Coaching Versus Therapy a Perspective

Coaching Versus Therapy A Perspective

Vicki Hart Kaiser Permanente John Blattner PAS International, Inc. Staci Leipsic Manzanita Associates

This article reports a study of current perceptions retical constructs, and similar practitioner- client issues may arise in each. Both profes- coaching. Whereas therapy and counseling have sions are based on an ongoing, confidential, been traditional fields of study and practice, one-to-one relationship between the thera- coaching is not as well developed. It is helpful to pist or coach and his or her client. "Cli- examine the perceptions of practicing profession- ents come to therapy or coaching wanting change, and both professions assume that laps in these modalities. A set of 7 questions was used to explore these viewpoints with a partici- significant change will occur over time" pant pool of professional coaches—therapists. In- (Hayden & Whitworth, 1995, p. 1). These terview data and narrative summaries provide a overlapping characteristics between perspective on the controversy of coaching ver- therapy-counseling and coaching raise is- sus therapy. sues and, in some cases, foster controversy among professionals in both arenas. Although the origins of coaching began In an effort to articulate, clarify, and fur- back in the 1940s, it wasn't until the 1980s ther discern these issues, we conducted face- that the field really came into its own to-face and telephone interviews with 30 (Hudson, 1999; Tobias, 1996.) As the world geographically dispersed participants. The of work and organizations changed, so did participant pool was composed of profes- the needs of the individuals within them. sional colleagues as well as random, self- Services—such as succession planning, selected respondents to an Internet-based leadership training, and outplacement, to request for participants. All participants met name a few—became more common. We the criteria of (a) holding a clinical master's also witnessed societal changes, with many or doctoral degree and (b) having either ac- aspects of our lives being more unpredict- tive or former practices in both coaching and able, turbulent, and fragile. Because of these therapy. Participants' demographics are sum- dynamics and the increasing frequency and marized in Table 1. speed of associated transitions, coaching has evolved as a methodology to fill a need for growth as well as continuity in our lives. Vicki Hart is an organizational consultant with Counseling and therapy also assist indi- Kaiser Permanente in San Francisco, California. viduals in need and have their own rich tra- John Blattner is a psychologist-consultant- coach with PAS International, Inc. ditions of helping and social influence. Staci Leipsic is a coach-therapist for Manza- Much overlap currently exists between nita Associates in Santa Rosa, California. therapy-counseling and coaching, including Correspondence concerning this article should the fact that many former therapists have be addressed to John Blattner, PAS International, switched to coaching or practice both coach- Inc., 1000 Maple Avenue, 2nd Floor, Downers ing and therapy concurrently. Both coach- Grove, Illinois 60515. Electronic mail may be sent ing and therapy are based in similar theo- to [email protected].

Copyright 2001 by the Educational Publishing Foundation and the Society of Consulting Psychology, 1061^)087A)l/S5.00 229 DOI 10.1037//1061-4087.53.4.229 Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, Vol. 53, No. 4, 229-237 critical success factors in a whole person who Table 1 seeks to maximize his or her fulfillment in Demographic Data of Participants life and work. Although both approaches in- Demographic data Male Female Educational training volve developmental issues and focus on MA or MSW 6 9 awareness, therapy encourages awareness of PhD or EdD 9 6 Type of coaching past injuries in order to promote insight and Generic (i.e., personal) 8 10 healing, whereas coaching focuses on un- Executive 7 5 tapped present possibilities in order to link Description of practice awareness to action. Currently practicing 8 7 coaching and therapy Regarding level of activity and types of Has practiced both, but 7 8 conversation, coaches are more likely to ini- not concurrently Description of clients tiate topics for discussion and to step into a Individual 7 6 session with ideas and suggestions. They por- Organization 2 1 tray their coaching interactions as more ac- Individual and 6 8 organization tive, informal, and self-disclosing, often per- ceiving their coaching clients as experts in The experience and opinions drawn from their own right. According to most inter- these interviews provide the basis for our viewees, conversations in coaching are tied inquiry and are categorized and summarized to business and work objectives. Whereas below. therapy may be an undefined, wandering process of uncovering and discovery, coaching Question 1: FromYour Experience, interactions were described by participants What Do You Think Is the Critical as more structured and task focused, often Difference Between Coaching involving concrete action plans designed to and Therapy? move clients toward their defined goals. Therapeutic dialogue is seen as more often Participants identified between one to six involving the expression of feelings and em o- critical differences between coaching and tional processing. The exploration of depth therapy. Their comments emphasized the dis- issues is perceived as outside the boundaries tinction in focus of attention, time orientation, of coaching for nonclinically trained coaches. level of activity, and type of conversation be- Participants also articulated the overlap tween themselves and their clients. between coaching and therapy. In particular, In therapy, the focus is often on interper- they highlighted the similar methods of in- sonal health and an identifiable issue, such as quiry, propensity for advice giving, bound- acute depression or relational discord, that in- ary issues, and potential power differentials terferes with the client's level of functioning that exist in both. Several participants stated and current psychodynamic or psychosocial that the grayness between these two ap- adjustment. The focus is typically retrospec- proaches to social influence and the current tive, dealing with unconscious issues and re- lack of regulatory standards of practice for pair of damage from earlier experiences, ac- coaching create critical issues for both cording to numerous interviewees. Itmay even professions. involve medication, adjunct therapies, and coordination of services. Discerning and treat- Question 2: How Do You Relate to ing pathology and relieving symptoms through Coaching Clients Versus behavioral, cognitive, or analytic intervention Therapy Clients? is the domain of the psychotherapist. The coach's orientation is prospective, Overall, there is a profound difference in focusing on goals, untapped potential, and relating while conducting coaching versus

