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The Short Esophagus—Lengthening Techniques 10 Review Article Page 1 of 10 The short esophagus—lengthening techniques Reginald C. W. Bell, Katherine Freeman Institute of Esophageal and Reflux Surgery, Englewood, CO, USA Contributions: (I) Conception and design: RCW Bell; (II) Administrative support: RCW Bell; (III) Provision of the article study materials or patients: RCW Bell; (IV) Collection and assembly of data: RCW Bell; (V) Data analysis and interpretation: RCW Bell; (VI) Manuscript writing: All authors; (VII) Final approval of manuscript: All authors. Correspondence to: Reginald C. W. Bell. Institute of Esophageal and Reflux Surgery, 499 E Hampden Ave., Suite 400, Englewood, CO 80113, USA. Email: [email protected]. Abstract: Conditions resulting in esophageal damage and hiatal hernia may pull the esophagogastric junction up into the mediastinum. During surgery to treat gastroesophageal reflux or hiatal hernia, routine mobilization of the esophagus may not bring the esophagogastric junction sufficiently below the diaphragm to provide adequate repair of the hernia or to enable adequate control of gastroesophageal reflux. This ‘short esophagus’ was first described in 1900, gained attention in the 1950 where various methods to treat it were developed, and remains a potential challenge for the contemporary foregut surgeon. Despite frequent discussion in current literature of the need to obtain ‘3 or more centimeters of intra-abdominal esophageal length’, the normal anatomy of the phrenoesophageal membrane, the manner in which length of the mobilized esophagus is measured, as well as the degree to which additional length is required by the bulk of an antireflux procedure are rarely discussed. Understanding of these issues as well as the extent to which esophageal shortening is due to factors such as congenital abnormality, transmural fibrosis, fibrosis limited to the esophageal adventitia, and mediastinal fixation are needed to apply precise surgical technique. The extent and methods of esophageal mobilization and crural closure, options of gastropexy or gastroplasty will then become clear to the foregut surgeon. Keywords: Short esophagus; esophageal lengthening; paraesophageal hernia Received: 03 March 2020; Accepted: 20 May 2020; Published: 20 July 2021. doi: 10.21037/ales-20-55 View this article at: http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/ales-20-55 Introduction definition, etiology, diagnosis and various surgical options for the short esophagus. Management of the ‘short esophagus’ found during surgery Treatment of the short esophagus has revolved around for gastroesophageal reflux disease and hiatal hernia repair goals of treating the associated hiatal hernia and of resolving has been the subject of surgical controversy since the first gastroesophageal reflux. Any additional length of intra- descriptions in the early 1900s. Shortening of the esophagus abdominal esophagus below the hiatus is a matter of reflux in adults, currently accepted as an acquired condition, barrier physiology and preferred esophageal length required was theorized in 1938 (1). Long-standing reflux damage by some antireflux procedures. The changing causes of resulting in fibrotic shortening of the esophagus as well as esophageal shortening and methods to treat reflux does chronic gastric herniation resulting in mediastinal fixation make for an interesting story. can lead to situations in which standard dissection will not restore the gastroesophageal junction to an appropriate Definition of a short esophagus and relation to intraabdominal position, and an additional ‘lengthening’ Nissen fundoplication procedure is required. This paper will attempt to meld that historical background into a discussion of the current Although conceptually a short esophagus may be relatively © Annals of Laparoscopic and Endoscopic Surgery. All rights reserved. Ann Laparosc Endosc Surg 2021;6:34 | http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/ales-20-55 Page 2 of 10 Annals of Laparoscopic and Endoscopic Surgery, 2021 straightforward, the reported incidence ranges from 2% to a radiologic finding in a review of 63 patients with peptic 80% in patients with giant hiatal hernias (2,3). ulcers of the esophagus (5). The radiologic findings defining Current laparoscopic literature regarding a short a hiatal hernia were known; Allison’s paper however esophagus frequently presumes a fundoplication will recognized 8 patterns of a short esophagus, 5 of which accompany the hiatal hernia repair. An esophagus is were associated with various degrees of stricture. Allison ‘short’ if less than 2–3 cm of visible esophagus does not also observed in his postmortem and surgical dissections rest easily within the abdominal cavity after routine that “the lowest part of the esophagus is enclosed in a thick- dissection. Fundoplication