body his convictions in his practice.”[112]

Caricature of Schopenhauer by Wilhelm Busch (1832–1908) Bryan Magee points out that “the answer to such shallow, but not uncommon criticism” is found in a quotation from Schopenhauer: Russian writer and philosopher Leo Tolstoy was greatly “It is therefore just as little necessary for the influenced by Schopenhauer. After reading Schopen- saint to be a philosopher as for the philoso- hauer’s The World as Will and Representation, Tolstoy pher to be a saint; just as it is not necessary gradually became converted to the ascetic morality up- for a perfectly beautiful person to be a great held in that work as the proper spiritual path for the upper sculptor, or for a great sculptor to be himself classes: “Do you know what this summer has meant for a beautiful person. In general, it is a strange me? Constant raptures over Schopenhauer and a whole demand on a moralist that he should commend series of spiritual delights which I've never experienced no other virtue than that which he himself pos- before. ... no student has ever studied so much on his sesses. To repeat abstractly, universally, and course, and learned so much, as I have this summer”[115] distinctly in concepts the whole inner nature of the world, and thus to deposit it as a reflected Richard Wagner, writing in his autobiography, remem- image in permanent concepts always ready for bered his first impression that Schopenhauer left on him the faculty of reason, this and nothing else is (when he read World as Will and Representation): philosophy.”[113]

6 Influence Schopenhauer’s book was never completely out of my mind, and by the following summer I had studied it from cover to cover four times. It had Schopenhauer has had a massive influence upon later a radical influence on my whole life.[116] thinkers, though more so in the arts (especially literature and music) and psychology than in philosophy. His popularity peaked in the early twentieth century, especially during the Modernist era, and waned somewhat thereafter. Nevertheless, a number of recent publications Wagner also commented on that “serious mood, which have reinterpreted and modernised the study of Schopen- was trying to find ecstatic expression” created by hauer. His theory is also being explored by some mod- Schopenhauer inspired the conception of Tristan und ern philosophers as a precursor to evolutionary theory and Isolde.[117] See also Influence of Schopenhauer on Tristan modern evolutionary psychology.[114] und Isolde. 7.1 Online 13

original German is Die Welt als Wille und Vorstel- lung), 1818/1819, vol 2 1844

• Vol. 1 Dover edition 1966, ISBN 978-0-486- 21761-1 • Vol. 2 Dover edition 1966, ISBN 978-0-486- 21762-8 • Peter Smith Publisher hardcover set 1969, ISBN 978-0-8446-2885-1 • Everyman Paperback combined abridged edition (290 p.) ISBN 978-0-460-87505-9

• The Art of Being Right (Eristische Dialektik: Die Kunst, Recht zu Behalten), 1831

• On the Will in Nature (Über den Willen in der Natur), 1836 ISBN 978-0-85496-999-9 File:DAN-28a-Danzig-500MIL Mark (1923).jpg • On the Freedom of the Will (Über die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens), 1839 ISBN 978-0-631- Schopenhauer depicted on a 500 million Danzig 14552-3 papiermark note (1923). • On the Basis of Morality (Über die Grundlage der Friedrich Nietzsche owed the awakening of his philo- Moral), 1840 sophical interest to reading The World as Will and Rep- resentation and admitted that he was one of the few • Parerga and Paralipomena, 1851; English Transla- philosophers that he respected, dedicating to him his es- tion by E. F. J. Payne, Clarendon Press, Oxford, [118] say Schopenhauer als Erzieher one of his Untimely 1974, 2 Volumes: Meditations. • Printings: Jorge Luis Borges remarked that the reason he had never attempted to write a systematic account of his world view, • 1974 Hardcover, by ISBN despite his penchant for philosophy and metaphysics in • Vol 1 and 2, ISBN 978-0-19- particular, was because Schopenhauer had already written 519813-3, [119] it for him. • Vol 1, ISBN As a teenager, Ludwig Wittgenstein adopted Schopen- • Vol 2, ISBN 978-0-19-824527-8, hauer’s epistemological idealism. However, after his • 1974/1980 Paperback, Vol 1, ISBN 978- study of the philosophy of mathematics, he rejected epis- 0-19-824634-3, Vol 2, ISBN 978-0-19- temological idealism for Gottlob Frege's conceptual real- 824635-0, ism. In later years, Wittgenstein was highly dismissive of • 2001 Paperback, Vol 1, ISBN 978-0- Schopenhauer, describing him as an ultimately “shallow” 19-924220-7, Vol 2, ISBN 978-0-19- thinker: “Schopenhauer has quite a crude mind... where 924221-4 real depth starts, his comes to an end”.[12][120] • Essays and Aphorisms, being excerpts from The philosopher Gilbert Ryle read Schopenhauer’s works Volume 2 of Parerga und Paralipomena, se- as a student, but later largely forgot them, only to unwit- lected and translated by R J Hollingdale, with tingly recycle ideas from Schopenhauer in his The Con- Introduction by R J Hollingdale, Penguin Clas- [121] cept of Mind. sics, 1970, Paperback 1973: ISBN 978-0-14- 044227-4 7 Selected bibliography • Arthur Schopenhauer, Manuscript Remains, Volume II, Berg Publishers Ltd., ISBN 978-0-85496-539-7 • On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Suﬃcient Reason (Über die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom 7.1 Online zureichenden Grunde), 1813 • On Vision and Colors (Über das Sehn und die Far- • Works by Arthur Schopenhauer at Project Guten- ben), 1816 ISBN 978-0-85496-988-3 berg • The World as Will and Representation (alternatively • Illustrated version of the “Art of Being Right” and translated in English as The World as Will and Idea; links to logic and sophisms used by the stratagems. 14 9 REFERENCES