230 Fall 2001 therapy with clients. All of the participants therapy relationships. Another major differ- agreed that coaching is more goal directed, ence is the use of transference issues in action based, and outwardly defined. When therapy, which is virtually ignored in the coaching clients, participantsreportedthem- coaching relationship. In therapy, the thera- selves as "self-revelatory," "having a skilled pist is viewed as the "healer" in the relation- friendship," and "in partnership." Other ship, whereas coaching implies more col- common themes were having looser bound- laboration between coach and client. The aries, being more relaxed, using the self as a extensive clinical training and education that vehicle for change, and not addressing trans- the therapist has experienced compounds this ference issues. Participants reported using position, primarily because for some time more humor, being more actively engaged, psychotherapy has aligned itself with the and having greater flexibility within the medical model. When a client comes to coaching relationship. There is not the same therapy, he or she has the expectation that need to "protect" the relationship, and as a the therapist is the so-called expert who marriage and family therapist from Montana knows more about the diagnosis or problem put it, "You can admit that you know them than he or she (the client) does. This is differ- in the grocery store." Almost all of the par- ent than when a client comes to the coach with ticipants interviewed for this study admit- the expectation of a more collaborative model. ted that they expect more from their coaching clients. They indicated that they can Question 3: What Would You Do or adopt less of a caretaking role with their Not Do With a Coaching Client coaching clients and are not responsible for Versus a Therapy Client? emotional fragility and looking out for them. A master's-level therapist from British Co- Perhaps the biggest difference between lumbia who is now practicing only coach- executing coaching versus therapy for the ing stated that "coaching is not such a ten- participants we interviewed is the emphasis der zone as therapy is." (or lack thereof) on the client's past. A psy- Most of the participants interviewed for chologist from Washington State who no this article relate to therapy clients in a tra- longer practices therapy reported, "Coaches ditional psychotherapist-client manner. A have to stay in the here and now; they do not clinical psychologist in New Jersey who is go into the past to try and figure out why a practicing both therapy and coaching stated, person is behaving in the way that they are." A PhD psychologist from Massachusetts In coaching, once the coach opens the door, who practices both coaching and therapy the client walks through with little, if any, dif- delineated between the two by "not taking ficulty. In therapy, the client is more likely to up issues pertaining to one's family, not deal- be reticent, not "seeing the door" or feeling ing with depression and referring out if afraid to find out what is on the other side. symptoms of pathology are present" while In therapy, the emphasis is on past rela- he is doing coaching. tionships, problems, and behavioral patterns. Flexibility and duality appear to be over- Participants reported that they are "distant" riding differences between maintaining and "protective" and do not develop friend- coaching versus therapy relations. An EdD ships with their therapy clients. Self-disclo- who is the president of a national coaching sure is minimal unless it is considered ben- training program for therapists stated, "The eficial to the therapeutic process. There is coaching client can also be in other relation- an assumption that the therapy client is dam- ships with you [golf, social, etc.] if bound- aged, lower functioning, or in crisis. Bound- aries are respected. Dual relationships are aries are usually rigid and impermeable in taboo in therapy relationships." Coaching