can still be completed without a walled tunnel of the diaphragmatic crura…. there is in life no lengthening procedure, but with a greater risk of failure (4). such thing as the abdominal oesophagus. This part is embedded The origin of the concept is interesting. First, the precise in the diaphragmatic muscle except for a small triangular bare mark of the gastroesophageal junction is rarely defined; area in front.” Allison’s paper sets the stage: “The rational many diagrams show measurements taken on the right side treatment is to cure the deformity which allows acid to reach the of the esophagus, presumably where esophageal adventitia oesophagus. The success of this depends on the oesophagus being transitions to gastric serosa, e.g., Horvath, 2000 (4). The elastic enough to reach below the diaphragm.” At that time, due phrenoesophageal membrane and the angle of His more to the severity of stricture rendering the esophagus inelastic, reproducibly mark the transition from esophagus to partial esophagectomy was the most common surgical stomach and are normally adjacent to the abdominal side of solution, even though it did not cure the deformity. the diaphragmatic crura, not 2–3 cm below. It would seem At the same time, observations by rigid endoscopy and that achieving 2–3 cm of intra-abdominal esophagus may resected specimens indicated that sometimes a segment be unnatural, as it would be stretching a normal esophagus. of what appeared to be esophagus by its tubular nature Where then does the need for 2–3 cm of length arise? above the hiatus, had instead a columnar-lined epithelium One goal of antireflux surgery has been to restore and peritoneal covering consistent with stomach. Norman abdominal length to the lower esophageal sphincter. By Barrett in 1950 considered columnar lining always manometry and surgical findings, the lower esophageal indicative of gastric tissue (6). Allison in 1953, in describing sphincter does extend 2–3 cm below the angle of His. what for many years has been called the ‘cardia’, made a These findings indicate that a Heller myotomy must extend keen observation: “The oesophagus (below a stricture), which is onto the anterior gastric serosa to divide the esophageal lined by gastric mucosa, retains its tubular contour, although it sling fibers all the way down to the junction of the oblique may be a little dilated. The position of the cardia can be identified gastric sling fibers, which mark the lower margin of the where the lumen widens again to form the sac of the herniated LES. Accomplishing restoration of manometrically- stomach….” The cardia is an intermediate tubular structure determined abdominal length does not require an additional that represents esophagus lined by gastric epithelium 2–3 cm of visible abdominal esophageal length above the without “a demonstrable change in mucosal pattern” and phrenoesophageal membrane. results from reflux (7). It is not often that surgeons are However, the bulk of a Nissen or similar fundoplication known to change their opinion; however, Barrett in 1957 does require the stomach be placed around 2–3 cm of aligned with Allison that the lower part of the esophagus tubular esophagus. This is likely a major reason that can be “lined by columnar epithelium extending upward for a fundoplication and hernia repairs accompanied by short or long distance above the esophagogastric junction,” and fundoplication fail when that 2–3 cm of additional length is had his name eponymously used henceforth as “Barrett’s not obtained. Procedures that do not involve a bulk around esophagus” (8). the distal esophagus do not require that additional length (4). At this time, the barrier to reflux was called the ‘cardiac valve’ and more attention was paid to the flap-valve effect of the angulated gastroesophageal junction and the pinchcock Historical background effect of the diaphragmatic hiatus, and little was known The current definition of a ‘short esophagus’ is due to the about what is now defined by manometry as the lower requirements of a Nissen fundoplication. This is important esophageal sphincter. In a sliding hiatal hernia, competence as it relates to early surgical description and treatment of of the ‘cardiac valve’ was attained by restoring parts to their the ‘short esophagus.’ normal anatomic position by repair of the phrenoesophageal Philip Allison in 1948 described the ‘short esophagus’ as membrane (9). In 1954 Collis described a similar restoration © Annals of Laparoscopic and Endoscopic Surgery. All rights reserved. Ann Laparosc Endosc Surg 2021;6:34 | http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/ales-20-55 Annals of Laparoscopic and Endoscopic Surgery, 2021 Page 3 of 10 A B Stricture Squamocolumnar Junction Parker Kerr Clamps Hemiated Diaphragm Stomach C D Divided and Oversewn Gastric Tube Remaining
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