• The Art Of Controversy (Die Kunst, Recht zu behal- [5] Studies in Pessimism – audiobook from LibriVox. ten). (bilingual) [The Art of Being Right] [6] David A. Leeming, Kathryn Madden, Stanton Marlan, ed. • Studies in Pessimism – audiobook from LibriVox. (2009). Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion, Volume 2. Springer. p. 824. ISBN 978-0-387-71801-9. A more • The World as Will and Idea at Internet Archive: accurate statement might be that for a German – rather than a French or British writer of that time – Schopen- • Volume I; hauer was an honest and open atheist. • Volume II; [7] Arthur Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Represen- • Volume III. tation, Vol. 1, trans. E. Payne, (New York: Dover Pub- lishing Inc., 1969), Vol. 2, Ch. 50. • On the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason and On the will in nature. Two essays: [8] Dale Jacquette, ed. (2007). Schopenhauer, Philosophy and the Arts. Cambridge University Press. p. 22. ISBN • Internet Archive. Translated by Mrs. Karl 978-0-521-04406-6. For Kant, the mathematical sub- Hillebrand (1903). lime, as seen for example in the starry heavens, suggests to • Cornell University Library Historical Mono- imagination the infinite, which in turn leads by subtle turns graphs Collection. Reprinted by Cornell Uni- of contemplation to the concept of God. Schopenhauer’s versity Library Digital Collections atheism will have none of this, and he rightly observes that despite adopting Kant’s distinction between the dynami- • Facsimile edition of Schopenhauer’s manuscripts in cal and mathematical sublime, his theory of the sublime, SchopenhauerSource making reference to the struggles and sufferings of struggles and sufferings of Will, is unlike Kant’s. • Essays of Schopenhauer [9] See the book-length study about oriental influences on the genesis of Schopenhauer’s philosophy by Urs App: Schopenhauer’s Compass. An Introduction to Schopen- 8 See also hauer’s Philosophy and its Origins. Wil: UniversityMedia, 2014 (ISBN 978-3-906000-03-9) • Antinatalism, a position advocated by Schopenhauer [10] B. R. Hergenhahn (2009). An Introduction to the His- that one would be better off not having been born tory of Psychology (6th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 216. • God in Buddhism ISBN 978-0-495-50621-8. Although Schopenhauer was an atheist, he realized that his philosophy of denial had • Massacre of the Innocents (Guido Reni) been part of several great religions; for example, Chris- tianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism. • Misotheism [11] Addressed in: Cate, Curtis. Friedrich Nietzsche. Chapter • Mortal coil 7.

• Nihilism [12] Culture & Value, p.24, 1933–4

[13] Albert Einstein in Mein Glaubensbekenntnis (August 1932): “I do not believe in free will. Schopenhauer’s 9 References words: 'Man can do what he wants, but he cannot will what he wants,[Der Mensch kann wohl tun, was er will, aber er 9.1 Footnotes kann nicht wollen, was er will]' accompany me in all sit- uations throughout my life and reconcile me with the ac- [1] “John Gray: Forget everything you know — Proﬁles, Peo- tions of others, even if they are rather painful to me. This ple”. London: The Independent. 3 September 2002. awareness of the lack of free will keeps me from taking Archived from the original on 9 April 2010. Retrieved myself and my fellow men too seriously as acting and de- 12 March 2010. ciding individuals, and from losing my temper.” Schopen- hauer’s clearer, actual words were: “You can do what you [2] Arthur Schopenhauer (2004). Essays and Aphorisms. will, but in any given moment of your life you can will Penguin Classics. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-14-044227-4. only one deﬁnite thing and absolutely nothing other than that one thing.” [Du kannst tun was du willst: aber du [3] The Oxford Encyclopedic English Dictionary. 'Schopen- kannst in jedem gegebenen Augenblick deines Lebens nur hauer': Oxford University Press. 1991. p. 1298. ISBN ein Bestimmtes wollen und schlechterdings nichts anderes 978-0-19-861248-3. als dieses eine.] On the Freedom of the Will, Ch. II.