231 Fall 2001 does not carry the same stigma that therapy maining distant is always a concern. How- has in the past. People are even inclined to ever, this concern is not there in coaching publicize the fact that they are receiving relationships. One therapist-coach from coaching. "I would meet a coaching cli- Maryland reported that he "talks more" in ent in Starbucks for a session while I coaching: "I am more likely to offer some- would never meet a therapy client in a thing that might catapult them in some public place," exclaimed a clinical social direction." worker from California. Looser boundaries allow the coach much Question 4: What Do You Consider more latitude than the therapist. An example "Red Flags" for Coaches Who Are of this difference was elucidated by a li- Not Trained Therapists? censed clinical social worker in Florida who practices both therapy and relationship Responses to this question clustered coaching: around two areas of concern: (a) the specific client characteristics and issues that a If a coaching client asks me my birthday, I'll coach needs to be able to recognize as dan- tell them, and even accept a card. If my therapy ger signals requiring referral and (b) the is- client asks me the same question, I'll ask them sues surrounding people acting as coaches why they want to know or what do they want who are not professionally trained clinicians. to hear. Starting with the first, the red flags most Participants reported much greater flex- often mentioned as indicators of deeper cli- ibility in the delivery of coaching methods ent issues include signs of depression, anxi- but tended to rely on the traditional means ety attacks, alcohol or drug addictions, of conducting psychotherapy. Participants personality disorders, and paranoia. A psy- interviewed for this article reported relating chologist who trains therapists to be to coaching clients by means of tele sessions coaches feels that "if the client is stuck in a (over the phone), the Internet, video con- victim role or emotional drama, not show- ferencing, and in-person meetings. Therapy ing up, not following through, has serious relations existed largely on a face-to-face ba- emotions in more than one session, or [is] sis, relying on telesessions for an em ergency expressing that they cannot go on," a coach basis only. should beware. He stated, "A tight feeling in your gut is a red flag, and don't dance Participants reported a greater feeling of around it." dependency from their therapy clients. The Amaster's-trained therapist from Mary- expectation is that the coaching relationship land said, will not foster the same level of dependency and that there will be a more egalitarian re- Watch out for low affect, high degrees of lationship. A master's-level therapist from chaos, and the inability to take action and move California reported, "A lot of therapy can forward on a path. If you feel you have to be be coaching but not vice-versa." A psycholo- overly responsible, this is not a good sign for gist from Indiana stated, "Coaching can be a coaching situation. used by a therapist as a situational applica- A clinician trained in organizational be- tion when the circumstance requires him to havior warned that when the "mood of the act as a coach, as an adjunct approach. A client is a prominent feature of the inter- coach, on the other hand, is not equipped to action" and "it takes on the character of act as a therapist." an overarching belief system that you Among participants there was a strong know may not have anything to do with consensus that when providing therapy, re- the reality of the present-day situation,"