[4] Arthur Schopenhauer (2004). Essays and Aphorisms. [14] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Penguin Classics. pp. 22–36. ISBN 978-0-14-044227- 4. …but there has been none who tried with so great a [15] Schopenhauer, Arthur; Günter Zöller; Eric F. J. Payne show of learning to demonstrate that the pessimistic out- (1999). Chronology. Prize Essay on the Freedom of the look is justiﬁed, that life itself is really bad. It is to this end Will (Cambridge University Press). pp. xxx. ISBN 978- that Schopenhauer’s metaphysic of will and idea exists. 0-521-57766-3. 9.1 Footnotes 15

[16] Safranski (1990) page 12. “There was in the father’s life [32] Daniel Albright, Modernism and Music, 2004, page 39, some dark and vague source of fear which later made him footnote 34 hurl himself to his death from the attic of his house in Hamburg.” [33] Schopenhauer, Arthur (1970). Essays and Aphorisms. '10': Penguin Classics. p. 162. ISBN 0-14-044227-8. [17] Cartwright, David E. (2010). Schopenhauer: a Biography. End of 2nd paragraph: Cambridge University Press. p. [34] What Schopenhauer calls the eleventh axiom is Euclid’s 30. ISBN 978-0-521-82598-6. Fifth Postulate. [18] “A Schopenhauer Timeline”. Reocities.com. Retrieved [35] The World as Will and Representation, vol. 2, chap. 13 12 March 2010.

[19] Liukkonen, Petri. “Arthur Schopenhauer”. Books and [36] “I wanted in this way to stress and demonstrate the great Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi). Finland: Kuusankoski Public Li- difference, indeed opposition, between knowledge of per- brary. Archived from the original on 10 February 2015. ception and abstract or reflected knowledge. Hitherto this difference has received too little attention, and its estab- [20] Schopenhauer, Arthur. Author’s preface to “On The lishment is a fundamental feature of my philosophy…" Fourfold Root of the Principle of sufficient reason. Page Ibid., chap. 7. 1. On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason [37] This comment by Schopenhauer was called “an acute observation” by Sir Thomas L. Heath. In his translation of [21] Addressed in: Russell, Bertrand (1945). The Elements, vol. 1, Book I, “Note on Common No- [22] Rudiger Safranski, Rüdiger Safranski, Ewald Osers (1 tion 4,” Heath made this judgment and also noted that September 1991). Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Schopenhauer’s remark “was a criticism in advance of Philosophy. pp. 271–2. ISBN 978-0-674-79276-0. Helmholtz' theory.” Helmholtz had “maintained that geometry requires us to assume the actual existence of rigid [23] Safranski (1990), Chapter 19 bodies and their free mobility in space …" and is therefore “dependent on mechanics.” [24] Magee, Bryan (1997). The Philosophy of Schopenhauer. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-19- [38] What Schopenhauer calls the eighth axiom is Euclid’s 823723-5. Common Notion 4. [25] “The Leuven Philosophy Newsletter” (PDF). Katholieke [39] ”Motion of an object in space does not belong in a pure Universiteit Leuven. pp. 42–43. “But an examination of science, and consequently not in geometry. For the fact his life reveals a yearning for marriage frustrated by a train that something is movable cannot be cognized a priori, but of rejections.” In the year 1831, Schopenhauer fell in love can be cognized only through experience.” (Kant, Critique with a girl named Flora Weiss. At a boat party in Germany of Pure Reason, B 155, Note) he made his advance by offering her a bunch of grapes. Flora’s diary records this event as follows: “I didn’t want [40] Barua, edited by Arati; Gerhard, Michael; Kossler, the grapes because old Schopenhauer had touched them, Matthias (2012). Understanding Schopenhauer through so I let them slide, quite gently into the water.” Apparently, the prism of Indian culture philosophy, religion, and San- she was underwhelmed.” skrit literature (1. Aufl. ed.). Berlin: De Gruyter. p. 187. [26] “Schopenhauer:". Courseweb.stthomas.edu. Retrieved 12 ISBN 9783110271584. March 2010. [41] Arthur Schopenhauer (1974). On the Fourfold Root of the [27] “Full text of “Selected Essays Of Schopenhauer"". Principle of Sufficient Reason. Open Court Publishing. p. Archive.org. Retrieved 12 March 2010. 212. ISBN 978-0-87548-201-9.

[28] Schopenhauer: his life and philosophy.H Zimmern – 1932 [42] On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, – G. Allen & Unwin ltd § 49. [29] “The reality is what Schopenhauer calls the Will, the [43] Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representation, Vol. Will to Live.” Letter to Richard C. Lyon, 1 August I, § 62. 1949, George Santayana, The Letters of George San- tayana, Scribner’s, New York, 1955 [44] Paul Rée, in his The Origin of Moral Sensation, reflected [30] The Oxford Encyclopedic English Dictionary. 'Schopen- Schopenhauer’s concerns when he wrote: “The feeling of hauer': Oxford University Press. 1991. p. 1298. ISBN justice thus arises out of two errors, namely, because the 978-0-19-861248-3. punishments inflicted by authorities and educators appear as acts of retribution, and because people believe in the [31] But like Fichte, he rejects the Kantian claim that the freedom of the will.” thing-in-itself as an unknowable substratum of experience. Schopenhauer’s argument is that the thing in-itself [45] The World as Will and Representation, Vol. II, Ch. in Kant is an incoherent sense of object: it is the opposite XLVII. to objects, and yet it is said to be an object-in-itself: “the phantom of a dream”. [46] The World as Will and Representation, Vol. I, § 62. 16 9 REFERENCES

[47] "...he who attempts to punish in accordance with reason [67] Essays and Aphorisms, trans. R.J. Hollingdale, Middlesex: does not retaliate on account of the past wrong (for he London, 1970, p. 154 could not undo something which has been done) but for the sake of the future, so that neither the wrongdoer him- [68] Nietzsche and modern German thought [PDF] from home- self, nor others who see him being punished, will do wrong linux.org. K Ansell-Pearson – 1991 – Psychology Press again.” Plato, "Protagoras", 324 B. Plato wrote that pun- [69] Christina Gerhardt, “Thinking With: Animals in ishment should “be an example to other men not to of- Schopenhauer, Horkheimer and Adorno.” Critical Theory fend.” Plato, "Laws", Book IX, 863. and Animals. Ed. John Sanbonmatsu. Lanham: Row- [48] ...for they require [about Judaism] “a man to come into land, 2011. 137–157. the world as a moral blank, so that, in virtue of an incon- [70] “Unlike the intellect, it [the Will] does not depend on the ceivable free will (...) he may choose whether he is to be perfection of the organism, but is essentially the same in an angel or a devil, or anything else that may lie between all animals as that which is known to us so intimately. Ac- the two.” (On Human Nature, c. 3). cordingly, the animal has all the emotions of humans, such as joy, grief, fear, anger, love, hatred, strong desire, envy, [49] A. Schopenhauer, On Human Nature, c. 3 (“Free-Will and so on. The great difference between human and an- and Fatalism”). Read online imal rests solely on the intellect’s degrees of perfection.” [50] There; the only Schopenhauer’s explanation for the cre- On the Will in Nature, “Physiology and Pathology.” ation of the world would be “the amusement of its manu- [71] On the basis of morality, § 19 facturer.” [72] Schopenhauer, Arthur (1994). Philosophical Writings. [51] Schopenhauer, Arthur. Supplements to the Fourth Book London: Continuum. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-8264-0729- of “The World as Will and Representation, Page 338 0. The World as Will and Representation/Supplements to the Fourth Book [73] Ryder, Richard (2000). Animal Revolution: Changing At- titudes Towards Speciesism. Oxford: Berg Publishers. p. [52] Schopenhauer, Arthur. Supplements to the Fourth Book 57. ISBN 978-1-85973-330-1. of “The World as Will and Representation. Page 340 The World as Will and Representation/Supplements to the [74] "...in English all animals are of the neuter gender and so Fourth Book are represented by the pronoun 'it,' just as if they were inanimate things. The effect of this artifice is quite re- [53] “Nearly a century before Freud... in Schopenhauer there volting, especially in the case of primates, such as dogs, is, for the first time, an explicit philosophy of the uncon- monkeys, and the like....” On the basis of morality, § 19. scious and of the body.” Safranski pg. 345. [75] “I recall having read of an Englishman who, while hunting [54] The World as Will and Representation, Vol. 2, Ch. 47 in India, had shot a monkey; he could not forget the look which the dying animal gave him, and since then had never [55] s:Government (Schopenhauer) again fired at monkeys.” On the basis of morality, § 19.