232 Fall 2001 the coach should beware. When the client currently no licensing or governing tells the coach, "You are the only one who boards. As one participant pointed out, cares about me," there is cause for con- "Protecting confidentiality and keeping cern. Other red flags suggesting the need agreements are important in coaching but for referral include persistent anger or are legally required in therapy." aggression, suicidal ideation, self-destruc- tive impulses or behaviors, and extreme Question 5: Alternatively, What Do dependency. You Think Is Unique About Coaching These issues lead into the second area That a Trained "Therapist-Turned- of concern held by many participants, Coach" Needs to Be Aware of While starting with whether nonclinicians are Coaching? able to identify a mental or emotional problem that lies beyond the realm of Perhaps the biggest obstacle that the thera- coaching. "You must know how to iden- pist-turned-coach needs to be aware of is that tify, how to ask the right question to as- coaching is not for every therapist. Coach- sess, and how to manage the problem," ing models seem best suited to goal-oriented stated a psychologist from the San Fran- therapists who prefer to enable clients to take cisco Bay area. A blind spot for coaches responsibility for their own process and out- who are not trained therapists is that "their comes, rather than to "fix" the problem paradigm keeps them ignorant and myo- (Steele, 2000). Participants strongly stated pic in that they approach everyone as if the need to stay away from psychodynamic they are whole and complete. They do not issues. The coach's intention is to keep the recognize pathology, nor have a skill set process moving forward, and discussion of to manage or treat it," according to a psy- the past should be avoided: "You may want chologist in Oklahoma who is authoring a to 'visit' the past, but don't spend time ana- book on the subject. "They themselves lyzing it." In coaching, one does not focus may demonstrate their own pathology or on symptoms or draw conclusions. As one unresolved issues within the context of the participant stated simply, "Don't do therapy." coaching relationship without recognizing In therapy, one "works to achieve well- it." ness," whereas in coaching one focuses more Boundary issues comprise another area on increasing capacity and reaching goals. of concern related to coaching without The coach is there to help the client achieve clinical training. As the psychologist from results. As one participant stated, "People Oklahoma stated, "Coaches may surface want you to help them, and just listening is powerful pockets of transference and not enough." This often translates into a ne- counter transference through establishing cessity for the coach to demonstrate business highly intimate dialogues that create a savvy and achieve business results. Coaches power differential, without any clear pa- must understand how business organizations rameters or articulation of that process." function and have a grasp of different indus- "One of the advantages of coming from a tries and their particular needs. Having a therapy background is knowing the dis- business mindset is important when making tinctions, knowing where not to go, but the transition to coaching. helping people find a good clinician," said Participants raised other distinctions be- an executive coach practicing with multi- tween coaching and therapy that therapists national corporate clients. A number of should be aware of related to timing, sched- interviewees raised yet a third concern in- uling, and setting an agenda. In coaching the volving ethical behavior and issues of con- time frames are not as rigid as in therapy. A fidentiality in coaching given there are session m ay be broken up into half-hour time

233 Fall 2001 blocks and may be weekly or monthly, de- Another group of participants classified pending on the contract between the coach control for coaching as a comutual or and the client. So coaching would vary from cocreative process. Coaching is seen as a the traditional 50-min hour. The coach needs more collaborative process and more to guide the process and not direct it. The straightforward than therapy. It appears to be client, not the coach, should establish the an activity that is shared by both parties and agenda for the coaching. Also, many partici- not controlled by the coach. The coach will pants agreed that the client is in charge of guide the person being coached but will not the process as opposed to therapy, where the directly assume responsibility for the out- therapist is often in charge. come. These participants indicated that in In reference to executive coaching, it was coaching, the person being coached would suggested that the concept of and training in know that he or she is in charge. leadership roles is helpful. A coach should Other participants suggested that the is- be familiar with different styles of manag- sue of control rests with the client. Whether ing others. Coaches need to appreciate the it is coaching or therapy, they m aintained that role of the individual in the context of the control is always in the hands of the client. organization. Overall, the executive coach One participant stated, "The client is always should maintain a focus on achieving results in charge; in coaching the client knows this, for both the client and the organization. and in therapy, it is something that has to be Finally, participants indicated that thera- taught." pists desiring to become coaches would greatly benefit from a formal coaching pro- Question 7: How Are Contracting gram. One study participant suggested that and Confidentiality Handled in "therapists may need to 'unlearn' therapeu- Coaching Versus Therapy? tic techniques" in which they were previously trained and instead learn what is required to Participants reported mixed responses to be an effective coach. This may also necessi- this question. Contracting in coaching ap- tate that therapists-turned-coaches "let go of pears to be more formal than in therapy. A the ego of their title." One participant offered PhD from California confided that this comment: "Being a therapist does not [by definition] make you a good coach." in coaching, there is a clear contract—it is explicit: "Where are we going, where do you Question 6: Who Would You Say Is want to be?" In executive coaching, the organization comes to the coach and says, "we have "in Control" in Coaching this guy who is really messed up." and in Therapy? Other aspects that seem to make coaching The participants responded in a variety contracts more formal than therapy contracts of ways to this question. A few participants are quarterly reviews, fixed time lines, open indicated that in therapy the therapist is in discussions of clients' expectations, out- control of the process. This may be attribut- comes, payment made up front, and require- able to the therapist's experience in dealing ments to demonstrate targeted results. with mental health issues or the perception According to some participants, contract- that the particular therapist has of a client. ing in therapy appears to be looser and less Also, the influence of professional training defined. A clinical psychologist from Cali- and orientation may play a role in how the fornia stated that he does not do much con- process is managed. One participant stated, tracting in therapy and that he "may use it "The issue of control is about 80% of the very loosely around what it is we need to therapy." work on, but do not ratchet it down to spe-