[56] The World as Will and Representation, Vol. 2, Ch. 12 [76] "[Sir William Harris] describes how he shot his first elephant, a female. The next morning he went to look for [57] Parerga and Paralipomena, Volume II, Section 92 the dead animal; all the other elephants had fled from the [58] Parerga and Paralipomena, “On Ethics,” Sec. 5 neighborhood except a young one, who had spent the night with its dead mother. Forgetting all fear, he came toward [59] “Fragments for the history of philosophy”, Parerga and the sportsmen with the clearest and liveliest evidence of Paralipomena, Volume I. inconsolable grief, and put his tiny trunk round them in order to appeal to them for help. Harris says he was then [60] "Über die Weiber,§369”. filled with real remorse for what he had done, and felt as if he had committed a murder.” On the basis of morality, [61] Feminism and the Limits of Equality PA Cain – Ga. L. § 19. Rev., 1989 [77] “His contempt for animals, who, as mere things for our [62] Julian Young (23 June 2005). Schopenhauer. Psychology use, are declared by him to be without rights,...in con- Press. p. 242. ISBN 978-0-415-33346-7. junction with Pantheism, is at the same time absurd and [63] Safranski (1990), Chapter 24. Page 348. abominable.” The World as Will and Representation, Vol. 2, Chapter 50. [64] Payne, The World as Will and Representation, Vol. II, p. [78] Spinoza, Ethics, Pt. IV, Prop. XXXVII, Note I.: “Still I 519 do not deny that beasts feel: what I deny is, that we may [65] On the Suffering of the World, (1970), Page 35. Penguin not consult our own advantage and use them as we please, Books-Great Ideas treating them in a way which best suits us; for their nature is not like ours....” This is the exact opposite of Schopen- [66] Schopenhauer, Arthur (1969). E. F. J. Payne, ed. The hauer’s doctrine. Also, ibid., Appendix, 26, “whatsoever World as Will and Representation II. New York: Dover there be in nature beside man, a regard for our advantage Publications. p. 527. ISBN 978-0-486-21762-8. does not call on us to preserve, but to preserve or destroy 9.1 Footnotes 17

according to its various capacities, and to adapt to our use in desires, and that salvation can be attained by the extinc- as best we may.” tion of desires. These three 'truths of the Buddha' are mir- rored closely in the essential structure of the doctrine of [79] “Such are the matters which I engage to prove in Prop. the will (On this, see Dorothea W. Dauer, Schopenhauer xviii of this Part, whereby it is plain that the law against the as Transmitter of Buddhist Ideas. Note also the discussion slaughtering of animals is founded rather on vain supersti- by Bryan Magee, The Philosophy of Schopenhauer, pp. tion and womanish pity than on sound reason. The rational 14–15, 316–21). Janaway, Christopher, Self and World quest of what is useful to us further teaches us the neces- in Schopenhauer’s Philosophy, p. 28 f. sity of associating ourselves with our fellow-men, but not with beasts, or things, whose nature is different from our [93] The World as Will and Representation’’, Vol. 2, Ch. 17 own; we have the same rights in respect to them as they have in respect to us. Nay, as everyone’s right is defined [94] Artistic detachment in Japan and the West: psychic distance by his virtue, or power, men have far greater rights over in comparative aesthetics. S Odin – 2001 – Univ of Hawaii beasts than beasts have over men. Still I affirm that beasts Press feel. But I also affirm that we may consult our own advantage and use them as we please, treating them in the way [95] Parerga & Paralipomena, vol. I, p. 106., trans. E.F.J. which best suits us; for their nature is not like ours, and Payne. their emotions are naturally different from human emotions.” Ethics, Part 4, Prop. 37, Note 1. [96] World as Will and Representation, vol. I, p. 273, trans. E.F.J. Payne. [80] Schopenhauer 1969, p. 566. He wrote that only those who were too old or too young to reproduce strong, healthy [97] Christopher McCoy, 3 children would resort to pederasty (Schopenhauer considered pederasty to be in itself a vice)."The World as Will [98] App, Urs Arthur Schopenhauer and China. Sino-Platonic and Representation: Volume Two”. Dover Papers Nr. 200 (April 2010) (PDF, 8.7 Mb PDF, 164 p.; Schopenhauer’s early notes on Buddhism reproduced in [81] Schopenhauer 1969, p. 567 Appendix). This study provides an overview of the actual [82] Clarke, John James (1997). Oriental enlightenment. Rout- discovery of Buddhism by Schopenhauer. ledge. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-415-13376-0. [99] Hutton, Kenneth Compassion in Schopenhauer and Śān- [83] Dutt, Purohit Bhagavan. “Western Indologists: A Study tideva. Journal of Buddhist Ethics Vol. 21 (2014) in Motives”. Retrieved 9 May 2009. [100] Abelsen, Peter (1993). “Schopenhauer and Buddhism.” [84] Christopher McCoy, 3–4 Philosophy East & West, 44:2 p. 255. Retrieved on: 18 August 2007. [85] Christopher McCoy, 54–56

[86] Abelson, Peter (April 1993). Schopenhauer and Bud- [101] Schopenhauer and Buddhism. P Abelsen, H Amsterdam, dhism. Philosophy East and West Volume 43, Number A Schopenhauer – Philosophy East & West, 1993 2, pp. 255–278. University of Hawaii Press. Retrieved on: 12 April 2008. [102] The World as Will and Representation Preface to the first edition, p. xiii [87] Janaway, Christopher, Self and World in Schopenhauer’s Philosophy, p. 28 f. [103] Magee, Bryan (1977). The Philosophy of Schopenhauer. Oxford University Press. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-19- [88] David Burton, “Buddhism, Knowledge and Liberation: 823723-5. A Philosophical Study.” Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004, page 22. [104] Schopenhauer and the Cartesian Tradition. T Humphrey – Journal of the History of Philosophy, 1981 – muse.jhu.edu [89] John J. Holder, Early Buddhist Discourses. Hackett Pub- lishing Company, 2006, page xx. [105] Bryan Magee, Misunderstanding Schopenhauer, Institute [90] Godwin, J: Arktos: The Polar Myth in Science, Symbolism, of Germanic and Romance Studies, University of London, and Nazi Survival, page 38. Adventures Unlimited Press, 1990, ISBN 978-0-85457-148-2 1996, ISBN 978-0-932813-35-0 [106] Critique of Pure Reason, A 15 [91] Arktos, p. 38. [107] McCoy, Christopher Patrick. 2009. Thou Art That: [92] “Schopenhauer is often said to be the first, or indeed the Schopenhauer’s Philosophy and the Chandogya Upan- only, modern Western philosopher of any note to attempt ishad. Master’s thesis, James Madison University: 10–13. any integration of his work with Eastern ways of thinking. That he was the first is surely true, but the claim that [108] On the Basis of Morality, pp. 15–16. he was influenced by Indian thought needs some qualifi- cation. There is a remarkable correspondence, at least in [109] On the Basis of Morality, p. 35. broad terms, between some of the central Schopenhaue- rian doctrines and Buddhism: notably in the views that [110] “Philosophy: Pseudophilosophy”. Orientalia.org. Re- empirical existence is suffering, that suffering originates trieved 12 March 2010. 18 10 FURTHER READING

[111] "... the Hegelians who, in complete unsmiling serious- 10 Further reading ness, were airing the question of what the further content of world history could possibly be, now that in the Hegelian philosophy the world spirit had reached the goal, 10.1 Biographies the knowledge of itself.” Safranski, p. 256. • Cartwright, David. Schopenhauer: A Biography, [112] Russell, Bertrand (1946). HISTORY OF WESTERN PHI- Cambridge University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0- LOSOPHY. Start of 2nd paragraph: George Allen and Un- 521-82598-6 win LTD. p. 786. • Frederick Copleston, Arthur Schopenhauer, philoso- [113] The Philosophy of Schopenhauer, Oxford University pher of pessimism (Burns, Oates & Washbourne, Press, pg 211 1946) [114] In the book Straw Dogs, John Gray upheld Schopenhauer as one of the few philosophers who has dedicated himself • O.F.Damm, Arthur Schopenhauer – eine Biogra- to studying Eastern philosophy as well as Western philos- phie, (Reclam, 1912) ophy. The book argues against free will, and states that humans have much more in common with animals than is • Kuno Fischer, Arthur Schopenhauer (Heidelberg: commonly admitted in the West. Schopenhauer is praised Winter, 1893); revised as Schopenhauers Leben, for his attitude towards animals, and for having addressed Werke und Lehre (Heidelberg: Winter, 1898). the brutality of much of human life. • Eduard Grisebach, Schopenhauer – Geschichte [115] Tolstoy’s Letter to A.A. Fet, August 30, 1869 seines Lebens (Berlin: Hofmann, 1876). [116] Kimball, Roger. Schopenhauer’s world. The New Crite- • rion, 1985 D.W. Hamlyn, Schopenhauer, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul (1980, 1985) [117] My life. • Heinrich Hasse, Schopenhauer. (Reinhardt, 1926) [118] Schopenhauer as Educator • Arthur Hübscher, Arthur Schopenhauer – Ein [119] Magee 1997, p. 413. Lebensbild (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1938).