234 Fall 2001 cific behaviors or goals." Contracts in therapy Managed care has caused the notion of appear to be verbal or left to the insurance confidentiality in therapy to take an inter- companies. At the opposite end of the spec- esting turn. One m aster's-level therapist from trum, a psychologist from Oklahoma stated Arizona stated, that "in therapy, the implied contract is rooted in national standards for ethical practice to There is actually more confidentiality in which therapists are held accountable, are re- coaching. People do not realize that when they viewed, monitored, and can be sued." submit their bills to their insurance company Approximately one third of the partici- [for therapy], their information is public knowledge. They can access that information pants interviewed for this study reported no at any time. There are also clearinghouses that difference in contracting. A master's-level a savvy person can call to get the addresses of clinician from Illinois who is concurrently people with a certain diagnoses from their in- practicing both therapy and coaching sees surance companies. Most people don't know contracting in both "as the same process— this. dealing with fees, goal setting, logistics, time and place." Another psychologist from Indi- Summary ana reported "no real difference—different psychologists use different contract models. This article documents some of the It depends on the individual." thoughts and concerns expressed by 30 pro- Confidentiality is a critical aspect of any fessionals who practice coaching, therapy, or helping relationship. An EdD from Colorado both. In summary, participants identified reported, "Confidentiality is a little looser in several distinct differences between coach- coaching, although I do not share who my ing and therapy, including the focus of at- client is or any details without their permis- tention, time orientation, level of activity, and sion. Coaching clients, however, love to tell types of conversations between themselves people who their coach is!" Others reported and their clients. They also articulated the that there is a lack of monitoring in coach- overlap between coaching and therapy; in ing and that there are not any actual rules particular, they highlighted the sim ilar m eth- pertaining to confidentiality. A PhD from ods of inquiry, propensity for advice giving, Georgia confided, "In coaching, there is not boundary issues, and potential for power dif- legal protection. In coaching you could 'blab' ferentials that exist in both. Second, partici- to anyone, whereas you are not able to do pants reported that they relate to coaching that in therapy." Obstacles to confidentiality and therapy clients differently and described in coaching include instances when you are coaching as more goal directed, action based, working as an external consultant for a com- and outwardly defined. By contrast, there is pany and when the company is your client. an assumption that in therapy the client is Overall, most of the therapists who are often "damaged," lower functioning, or in also practicing coaching appear to take con- crisis. Third, participants reported overrid- fidentiality very seriously and are skeptical ing differences in flexibility and duality be- that other coaches without the clinical train- tween coaching and therapy relations: Dual ing are doing the same. Most therapists who relationships are taboo in therapy, whereas are doing coaching seem to adhere to the looser boundaries allow the coach much therapist guidelines and to practice under more latitude than the therapist. Participants their oath as a psychotherapist. A psycholo- reported that they have much greater flex- gist from Illinois stated, "Confidentiality in ibility in their coaching relationships and that coaching must be cleared with the client first. they tend to rely on a more traditional ex- In therapy, there are laws governing what can pert-subject relationship with clients while be said and how. You must follow the law." conducting psychotherapy. In addition, they

235 Fall 2001 reported a tendency to stay in the here and Concerns About Legality and now rather than delving into the past in or- Accountability der to determine why a person is behaving as he or she is. Issues of ambiguity that arise for thera- A fourth area of response clustered around pists who are transitioning to coaching in- the specific client characteristics that a coach clude licensing accountability for practicing needs to recognize as danger signals requir- as a therapist while coaching, governing ing referral, with coaches who are not pro- laws, and future legislation. As of now, coach- fessionally trained clinicians often failing to ing is an unregulated field. There are some recognize these red flags. Hallmarks of dan- who think this may change in the future, and ger include signs of depression, anxiety at- they are waiting for the first coach to be sued tacks, alcohol or drug addictions, personal- in court. An example of this uncertainty ity disorders, and paranoia. At the same time, exists in the state of Washington, where a participants also identified that a therapist- coach must be registered as a counselor. turned-coach must have business knowledge The law includes the following definition, in addition to clinical experience (i.e., a busi- which has been interpreted by some as ness mindset) and be able to achieve busi- including coaching: ness results. Therapists may need to avoid using certain therapy techniques or, more to (5) "Counseling" means employing any thera- the point, realize that being a good therapist peutic techniques, including but not limited does not necessarily m ake one a good coach. to social work, mental health counseling, mar- Some participants reported that the thera- riage and family therapy, and hypnotherapy, for a fee that offer, assist or attempt to assist pist is in control of the therapy process; an- an individual or individuals in the ameliora- other group classified control in coaching as tion or adjustment of mental, emotional or be- a comutual or cocreative process. There were havioral problems, and includes therapeutic also mixedresponses to questions about con- techniques to achieve sensitivity and aware- tracting and confidentiality in coaching ver- ness of the self and others and the develop- sus therapy. In general, contracting in coach- ment of human potential. (Revised Code of ing appears to be m ore form al than in therapy, Washington, 1987) where it appears to many to be looser and less defined. However, approximately one Many coaches practicing in Washington third of the participants reported no differ- have interpreted this definition to include ence in contracting. Confidentiality was also their profession and have registered in order reported by some to be a little looser in to be safe. The likelihood of other states fol- coaching. However, most of the therapists lowing Washington's lead is unknown at this who are practicing coaching appear to take time. confidentiality very seriously and were skeptical as to whether nonclinically trained Importance of Adequate Training coaches are doing the same. A second issue for future consideration Issues for Future Consideration relates to the need for nonclinicians to re- ceive training to address red-flag issues. A The experience and opinions summarized number of our participants offered advice in above give rise to issues that warrant further this arena. In the words of an Olympic coach exploration. Key categories of inquiry sug- who became an executive coach and authored gested here include concerns about legality a coaching book: "A coach is not a therapist and accountability, the importance of ad- and should focus on the issues that the client equate training, and the need for supervision. brings. If he (she) is aware of anything that

236 Fall 2001 interferes with these issues, that could be a to have proficiency and expertise with re- cue for a referral." Another psychologist rec- gard to all issues" (Laske, 1999, p. 151) that ommended that coaches have a statement may arise with clients. A coach's aptitude is they make for themselves and others as to inherently limited by his or her prior expo- what their limits are and that they verbalize sure to specific cultures and professional it with examples of what they do and what experiences. Peer supervision can enable they do not do in coaching: coaches to develop "a proficient methodology, theory and personal ability to work in a Elucidating their coaching processes—such as variety of environments inhabited by cultur- defining the issues, the goal, the plan of ac- ally diverse people" (Haber, 1996, p. 34). tion, and the deliverables—gives the client If the field of coaching continues to ex- some perimeter or a container to put her/him- pand, as its current popularity suggests, fu- self into. Then the assumption is that [if the ture research will no doubt find these and coach] does these things and the client does not change, there may be a clinical issue go- other issues worthy of further inquiry. It is ing on. likely that, as more scientifically validated coaching practices and their applications are identified, "professional standards for coach- Weed for Supervision ing will also emerge" (Laske, 1999, p. 158).

A third issue and recommendation that References several participants voiced is that a coach should have a coach in addition to adequate Haber, R. (1996). Dimensions of psychotherapy training. One reason is to ensure that the supervision. New York: Norton. Hayden, C. J., & Whitworth, L. (1995). Distinc- coach understands the coachee or client ex- tions between coaching & therapy. The perience. Our participants suggested that Coaches Agenda, 1, 1-2. ongoing supervision for coaching is impor- Hudson, F. M. (1999). The handbook of coach- tant for professional development, just as a ing. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. practicum or internship is usually required Laske, O. E. (1999). An integrated model of de- in clinical training. Another purpose of this velopmental coaching. Consulting Psychol- ogy Journal: Practice andResearch, 51, 139— mentoring relationship is to provide a con- 159. text for working through issues that cross the Revised Code of Washington c 183 §1 (1995); c boundary between coaching and therapy as 3 §27 (1991); c 512 §13.(1987). they surface in one's coaching practice. A Steele, D. (2000, March/April). Professional final reason relates to the variety and com- coaching and the marriage and family therapist. The California Therapist, pp. 54-55. plexity of organizations. Although ideally a Tobias, L. L. (1996). Coaching executives. Con- coach has experience with various organiza- vulfif? o P ^v/'W/i/ziov TniivHni • Pvno ftOP nun tions and industries, "it is clearly impossible Research, 48, 87-95.

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