[120] Malcolm, Norman. Ludwig Wittgenstein: A Memoir. • Thomas Mann, Schopenhauer (Bermann-Fischer, Oxford University Press, 1958, page 6 1938) [121] Magee, Bryan (1997). Confessions of a Philosopher., Ch. 16 • Matthews, Jack, Schopenhauer’s Will: Das Testa- ment, Nine Point Publishing, 2015. ISBN 978- 0985827885. A recent creative biography by philo- 9.2 Bibliography sophical novelist Jack Matthews. • • Albright, Daniel (2004) Modernism and Music: An Rüdiger Safranski, Schopenhauer und die wilden Anthology of Sources. University of Chicago Press. Jahre der Philosophie – Eine Biographie, hard cover ISBN 978-0-226-01267-4 Carl Hanser Verlag, München 1987, ISBN 978-3- 446-14490-3, pocket edition Fischer: ISBN 978-3- • Hannan, Barbara, The Riddle of the World: A Re- 596-14299-6. consideration of Schopenhauer’s Philosophy (Ox- • ford, OUP, 2009) Rüdiger Safranski, Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy, trans. Ewald Osers (London: • Magee, Bryan, Confessions of a Philosopher, Ran- Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989) dom House, 1998, ISBN 978-0-375-50028-2. Chapters 20, 21 • Walther Schneider, Schopenhauer – Eine Biographie (Vienna: Bermann-Fischer, 1937). • Safranski, Rüdiger (1990) Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy. Harvard University Press, • William Wallace, Life of Arthur Schopenhauer ISBN 978-0-674-79275-3; orig. German Schopen- (London: Scott, 1890; repr., St. Clair Shores, hauer und Die wilden Jahre der Philosophie, Carl Mich.: Scholarly Press, 1970) Hanser Verlag (1987) • Helen Zimmern, Arthur Schopenhauer: His Life and • The Living Thoughts of Schopenhauer, Thomas His Philosophy (London: Longmans, Green & Co, Mann editor, Longmans Green & Co., 1939 1876) 19

10.2 Other books • Luchte, James, 2009, "The Body of Sublime Knowl- edge: The Aesthetic Phenomenology of Arthur • App, Urs. Arthur Schopenhauer and China. Sino- Schopenhauer," Heythrop Journal, Volume 50, Platonic Papers Nr. 200 (April 2010) (PDF, 8.7 Mb Number 2, pp. 228–242. PDF, 164 p.). Contains extensive appendixes which • include transcriptions and English translations of Mazard, Eisel, 2005, "Schopenhauer and the Em- Schopenhauer’s early notes about Buddhism and In- pirical Critique of Idealism in the History of Ideas." dian philosophy. On Schopenhauer’s (debated) place in the history of European philosophy and his relation to his prede- • Atwell, John. Schopenhauer on the Character of the cessors. World, The Metaphysics of Will. • Moges, Awet, 2006, "Schopenhauer’s Philosophy." Galileian Library. • ------, Schopenhauer, The Human Character. • Sangharakshita, 2004, "Schopenhauer and aesthetic • Edwards, Anthony. An Evolutionary Epistemolog- appreciation." ical Critique of Schopenhauer’s Metaphysics. 123 Books, 2011. • Young, Christopher; Brook, Andrew (1994). “Schopenhauer and Freud”. International Journal of • Copleston, Frederick, Schopenhauer: Philosopher Psychoanalysis 75: 101–18. PMID 8005756. of Pessimism, 1946 (reprinted London: Search Press, 1975). • Oxenford’s “Iconoclasm in German Philosophy,” (See p. 388) • Gardiner, Patrick, 1963. Schopenhauer. Penguin Books. 11 External links • ------, Schopenhauer: A Very Short introduction. • • Janaway, Christopher, 2003. Self and World Works by Arthur Schopenhauer at Project Guten- in Schopenhauer’s Philosophy. Oxford University berg Press. ISBN 978-0-19-825003-6 • Works by or about Arthur Schopenhauer at Internet Archive • Magee, Bryan, The Philosophy of Schopenhauer, Oxford University Press (1988, reprint 1997). ISBN • Works by Arthur Schopenhauer at LibriVox (public 978-0-19-823722-8 domain audiobooks) • Mannion, Gerard, “Schopenhauer, Religion and • Arthur Schopenhauer entry by Robert Wicks in the Morality – The Humble Path to Ethics”, Ashgate Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Press, New Critical Thinking in Philosophy Series, 2003, 314pp. • Arthur Schopenhauer an article by Mary Troxell in Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2011 • Trottier, Danick. L’inﬂuence de la philosophie • Schopenhauersource: Reproductions of Schopen- schopenhauerienne dans la vie et l’oeuvre de Richard hauer’s manuscripts Wagner ; et, Qu’est-ce qui séduit, obsède, magnétise le philosophe dans l’art des sons? deux études en es- • Kant’s philosophy as rectiﬁed by Schopenhauer thétique musicale, Université du Québec à Montréal, Département de musique, 2000. • Timeline of German Philosophers • • Zimmern, Helen, Arthur Schopenhauer, his Life and A Quick Introduction to Schopenhauer Philosophy, London, Longman, and Co., 1876. • Arthur Schopenhauer at Find a Grave

• Ross, Kelley L., 1998, "Arthur Schopenhauer 10.3 Articles (1788–1860)." Two short essays, on Schopenhauer’s life and work, and on his dim view of academia. • Abelson, Peter (1993). “Schopenhauer and Bud- dhism”. Philosophy East and West 43 (2): 255–78. doi:10.2307/1399616. JSTOR 1399616.

• Jiménez, Camilo, 2006, "Tagebuch eines Ehrgeizigen: Arthur Schopenhauers Studien- jahre in Berlin," Avinus Magazin (in German). 20 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text

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12.2 Images

• File:ArthurSchopenhauer.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/ArthurSchopenhauer.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Hans Wahl, Anton Kippenberg: Goethe und seine Welt, Insel-Verlag, Leipzig 1932 S.189 Original artist: Aquarell - unbekannter Künstler, Privatbesitz(1932) • File:Arthur_Schopenhauer_Portrait_by_Ludwig_Sigismund_Ruhl_1815.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/6/6b/Arthur_Schopenhauer_Portrait_by_Ludwig_Sigismund_Ruhl_1815.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: Schopenhauer-Archiv der Stadt- und Universitätsbibliorhek Frankfurt am Main Original artist: Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl (1794–1887) • File:Arthur_Schopenhauer_Signature.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Arthur_Schopenhauer_ Signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Traced in Adobe Illustrator from File:Schopenhauer sig.png Original artist: Arthur Schopenhauer • File:Arthur_Schopenhauer_by_J_Schäfer,_1859b.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Arthur_ Schopenhauer_by_J_Sch%C3%A4fer%2C_1859b.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Frankfurt am Main University Library Original artist: Schäfer, J. • File:Arthur_Schopenhauer_by_Wilhelm_Busch.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Arthur_ Schopenhauer_by_Wilhelm_Busch.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.ub.uni-frankfurt.de/archive/images/busch.jpg Original artist: Wilhelm Busch • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:DAN-28a-Danzig-500MIL_Mark_(1923).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/ DAN-28a-Danzig-500MIL_Mark_%281923%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Image by Godot13 Original artist: National Museum of American History • File:FFM_Wallanlagen_Schopenhauer-Denkmal.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/FFM_ Wallanlagen_Schopenhauer-Denkmal.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Frank Behnsen • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by- sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Frankfurt_Am_Main-Portraits-Arthur_Schopenhauer-1845.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/ 68/Frankfurt_Am_Main-Portraits-Arthur_Schopenhauer-1845.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Eberhard Mayer-Wegelin: Frühe Photographie in Frankfurt am Main: 1839–1870. Schirmer/Mosel Verlag GmbH, München 1982, ISBN 3-921375-87-8 Original artist: Unknown • File:Gdansk_Schopenhauer_House.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Gdansk_Schopenhauer_ House.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pumeks • File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open- Clipart Original artist: OpenClipart • File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007 • File:Schopenhauer-ffm001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Schopenhauer-ffm001.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: dontworry • File:Schopenhauer_1852.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Schopenhauer_1852.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Eberhard Mayer-Wegelin, Frühe Photographie in Frankfurt am Main 1839-1870, 1982, Nr. 10. Original artist: Jacob Seib • File:Socrates.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Socrates.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Magnus Manske at English Wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Optimager at en.wikipedia. • File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Mobius assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau

12.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0